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and the Air Wsir in EuiX) pe

General Carl A. Spaatz, 1945.

and the Air War in Euro pe

Richard G. Davis

Air Force

History

Washington, D.C.

1993

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Davis, Richard G.

Carl A. Spaatz and the air war in Europe / Richard G. Davis.

p. cin~(General Histories)
An expansion of the author's thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.
ISBN 0-912799-75-7 (casebound).~ISBN 0-912799-77-3 (perfectbound)
1. Spaatz, Carl, 1891-1974. 2. Generals-United States-Biogn^by. 3.
United States. Air Force-Biography. 4. Aeronautics, Military-United States-
-History. 5. World War, 1939-1945-Aerial operations, American 6. World
War, 1939-1945-Campaigns-Westem
I. Title. II. Series.
UG626.2.S66D38 1992
358.4'0092-dc20

[B] 92-14889 CIP

Extended portions of this work have appeared in a doctoral dissertation
completed by die author for George Washington University. The earUer version
is copyrighted in its entirety in the author's name. Open permission for reprint
and reissue of portions of this book by agencies of the Department of Defense
is hereby granted. Requests by nongovernment agencies or individuals for per-
mission to cite from this work under fair use doctrine may be addressed to
the CentCT for Air Force History, Boiling AFB, DC 20332-6098.

By special arrangement, this publication is being offered for sale by the
Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.

For Sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 20402

Foreword

Carl A. Spaatz and the Air War in Europe offers the first detailed review of
Spaatz as a commander. It examines how the highest ranking U.S. airman in the
European Theater of Operations of World War II viewed the war, worked with
the British, and wielded the formidable air power at his disposal. It identifies
specifically those aspects of his leadership that proved indispensable to the
Allied victory over Nazi Germany.

As Chief of the Air Corps Plans Section and, beginning in 1941, as first
Chief of the Air Staff, Spaatz helped prepare the United States for war by
overseeing an unprecedented buildup of military air capability. As Commander
of the Eighth Air Force, he expanded and maintained a network of bases from
which his bombers could strike at Germany from England. As General
Eisenhower's adviser and Commander of the Northwest African Air Forces, he
reorganized and vastly improved dispersed and difficult-to-supply Allied air
activities. After assuming command of all U.S. Strategic Air Forces in Europe,
he controlled the American contribution to the Combined Bomber Offensive.

Spaatz's forces destroyed the Luftwaffe, first by employing new long-range
fighters in vigorous counter-air actions and then, when the Luftwaffe as-
siduously avoided further engagements, by forcing it to fight to defend the
petroleum industry that fueled it. Only after a protracted debate concerning
which targets — oil or transportation — were to receive top priority did he win the
right from skeptical Allied principals to mount strategic bombing missions
against German oil production facilities. With the Luftwaffe effectively
paralyzed, Spaatz moved against bridges, ports, railyards, and roads and, finally,
crushed the Nazi war economy.

The Anglo-American partnership, although triumphant in the end, was not
easy. Its lines of authority were frequently and hotly debated. Through portraits
of major Allied civilian and military personalities, this study describes several
contentious interactions around which Spaatz maneuvered adroitly to achieve
his broad military objectives.

Author Richard Davis contrasts American and British grand strategy, battle
tactics, and operations, laying bare the political considerations that necessarily
influenced Allied planning. He demonstrates how clashes among only a few
individuals can profoimdly affect command decisions and the successful pro-
secution of coalition warfare. Lessons contained in his study have implications
even now in the post-Desert Storm era. That the Air Force today is able to pro-
ject global strength is due in large measure to the foresight and tenacity of Carl
Spaatz, who freed air power to become the dominant force of modem warfare.

RICHARD P. HALLION
Air Force Historian

United States Air Force
Historical Advisory Committee
(As of July 1, 1992)

Professor Roger E. Bilstein
University of Houston
Clear Lake

Dr. Christopher J, Bowie
The RAND Corporation

Lt. Gen. Charles G. Boyd
Commander, Air University

Professor Wayne S. Cole
University of Maryland
College Paik

Lt. Gen. Bradley C. Hosmer

Superintendent

USAF Academy

Col. Donald S. Lopez
USAF, Retired
National Air and Space
Museum

Mr. Felix C. Lowe
Smithsonian Institution Press

Dr. Peter Paret

Institute for Advanced Study

Ms. Ann Petersen

The General Counsel, USAF

Gen. Brycc Poe, n
USAF, Retired
Air Force Historical
Foundation

Introduction

This study is an expansion of a doctoral dissertation I began in 1982.
Initially 1 sought to tell the story of the air war in Europe from a new perspec-
tive — that of the senior U.S. Army Air Forces (AAF) officer in the theater,
General Carl A. Spaatz. Little did I realize the magnitude of the task. I discov-
ered a man who had stood close to the central events of the conflict in Europe.
Without Spaatz and his insistence on bombing the German oil industry, the war
in Europe might have lasted several more months. Spaatz commanded more
men than Patton or Rommel ever led. By the end of May 1945 his forces could
deliver more destructive power than any force before the advent of nuclear
weapons. Thus, an understanding of the part Spaatz played in the victory of the
Allied coalition is necessary to any serious study of World War II.

In the course of investigating Spaatz 's activities during the war, I soon real-
ized that many of the conventional interpretations of the role of the U.S. Army
Air Forces in Europe sprang from the immediate post- World War II era when
the AAF was in the last rounds of its fight to gain independence from the U.S.
Army. As a consequence, early U.S. air historians tended to downplay the short-
comings of air power and to emphasize the advantages of centralized command
of air power by airmen operating autonomously. In this work I have attempted
to present a more balanced view of the effectiveness of air power.

By its very nature this study of the military life of Carl A. Spaatz is virtually
a history of U.S. military aviation from its beginnings to the end of World War
II in Europe. To place Spaatz in the context of his times, I found it necessary to
examine the development of U.S. military aviation thought and technology.
From his tour as Commandant of the Issoudun Pursuit Training Center in France
in 1917, where he first displayed his skills as an administrator and trainer of
men, through his service as special observer during the Battle of Britain in the
summer of 1940, Spaatz 's career reflected the continual changes in air power.

Immediately after World War I, Spaatz commanded the sole pursuit group
stationed in the continental United States and led the flight of its air elements
from Texas to Michigan without the loss of a man or machine (no mean feat in
1922). Once in Michigan, he established his group at Selfridge Field, which had
been abandoned two years earlier. Leaving Selfridge in 1924, he attended the
Air Corps Tactical School at Langley Field near Norfolk, Virginia.

At that time and place the school was far removed from the future period of
intellectual and doctrinal ferment in which it produced the American theory of
daylight precision bombing. Next, Spaatz served in Washington, D.C., in the Air
Service's Training and Operations Section. There he testified as a defense wit-
ness in the controversial court-martial of Brig. Cten. William "Billy" Mitchell.

vii

Introduction

During the late 1920s and 1930s Spaatz switched from commanding fighters to
commanding bombers — a career move that mirrored the Air Corps' change in
emphasis from pursuit to bombardment aviation. At the same time, he absorbed
the new theories that preached the ability of the heavily armed bomber, flying a
tight defensive formation, to penetrate successfully deep into enemy territory to
destroy vital economic targets and to return, all the while unescorted by friendly
fighter aircraft. Even subsequent firsthand experience of the British and German
failure to bomb effectively in daylight failed to persuade him to modify his
belief in unescorted bombing.

Before U.S. entry into World War II, Spaatz, as Chief of the Air Corps Plans
Section and, upon the formation of the AAF in June 1941, as first Chief of the
Air Staff, helped to plan and supervise the vast expansion of U.S. military air
power. On July 1, 1939, the Air Corps had a force of 1,239 combat aircraft, 570
training planes, 20,191 enlisted men, 633 aviation cadets, and 2,502 officers.
Many of the aircraft were obsolescent; there were no advanced training aircraft;
and all but 45 of the officers were rated pilots. Thirty-two months later, on
March 1, 1942, the AAF had 2,393 combat akcraft (2,182 rated as modem),
10,087 trainers (2,541 advanced), 312,405 enlisted men, 32,896 cadets, and
27,446 officers (13,631 nonpilots).! These figures represented an increase of
more than 1,000 percent in every category except combat aircraft, which
increased only 200 percent.

With the onset of war, Spaatz took command of the Eighth Air Force and
helped prepare a base capable of sustaining the thousands of planes scheduled to
operate against Germany from Britain. After Spaatz had launched only a handful
of heavy-bomber missions against nearby French targets, however, Lt. Gen.
Dwight D. Eisenhower summoned Spaatz to the North African Theater to advise
him and, eventually, to command all Allied air power there.

In North Africa the organizational chaos of his geographically scattered
command tested his logistical and organizational abilities to the utmost, but by
the finish of the Allies' campaign against the Axis forces in Tunisia, Spaatz had
produced a well-run, efficient force. Also in North Africa, he played a signifi-
cant role in solving the dispute between the Army ground and air elements about
the effectiveness of the AAF's handling of close air support.

The fall of Tunisia led to the Allied invasion of Sicily and Italy and a period
of frustration for Spaatz. After overseeing the reduction of the Island of
Pantelleria by air power, Spaatz saw his influence on operations decline as
Eisenhower increasingly relied on British Air Chief Marshal Arthur Tedder. In
the summer and autumn of 1943, Spaatz concentrated on perfecting the organi-
zation of the AAF in the Mediterranean and on obtaining and establishing a new
strategic American air force to operate against Germany from its unprotected
southern flank.

At the end of 1943, Spaatz left Italy for London where he assumed com-
mand of the two American strategic air forces operating against the Germans.

viii

Introduction

As the strategic air commander, he made his two most decisive contributions to
Allied victory. With the help of an influx of long-range fighter-escort aircraft, he
launched, in the first five months of 1944, an intensive counter-air campaign
that emasculated the Luftwaffe fighter force. By the time of the invasion of
Normandy, the German air force no longer had the strength to interfere with the
invasion or to defend German industry from each large American bomber mis-
sion.

Shortly before the invasion, Spaatz, after a long policy struggle within the
Allied coalition, began a strategic bombing campaign against the German oil
industry. This campaign damaged vital cogs of the Nazi war machine by
grounding a large portion of the Luftwaffe starving it of aviation fuel, and by
impairing the mobility of the Wehrmacht, leaving it almost helpless to counter
the maneuvers of its enemies.

Under Spaatz's leadership, in the autumn and winter of 1944-1945, the U.S.
Strategic Air Forces in Europe (USSTAF) helped to bring the German war econ-
omy to a halt by adding the transportation network to its target priorities.
Spaatz's forces also participated in the most controversial bombing raid of the
European war when they joined with British Bomber Command to level the cen-
ter of Dresden on February 14, 1945. An exemplar of AAF bombing policy and
operations, this raid carried a high proportion of incendiary bombs, was directed
at a railroad marshaling yard, and was executed in nonvisual bombing condi-
tions. It was not carried out to induce terror but was intended to give direct
assistance to the Soviets' winter offensive by destroying a transportation center
in eastern Germany. In contrast, the February 3, 1945, mission against Berlin
was specifically ordered by Spaatz to shake the morale of the German High
Command and government.

In the middle of April 1945, Spaatz ended the strategic bombing campaign.
Thereafter, the bombers devoted their efforts to aiding the ground forces and
flying supplies to alleviate famine in Holland. Spaatz attended the German sur-
renders to the Allies at Reims and Berlin on May 7 and May 9, 1945.

This work is neither a full-scale biography of Carl A. Spaatz nor a compre-
hensive history of the USAAF in action against the European Axis powers from
1942 to 1945. Instead it studies Spaatz as a military leader by examining his
thoughts and actions within the context of his times. By hewing to Spaatz's per-
spective I could not follow the entire course of the American strategic bomber
offensive in Europe. Those readers looking for a description of the Eighth Air
Force under Ira Eaker's leadership or of Spaatz's valuable contributions in the
postwar era must look elsewhere. But a year-long trip to North Africa and the
Mediterranean enabled me to take a close look at the birth pangs of modem
American tactical air power, to explore the creation of the under-appreciated
Fifteenth Air Force, and to thoroughly study the last eighteen months of the
American air effort in Europe once Spaatz had returned to the strategic cockpit
in London.

Acknowledgments

Many archivists, colleagues, and professors contributed to this work.
Mary Wolfskill at the Library of Congress; Will Mahoney at the Modem
Military Division of the National Archives; and my friends at the Suitland,
Maryland, National Records Center — Richard L. Boylan, Henry Mayer, and
Bill Getchell — all contributed particular expertise. Col. Jolm F. Shiner,
former Deputy Chief, Office of Air Force History; Herman S. Wolk, Senior
Historian, Center for Air Force History; Brig. Gen. Harris Hull, USAF
(Ret.); Dr. Richard Kohn, former Chief, Office of Air Force History; and
Professor Wesley Newton of Auburn University read several versions of the
manuscript and served as final review panelists. Their advice proved crucial
in the last revision. David Mets, historian at the Armament Division, Eglin
Air Force Base, Florida, and author of a biography of General Spaatz, re-
viewed the manuscript and supplied advice from his own extensive know-
ledge. William Heimdahl, Chief, Historical Support Division, Center for Air
Force History, and MSgt. Roger Jemigan spent considerable time locating
obscure documents in the microfilm collection. Dr. Daniel R. Mortensen, a
tactical air power historian at the Center for Air Force History, shared his
research on North Africa and helped to refine the treatment of several
topics. Patrick E. Murray, Chief Historian, Third Air Force, England, made
a special mp to the Imperial War Museum in London to locate photographs.

Other colleagues with the Center for Air Force History deserve special
credit, having learned more about Spaatz than they probably ever wished to.
Jacob Neufeld, Director of the Center for Air Force History, gave me gen-
erous amounts of time to work on the manuscript. Dr. Richard I. Wolf
proofread large sections of the manuscript and helped me with printers and
word processors. Two very hard working and professional editors, Mary Lee
Jefferson of the Center for Air Force History and Priscilla Taylor of
Editorial Experts, Inc., spent many hours smoothing my prose and forcing
me to clarify, in as few words as possible, points and concepts I had
glossed over or abbreviated. Ms. Jefferson then patiently shepherded the
book through the publishing process, coordinating the efforts of many others.
Dr. Alfred M. Beck, Chief, Histories Division, corrected my haphazard
German spelling. Editor David R. Chenoweth designed and typeset the
statistical appendices. Anne E. Johnson, Chief, Editorial Services, lent moral
and technical support in the last phases of publication. Members of the
Graphics Office for the Air Force District of Washington made outstanding
contributions. Susan Linders, Chief, Conventioi«il Graphics, oversaw
production of the book's artwork. Bruce John and Protean Gibril prepared
the maps; Tracy Miller prepared the charts. Kathy Jones finalized all
illustrations, and Lori Crane, designed the cover.

Acknowledgments

Professor Charles J. Herber of George Washington University, who
directed this work as a dissertation, was a helpful advocate and editor.
Professors Robert W. Kenny and Peter P. Hill read and commented on
earlier drafts. Professor J. Kenneth McDonald ably directed my first years
of study; and one of the finest scholars and gentlemen associated with
George Washington University, Professor Roderic H. Davidson, made my
studies in European diplomatic history a joy. Martin Blumenson, historian,
and Col. John Schlight, USAF (Ret.), former Chief, Southeast Asia Branch,
Office of the Chief of MiUtary History, U.S. Army, attended my dissertation
defense and gave useful criticism.

xii

The Author

Richard G. Davis received his B.A. from the University of Virginia;
his M.A. from the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; and his Ph.D.
from George Washington University. Before joining the U.S. Air Force
Historical Program in 1980 he worked for the National Archives and Re-
cords Administration as an archivist specializing in the declassification of
classified documents. His earlier works include The 31 Initiatives, a study
on Army/Air Force efforts at cooperation and reform, and Tempering the
Blade: The Development of American Tactical Air Power in the North Afri-
can Campaign. Dr. Davis has also published several articles in professional
journals. He is currently researching the U.S. offensive air campaign in the
Persian Gulf War of 1991.

Contents

Page

Foreword v

Introduction vii

Acknowledgments xi

Part One. Carrying the Flame
From West Point to London
1891-1942

1. SPAATZ'S EARLY CAREER (1891-1938) 3

Organization and Doctrine of the Prewar Air Corps
Spaatz' s Association with Arnold and Eaker

2. PREWAR PLANNING (January 1939-November 1941) 37

Rearmament of the Air Corps

Spaatz Observes the Battle of Britain Firsthand

Spaatz and Prewar Strategic Planning

3. SPAATZ COMMANDS THE EIGHTH AIR FORCE

(December 1941-November 1942) 67

Establishing the Autonomy of the Eighth Air Force
Early Operations
Spaatz' s Command Style

The Eighth Air Force and the North African Invasion

Part Two. Tempering the Blade
The North African Campaign
November 8, 1942-May 14, 1943

4. THE RACE FOR TUNISIA (November 1942-January 1943) 123

Initial Invasion Operations

U.S. Air Support Doctrine Before Operation Torch

Operations in November-December 1942

5. FAILURE AND REORGANIZATION (January-March 1943) 155

The Casablanca Conference

Operations, Personalities, and Teamwork
Reorganization and the Kasserine Pass

6. THE COLLAPSE OF THE AXIS BRIDGEHEAD

(February-May 1943) 185

The Air War Against Axis Supply Lines
Heavy-Bombardment Aviation in Tunisia
Ground Operations and Air Support
Spaatz and Changes in AAF Air Support Doctrine

Part Three. Mediterranean Interlude
From Pantelleria to London
May-December 1943

7. PANTELLERIA AND SICILY (May-August 1943) 225

Pantelleria

Preinvasion Planning and Air Preparations for Sicily
Air Power and the Invasion of Sicily

8. SALERNO AND LONDON (July-December 1943) 255

The Invasion of Italy

The Mediterranean Theater and Strategic Bombing

Part Four. The Point of the Blade
Strategic Bombing and
the Cross-Channel Invasion
January-June 1944

9. THE LUFTWAFFE ENGAGED (January-February 1944) 287

Initial Operations
Leigh-Mallory and the AEAF
"Big Week"

The Transportation Plan and Air Command Arrangements

10. THE LUFTWAFFE DEFEATED (March-April 1944) 341

Air Command Arrangements for Overlord Are Settled

The Dispute over Strategic Targeting

Operations

Morale Problems

The Oil Plan Is Salvaged

11. FINAL PREPARATIONS FOR THE INVASION (May-June 1944) 395

The Oil Plan Is Implemented

Churchill Delays the Transportation Plan

Preinvasion Operations

xvi

Part Five. The Mortal Blow
From Normandy to Berlin
June 6, 1944-May 9, 1945

12. SUMMER 1944:

Crossbow, Thunderclap, AND STRATEGIC BOMBING
(June-September 1944) 423

Initial Operations

Operation Crossbow

Reprisal Bombing and Thunderclap

Strategic Bombing in the Summer of 1944

Problems of the American Strategic Air Forces

13. SUMMER 1944:

HEAVY BOMBERS IN CLOSE AIR SUPPORT

(July-August 1944) 453

Initial Attempts at Ground Support
Operation Cobra

Later Missions in Support of Ground Operations

14. STALEMATE ON THE GERMAN FRONTIER

(September 11-December 15, 1944) 483

The Removal of the Strategic Air Forces from SHAEF's Control
Strategic Target Selection in the Autumn of 1944

Operations

The Resurgence of the Luftwaffe
Arnold and the Public Image of the AAF
Conclusions

15. VICTORY (December 16, 1944-May 9, 1945 531

The Battle of the Bulge
Thunderclap and Dresden

U.S. Bombing Policy during the Winter of 1944-1945
Operations to the End of the War

16. AN ASSESSMENT 587

Statistical Appendices 599

Notes 675

Glossary 735

Bibliography 741

Index 759

Maps

1. Defenses of England and Wales, August 1940 50

2. Eighth Air Force Installations, August 1942 84

3. Operation Torch Area 120

4. Allied and Axis Airfields on the Northern Tunisian Front 129

5. Eastern Algeria and Northern Tunisia 138

6. Central and Southern Tunisia 166

7. Pantelleria 226

8. Greater German Air Industry Targets 320

9. Escort Ranges for the P-47 362

10. Escort Ranges for the P-38 and P-51 363

1 1 . Greater German Synthetic Oil Plants 397

12. Normandy Transport Network 407

13. Operation Crossbow Network 427

14. Operation Cobra Area, Night of July 24-25, 1944 473

15. Front Lines, 1944-1945 502

16. Greater German Transport Network 509

Tables

1. Distribution of Regular Army Rank, 1922-1941 11

2. Age and Rank of the U.S. Army Officer Corps, 1931 13

3. Flight Accident Statistics, 1921-1938 15

4. Eighth and Ninth Air Force Fighter Escort Missions, 1944 364

5. The Relationship between H2X Bombing Accuracy and Cloud Cover 505

6. USSTAF Bomber Losses by Quarter, 1944-1945 527

Charts

1. AlUed Chain of Command, January 6, 1943 169

2. Allied Chain of Command, January 30, 1943 175

3. Organization of Allied Air Power, February 18, 1943 179

4. U.S. Strategic Air Forces in Europe, May 1944 291

5. Chain of Command, Allied Expeditionary Force, February 13, 1944 308

6. Chain of Command, Allied Expeditionary Force, April 7, 1944 342

7. System of Control of Strategic Air Force 491

8. Total German Synthetic Fuel Production, 1940-1945 506

xviii

Photographs

General Carl A. Spaatz, 1945 frontispiece

Flight Trainee, 2d Lt. Carl A. Spatz, 1916 2

Brig. Gen. William "Billy" Mitchell and Maj. Gen. Mason Patrick 9

SelMdge Field, Michigan, early 1930s 18

Brig. Gen. William Mitchell addressing his court-martial 21

Maj. Gen. James E. Fechet and the Question Mark's crew 25

The Question Mark flight, January 1929 26

Maj. Carl A. "Tooey" Spatz, ca. 1930 34

Lt. Col. Henry H. Arnold and actress Bebe Daniels 35

Maj. Gen. Henry H. Arnold, Chief, U.S. Army Air Corps 39

Air Chief Marshal Cyril Newall 43

Air Commodore John Slessor 46

Bomb damage to London, autumn 1940 49

John G. Winant, U.S. Ambassador to Britain 52

The Battle of Britam 54

Robert A, Lovett, Assistant Secretary of War for Air 58

Brig. Gen. Ira C. Eaker 73

Brig. Gen. Frank O'D. "Monk" Hunter 73

Henry L. Stimson, Secretary of War 76

General George C. Marshall, Chief of Staff, U.S. Army 77

Air Chief Marshal Sholto Douglas 87

Air Chief Marshal Charles A. Portal 91

Majj Gen. Carl A. Spaatz congratulating Maj. Charles C. Kegehnan 92

Air Chief Marshal Arthur T. "Bomber" Harris 95

Lt. Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower and Eighth Air Force commanders 99

The King and Queen of England 100

Maj. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz, 1942 102

Brig. Gen. James H. Doolittle 126

Lt. Gen. Kenneth A. N. Anderson 137

Air Commodore G. M. Lawson ...141

Air Chief Marshal Arthur W. Tedder 148

Air Vice-Marshal Arthur Coningham 149

Lt. Gen. Frank M. Andrews 156

Archibald Sinclair, British Secretary of State for Air 159

General Henry H. Arnold and Ak Chief Marshal Charles A. Portal 164

Maj. Gen. Lloyd R. Fredendall 167

The new Allied leadership, February 1943 180

Air Marshal William L. Welsh 182

A light moment in North Africa 188

The end of two Axis supply ships off Bizerte, Tunisia 192

German Me 323 and Ju 52 aircraft 194

After an air raid on Castelvetrona, Sicily 197

xix

A German Siebel ferry 197

Generals Spaatz and Patton and Colonel McDonald, Algeria .....205

Maj. Gen. W. E. Clutterbuck 228

Rear Adm. R. R. McGrigor 228

Pantelleria, June 1943 237

Lt. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz at the 90th Photo Intelligence Wing 242

U.S. military leaders near the Fifth Army front, Italy 274

Maj. Gen. James H. Doolittle at Maison Blanche, Algeria 275

Air Chief Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory 284

Commanders, U.S. Strategic Air Forces in Europe 289

U.S. military leaders studying Ninth Air Force photos 289

Lt. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz on an inspection tour 292

Lt. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz meeting his daughter in England 292

Lt. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz and his command plane 293

Maj. Gen. Frederick L. Anderson 295

Maj. Gen. Earle E. Partridge 295

Brig. Gen. Curtis E. LeMay 296

Lt. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz and his executive officer, Capt. Sally Bagby 297

Eighth Air Force heavy bombers equipped with H2X radar 299

Maj. Gen. William E. Kepner 302

Early model P-47s over England 304

Filling the pipeline: Replacement B-17s, March 1944 305

Air Vice-Marshal Harry Broadhurst 311

Maj. Gen. Frederick L, Anderson conferring with meteorologists 318

Defenders of the Reich 324

Bomb damage to Fieseler aircraft plant, Kassel, Germany 331

An Avro Lancaster 335

Maj. Gen. Hoyt S. Vandenberg 354

Brig. Gen. Frederic H. Smith, Jr 354

Maj. Gen. Adolph Galland 363

Reich Marshal Hermann Goering 364

The 91st Bomb Group being briefed prior to a raid 368

The Eighth Air Force Unleashed 372

Eighth Air Force heavy bombers hitting the factory area of Berlin 375

Air Vice-Marshal Richard Peck 380

Morale visit to a Ninth Air Force medium bomber group 383

Morale visit marking a bomber group's 100th mission 384

Morale visit to the 381st Bomb Group 386

General Dwight D. Eisenhower in the cockpit of a B-26 391

The first oil raid, Bohlen, Germany, May 1944 , 399

Anthony Eden, British Foreign Secretary. 405

Winston Churchill and his War Cabinet .405

A "Chattanooga Choo-Choo" strafing sortie 412

Generals Spaatz and Arnold at Normandy beachhead 425

Winston Churchill at an antiaircraft gun line, England 429

Germans preparing to launch a V-1 flying bomb 431

A German holding an antiaircraft range finder 441

Germans preparing to fire 88mm antiaircraft artillery 442

A synthetic oil refinery, Merseburg, Germany 444

Eighth Air Force ground crews servicing a P-38 447

Lt. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz at a crew replacement center, England 451

RAF Operations Room 456

General Dempsey and Air Commodore Boyle. 459

Maj. Gen. Elwood R. "Pete" Quesada 466

Field Marshal Bernard L. Montgomery 468

Aftermath of Operation Cobra, St. L6, France 475

Lt. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz at an Eighth Air Force B-24 base 477

Air Marshal James M. Robb 489

Air Vice-Marshal Norman H. Bottomley 493

The Reich Besieged 498

General Dwight D. Eisenhower and leading groimd commanders 520

U.S. commanding generals, autumn, 1944 521

The Battle of the Bulge 534

Bomb damage to a rail yard near Cologne, Germany 539

Maj. Gen. Laurence S. Kuter. 547

Fratricide over Berlin 554

Cities in Crisis 566

Ruin and Risk 576

Generals Spaatz and Doolittle with the 303d Bomb Group 578

War's End 583

xxi

Statistical Appendices

1. Aviation Personnel Strength, 1912-1945 601

2. Direct Cash and Direct Appropriations Expenditures, 1899-1946 603

3. Combat Groups Overseas, 1941-1945 604

4. Battle Casualties against Germany, 1941-1945 609

5. Battle Casualties, ETO, 1941-1945 611

6. Battle Casualties, MTO, 1941-1945 613

7. Heavy Bomber and Day Fighter Crew Losses, 1943-1945 615

8. Aircraft in Theaters against Germany, 1942-1945 618

9. Aircraft, ETO, 1942-1945 622

10. Aircraft, MTO, 1942-1945 626

1 1. Aircraft Losses, 1941-1945 630

12. Combat Sorties Flown, Europe, 1941-1945 635

13. Combat Sorties Flown, ETO, 1942-1945 637

14 Combat Sorties Flown, MTO, 1942-1945 639

15. Fighter Sorties Flown against Germany, 1943-1945 641

16. Bombs Dropped against Germany, 1943-1945 643

17. Tons of Bombs Dropped, 1941-1945 645

18. Tons of Bombs Dropped on German Targets, 1942-1945 646

19. Tons of Bombs Dropped by Heavy Bombers on Germany 649

20. Tons of Bombs Dropped, ETO, 1942-1945 651

21. Tons of Bombs Dropped, MTO, 1942-1945 653

22. Combat Losses by Theater, 1942-1945 655

23. Combat Losses, ETO, 1942-1945 657

24. Combat Losses, MTO, 1942-1945 659

25. Enemy Aircraft Destroyed, 1942-1945 661

26. Enemy Aircraft Destroyed, ETO, 1942-1945 663

27. Enemy Aircraft Destroyed, MTO, 1942-1945 665

28. Gasoline Consumption, ETO, 1942-1945 667

29. Gasoline Consumption, MTO, 1942-1945 669

30. Expenditures from Direct Appropriations, 1942-1945 671

xxii

Part One

Carrying the Flame

From West Point to London
1891-1942

Flight Trainee 2d Lt. Carl A. Spatz, 25tli Infantry, spring 1916.

Chapter 1

Spaatz's Early Career
(1891-1938)

The candidate should be naturally athletic and have a reputa-
tion for reliability, punctuality and honesty. He should have
a cool head in emergencies, good eye for distance, keen ear
for familiar sounds, steady hand and sound body with plenty
of reserve; he should be quick-witted, highly intelligent and
tractable. Immature, high strung, overconfident, impatient
candidates are not desired.'

— Army Specifications for Flyers, 1917

Carl Andrew Spatz* was bom on June 28, 1891, in Boyertown, Permsylvania,
and lived there throughout his youth. He was the second child, and first son, in a
family of two boys and three girls. Both his Prussian immigrant grandfather and
his American-bom father published the local newspaper, at first in German, later
in English. As a boy, he learned to set type by hand and to run the paper's print-
ing press. He graduated from high school at the age of fourteen, a fact that says
less about his academic abilities than it does about the simplicity of the local
curriculum. To remedy his academic deficiencies, his parents sent him to
Perkiomen Preparatory School for two more years. Years later Spaatz classified
himself as a poor student who read what he wanted and never studied,^ traits he
continued throughout his life. When his father was badly burned attempting to
rescue persons trapped in a local opera house fire in January 1908, Carl retumed
home to run the newspaper. Afterwards he attended the Army-Navy Preparatory
School in Washington, D.C. On March 1, 1910, at the age of eighteen, he
entered the United States Military Academy at. West Point.

* In 1937 Spatz, at the urging of his wife and three daughters, legally changed his name to
Spaatz. He hoped that the additional "a" would encourage the correct pronunciation of his name,
which sounded like the word "spots."

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Spaatz himself never revealed why he chose to attend the Academy. His
attendance at the Army-Navy Preparatory School could have indicated a leaning
toward the military profession or merely a desire to secure sound credentials
before attending any college. His wife has said that his family could not afford
to continue his education. The offer of an excellent free education, coupled with
an honorable career that stressed the outdoor life he enjoyed all his life probably
persuaded him to apply for and accept appointment to a service academy.3

He had an undistinguished sojourn in the Corps of Cadets. Less than three
weeks after his entrance, he attempted to resign but was dissuaded from doing
so.^ Why he attempted to resign remains obscure. Given his easy-going temper-
ament, it seems probable that the hazing and other traditional indignities
inflicted on entering cadets almost proved too much for him. Later, although
guilty, he dodged expulsion for having liquor in his room by escaping court-
martial conviction on a technicality In academics he stood 57th out of 107. In
conduct, he ranked 95th. His behavioral shortcomings reflected a distaste for
"bull" or spit and polish. He received demerits for neglecting to sweep the floor,
to dust his shoes, to fold his bedclothes, and to keep his rifle clean. In fact,
Spaatz maintained a rumpled look throughout his career. Rumor has it that on
his graduation day he was still walking punishment tours.

He never gained cadet rank, remaining a "cleansleeve" for his four years at
the Point. What interested him — bridge, poker, and the guitar — ^he pursued vig-
orously. His classmates especially relished his repertoire of risque songs. The
Howitzer, the West Point yearbook, caricatured him with guitar in hand. The
editors commented on his silent demeanor, noted his ability to recite with confi-
dence on a subject he had not read, and spoke of his indifference to demerits and
"independent attitude generally."^ By his graduation on June 12, 1914, his inde-
pendence, taciturnity, and impatience with stultifying routine had become fixed.
He had also acquired a permanent nickname, "Tooey," because of a chance
resemblance to upperclassman, Francis J. Toohey.

Spaatz left the Academy determined to become a flyer. In his third month at
West Point, on May 29, 1910, he had seen Glenn Curtiss fly by on a 150-mile
trip from Albany to New York City. (Curtiss stopped only once to refuel,
thereby setting a new world record of 87 miles nonstop flight.)^ The sight so
impressed Spaatz that he then and there decided to fly.^ In 1914 the U.S. Army's
few aircraft belonged to the Aviation Section of the Signal Corps. Before Spaatz
could join the Signal Corps he was required to serve one year in a line or combat
unit.

On joining the 25th Infantry Regiment at Schofield Barracks, Hawaii, he
served in an all-black infantry company. Thirty years later, he testified to the
Gillem Board, which was investigating the place of the black soldier in the post-
World War II armed forces, "I must say that I enjoyed that year of service with

that outfit as much as any year of service I have ever had — as a white officer in a
Negro outfit, I would just as soon serve with them any time." He thought his

Early Career

men made "fine soldiers easily disciplined by white officers and easily kept
under control." He also told the Gillem Board that blacks should not serve in
integrated units and that they would be more effective in support and service
units than in combat units.^ Throughout his career Spaatz evinced the paternalis-
tic attitude of his rank and station toward blacks. He never appeared to question
their low status within the military; he was simply a man of his time.

Spaatz made no lasting mark on the 25th Infantry, but he did succeed in
making an indelible impression on the teen-aged daughter of a cavalry colonel
also stationed in Hawaii. She became his bride two years later.

When his year in the infantry ended, Spaatz reported to North Field in San
Diego, California, on November 25, 1915, to begin flight training. This prepara-
tion consisted of two to five hours' dual instruction, learning how to inspect the
plane for safety, and how to disassemble its motor. On his first solo flight, the
engine quit,'^ but he glided the plane to a safe landing and continued to fly. In
his initial air assignment. May 1916, Spaatz flew to the U.S.-Mexican border for
a tour of duty in the 1st Aero Squadron with Brig. Gen. John J. Pershing's puni-
tive expedition in Mexico. The commanding officer of the 1st Aero Squadron,
Capt. Benjamin D. Foulois, later became Chief of the Army Air Corps. A month
after U.S. entry into World War I, Spaatz, one of only sixty-five flying officers
in the Army, was promoted to major and given command of the 5th Aero
Squadron at Fort Sam Houston in Texas. On July 26, two weeks before his
departure for Europe, he married twenty-year-old Ruth Harrison, whose father
had also been transferred to Fort Sam Houston. The couple gave the bride's par-
ents less than twelve hours' notice.

By September 19, 1917, Spaatz found himself in France, where his unit was
broken up for replacements. He spent the next three weeks in Paris in charge
of the mechanical training of enlisted men, followed by a month at Chaumont
assigned to the Supply Section of the aeronautical area of Pershing's headquar-
ters. While at Chaumont, Spaatz participated in his first combat mission, flying
as an observer on a French bombardment sortie on the night of October 29. He
also flew with French observation and reconnaissance squadrons. 'i On Novem-
ber 15, 1917, he became the Commander of the 3d Aviation Instruction Center
at Issoudun, France. He received this posting because as both a Regular Army
officer and a trained flyer, he was one of the very few men qualified to fill the
job.

There were no planes suitable for advanced training or pilots qualified as
instructors in the United States at the outbreak of the war. The Aviation Section
of General Pershing's American Expeditionary Force (AEF) thus had no cbsme
but to establish large training centers in Europe, where pilots could practice fly-
ing on up-to-date aircraft supplied by the French and the English. Although the
Aeronautical Training Section of the AEF, Aviation Section, selected Issoudion
in June, construction on flight training facilities did not begin until August 18.
By autumn conditions there, thanks to delays in the arrival of construction mate-

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

rials, were, as an official report noted, "to say the least, disheartening." 13 The
center did not receive its first French aircraft until October, and the provisional
flight school did not start operation until October 24. Barracks and shops were
of the crudest construction, and the rainy season had started before roads were in
place, making the center a sea of mud. On the flying field, mud churned up by
aircraft wheels broke propeller blades as fast as they could be replaced. The cen-
ter had no machine shops or material to erect them. 14

The morale of all personnel under these conditions plummeted. Primary
training cadets, who had joined the Army Air Service for the romance of flying,
particularly resented their lot at Issoudun, which had no facilities for primary or
introductory flight training. The center had to accept the primary cadets because
the French and British initial training schools could not find space for them.
When pressed into laboring on the center's essential construction projects, they
reacted with little enthusiasm. This was the initial situation that confronted
Spaatz, who had no training in aviation instruction and had never flown a mod-
em sei"vice plane.

He spent most of the next nine and one-half months either as commanding
officer of the school or as the officer in charge of training. Spaatz did his job
well. By the time he left in September 1918, Issoudun had become the largest
training field in the world and the Army Air Service's chief facility for training
pursuit or fighter pilots. It had 14 airfields, 84 hangars, and numerous ware-
houses, shops, and barracks. The machine shops could completely overhaul
more than 100 engines a week (each requiring at least 100 man-hours) and
rebuild from salvaged parts 20 aircraft a week (each plane required 32 man-
days). The school averaged 500 to 600 flying hours a day. In all, it graduated
766 pursuit pilots. This accomplishment was not without cost; Issoudun suf-
fered .56 training fatalities during Spaatz's tenure. In August 1918, for example,
17 students died.l^ In all, the Army Air Service suffered 128 combat fatalities
and 244 training fatalities in France and 262 training fatalities in the United
States.'^ Spaatz also reestablished discipline. One of his trainees recalled fifty
years later, "The students all thought he was a stiff necked little German,"
adding, "but he was fair, and that's all you can expect out of a good officer."20

The assignment gave Spaatz invaluable experience as a trainer and adminis-
trator of a fledgling air force. He had successfully accomplished his assign-
ment — so successfully, in fact, that Brig. Gen. William "Billy" Mitchell, one of
Pershing's chief aviation officers, wanted to return him to the United States to
upgrade Air Service training there. Instead, Spaatz, not known for his loqua-
ciousness, spoke up. He wangled permission for two weeks at the front with the
1st Pursuit Group, which included the 94th Aero (Hat-in-the-Ring) Squadron,
one of whose members was Maj. Edward "Eddie" V. Rickenbacker.
Rickenbacker, who ended the war as the highest-ranking American ace, with
twenty-six kills, had served at Issoudun under Spaatz for several months.

When Spaatz arrived, he found the 1st Pursuit out of the line and not flying

Early Career

combat missions, so he went on to the 13th Aero Squadron, 2nd Pursuit Group .^l
Upon his arrival, Spaatz won over the outfit's pilots, mostly second and first
lieutenants who had first entered combat five weeks before his arrival, by
removing his major's insignia of rank and becoming one of them.22 When his
first two weeks were up, he ignored his orders and stayed two more weeks.23

On September 16, 1918, despite the repeated jamming of his machine guns,
Spaatz shot down his first German aircraft.^"* Ten days later, he earned a
Distinguished Service Cross in a stunt that made the New York Times: "Hying
officer shoots down three planes — two German and his own."25 Spaatz had
focused so intently on his dogfighting that he had neglected to check his fuel
gauge, causing the loss of his own Spad. Fortunately, when he crash-landed his
plane near the trenches, he fell into French hands. The friendly poilu started an
alcoholic celebration, which Spaatz 's compatriots continued upon his return to
base. When Spaatz left for the United States, Mitchell told him, "I will be glad
to have you command a group at any time under my command."^^

Spaatz landed in New York City on October 13. He traveled to Washington,
D.C., where he was assigned to the Aviation Service's Training Department as
Inspector of Pursuit Training and met Col. Henry H. "Hap" Arnold for the first
time. The two eventually became fast friends — to the lasting benefit of both
their careers. Spaatz had already heard much about Arnold, who was very close
to Spaatz's wife's family, the Harrisons. Next, Spaatz began an inspection tour
of pursuit facilities. He boarded a train for Dayton, Ohio, where he tested vari-
ous types of planes, presumably trainers. Just outside El Paso, on November 11,
1918, he learned that the war had ended. The next day he finished his tour in San
Diego, California. He emerged from the war as a recognized expert on air train-
ing and pursuit aviation.^?

He also emerged convinced that Army air power deserved more autonomy.
By the end of World War I, many air officers, such as Mitchell and Foulois, had
become dissatisfied with the place of aviation in the Army. They had encoun-
tered too many officers who had gained command of air units without the least
knowledge of aviation or who, worse still, had no appreciation of aviation's
potential.28 Other officers, such as Arnold, had found little sympathy or support
from War Department bureaucrats in Washington.^? Nor did Secretary of War
Newton D. Baker demonstrate remarkable insight in his Annual Report of 1919,
which condemned the principle of bombing civilian areas,30 and by extension,
all strategic bombing. At the time of the postwar congressional hearings on the
place of air power within the military establishment, Spaatz said, "My own feel-
ing was all in favor of getting it out of the Signal Corps. ... I wanted air force
on the same level as infantry. "^^ Within a few years, Spaatz and many other
Army air officers wanted not just autonomy within the Army but independence
from it.

In 1919 Spaatz began the typical treadmill existence of an American officer
between the world wars — repeated changes of post, lack of public regard, low

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

pay, and agonizingly slow promotion. Although from 1918 to 1920 he changed
posts twenty times,^^ jjg had two advantages over some of his fellow officers —
flight pay, a cause of much jealousy among non-flying officers, and seniority as
a major. For all but three months of the next seventeen years, when he temporar-
ily became a captain, Spaatz remained a major, unlike many of his compatriots
who lost their wartime ranks and toiled for years as captains or even lieutenants.

The U.S. Army filled its officer ranks by means of an unmodified seniority
system. A thorough knowledge of the workings of the Army promotion system
provides a key to understanding the position of the Air Service and of Spaatz
within the Army.* The promotion hst, a conservative personnel system long in
use throughout the world's civil and military services, worked strictly by senior-
ity or time in grade. Unlike many foreign services, which limited the unmodified
seniority hst to captain and below, the U.S. Army's system extended up through
colonel.33 Each commissioned officer entered the U.S. Army officer corps as the
most junior 2d lieutenant and, if he lived long enough, advanced to colonel as
the men on the list ahead of him left the service. Considerations of merit or abil-
ity did not modify one's relative position on the list, and there was no selection
scheme to advance deserving and active officers over the heads of the superan-
nuated. The system provided for voluntary retirement at thirty years of service
and mandatory retirement at age sixty-four. The list did not apply to general
officers' promotions, which were by selection.

Strict adherence to the promotion list had the advantage of allowing every
officer to know his promotion prospects precisely and gave assurance that there
could be no favoritism or nepotism. In practice, of course, the choice assign-
ments still went to the favorites who had the rank to qualify for them. The disad-
vantages of the system included lack of reward for initiative and ability, slow
promotion, and bureaucratic routine.

Before World War I, each branch within the U.S. Army (such as cavahy,
infantry, artillery, and quartermaster) had maintained its own separate promotion
list, so some officers were promoted faster than others of equal ability and time
of service. To remedy this perceived flaw. Congress, in the National Defense
Act of 1920, combined all Regular Army promotion lists into a single list, pro-
viding that no officer would hold a relative position on the combined list lower
than the one he held on his branch list at the time of the bill's passage. In the
same act Congress established the Air Service as a separate branch within the
Army; specified that at all times 90 percent of its officers must be rated flyers,
balloonists, or observers; and required that all command positions be filled by
rated officers.

* The air branch of the U.S. Army underwent three name changes from 1919 to 1941:
from 1919 through the first half of 1926 it was officially the Army Air Service; from July 1926
through June 1941 it was the Army Air Corps; and from June 1941 to September 1947 it was
the Army Air Forces.

Early Career

These provisions created a closed shop. Officers elsewhere in the Army
could not transfer into the Air Service unless they passed flight training. Such a
switch proved difficult for field-grade officers (major and above). Their age
(mid-thirties, at best) and the extremely high physical standards for pilots almost
guaranteed failure to gain a rating. Hence accretions to the Air Service's and Air
Corps' Regular Army officer ranks came, for the most part, at the 2d lieutenant
grade, from West Point graduates and from Reserve Officers, Flying Cadtets, and
enlisted pilots earning regular commissions.

So stringent were the air branch's physical standards that only tiie finest
specimens entered its training programs. Men who flew in open, unheated cock-
pits at altitudes well over 10,000 feet at all times of the year, without oxygen, in
aircraft lacking most types of power-assisted controls required extraordinary
stamina. The air branch's basic and advanced flight training eliminated a large
percentage of would-be pilots. On the average, about 40 percent of each entering
class completed both stages of training, although in some classes as few as 25
percent graduated. Charles A. Lindbergh, who underwent flight training in 1924,
recalled that only 17 of 103 members of his class completed training, and the
Air Corps passed only 128 of 592 students in fiscal 1928. Moreover, from
1921 to 1938, 95 flying cadets died in air accidents.35

Because the Air Service (and its predecessors) had existed only since 1907,
it had had no time to develop its own higher-ranking officers. Even Hap Arnold,

M^. Gen. Mason Patrick, Chief of the Air Service, and Brig. Gen. William "Billy"
Mitchell, early 1920s.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

one of the very first Army pilots, was only a major and barely in the upper 40
percent of the major's ranks of the promotion list. In July 1923, Arnold was the
fifteenth-ranking major in the Air Service but only 909th of 2,250 majors in the
entire Army. At the same time Spaatz was the 88th ranking major (of 89) in the
Air Service and stood 2,207 on the majors list. It took Arnold almost nine years
to reach lieutenant colonel (February 1932) and Spaatz more than twelve years
(September 1935) to advance through the entire major's portion of the list to
lieutenant colonel.

The Army's air branch had a much lower percentage of field-grade officers
than the remainder of the Army. (See Table 1, Distribution of Regular Army
Rank in the Air Service and Air Corps Compared with the Army as a Whole
1922-1941.) From 1923 to 1935, the Air Corps had an average of less than 11
percent of its Regular Army officers in field grades. The remainder of the Army
averaged a little less than 33 percent field-grade officers for the same period.
This imbalance resulted in underrepresentation of the Air Corps' views and lack
of understanding of the Air Corps' difficulties at the senior levels of the Army.
But if the lack of field-grade officers hurt the Air Corps as an institution within
the Army, in the long run it may have advanced the careers of officers within the
Air Corps itself 3^

The lack of rank within the Air Corps — even within the field grades the
great majority of officers were majors — meant that officers assumed responsibil-
ity and gained experience at levels far above their actual rank. The 1930 Annual
Report of the Chief of the Air Corps noted that Air Corps Tables of Organization
called for a major to command each squadron. Yet, of 53 squadrons, majors led
only 5, and 4 of those majors doubled as base commanders. One squadron was
led by a second lieutenant of less than four years' service.^^ From 1921 to 1938,
if not beyond, the same 75 to 90 field-grade officers, many of whom became
AAF generals in World War II, controlled the inner workings of the air arm.
Spaatz, who served as a major for most of the period between 1921 and 1938,
was always one of the 100 most senior officers in his branch. In an institution in
which considerations of rank and seniority dominated personnel assignments,
Spaatz 's seniority kept him constantly in important command and staff posi-
tions.

If the Air Corps had a paucity of field grade officers, it had an overabundance
of junior officers (captain and below), partly by design. In the early 1920s, Ak
Service thinking estimated a pilot's active flying career at eight years under
wartime conditions and, at most, fourteen years under peacetime conditions.38
Because the air branch insisted on officer pilots, it required only first and second
lieutenants to operate individual aircraft, with captains to command flights. Once a
man's flying career ceased, about the time he might expect to become a major, he
could be transferred, sent to the reserves, or discharged. The operation of aircraft
by officer pilots necessitated a force heavy in junior officers. In 1924 the Air
Service used a figure of 85 percent captains and Ueutenants as the optimum,^^ not

Early Career

Table 1

Distribution of Regular Army Rank in the Air Service and
Air Corps Compared with the Army as a Whole, 1922-1941

Vaar
1 citr

Pant

111 1 1

Tntnl

1922

3/627

10/797

115/2,760

605/3,204

19/202

919/12.711

1923*

3/509

1 1/682

86/2,182

124/4,073

544/2,783

127/1,184

895/11,413

1924

3/507

13/685

90/2,177

129/4,079

5 1 6/2 764

116/1,051

867/11,264

1925

3/504

13/689

97/2,163

127/4,142

510/2 695

163/1,519

913/11 712

1926

2/500

13/688

98/2,157

127/4 148

502/2 688

142/1,431

884/1 1 612

1927

2/530

16/675

97/2,139

126/4 140

172/1,547

919/11 748

7 J. 7/ X A f f TU

1928

2/549

16/658

97/2,127

132/4,139

507/2,726

207/1,605

961/11,804

1929

3/556

16/663

99/2,188

153/4,112

494/2,753

294/1,691

1,059/11,963

1930

6/571

18/665

92/2,447

158/3,815

492/2,787

441/1,754

1,207/12,039

1931

6/567

21/674

90/2,482

228/3,751

431/2,820

460/1,816

1,236/12,110

1932

7/559

26/697

90/2,528

298/3,706

375/2,786

458/1,857

1,254/12,133

1933

10/557

30/717

84/2,509

341/3,741

373P.J57

444/1,754

1,282/12,035

1934

8/553

33/737

80/2,468

391/3,767

384/2,746

403/1,940

1,299/12,208

1935''

9/557

30/725

85/2,419

430/3,778

519/2,812

230/1,680

1,303/11,971

1936

18/727

54/1,087

96/3,259

579/4.009

530/2,113

82/856

1,359/12,051

1937

24/745

58/1,230

97/3,136

599/4,009

504/2,156

126/973

1,408/12,249

1938

27/764

57/1,553

114/2,821

649/4,066

488/2,222

97/1,022

1,432/12,448

1939

25/793

56/1,605

130/2,858

729/4,094

416/2,146

314/1,471

1,670/12,967

1940

26/854

61/1,637

297/3,051

675/3,899

378/2,238

773/2,085

2,210/13,764

1941

29/852

161/3,834

398/2,482

493/2,386

418/2,344

845/2,338

2,344/14,236

a. The Dickman Board demoted 236 majors, 750 captains, and 800 first lieutenants by
January 1, 1923.

b. The Promotion Act of 1935 shifted the World War I "hump" one rank higher from first
and second lieutenant to first lieutenant and captain.

Compiled from the Official Reports of the Secretary of War.

far from the 90 percent average of 1923 to 1935. Throughout the interwar period
the air branch supplemented its number of officer pilots by using reserve officers;
for most years the air branch had by far the largest number of reservists on duty
for periods exceeding fifteen days of any branch .^^ In practice the single promo-
tion list thwarted the expectations of the Air Service and the Air Corps.

Instead of an even distribution of officers with like times of service through-
out, the list had instances of many individuals crammed into a small time-of-ser-

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

vice bracket. Officers who joined the Army in World War I formed one such
logjam. At the rear of that jam was what the air officers called the promotion
"hump." When men joined the Army at the beginning of the war, those wishing
to fly went to flight training, in some cases for twelve to eighteen months. The
flyers received their commissions only after they had completed flight training.
They were thus well behind the men who joined other branches and earned their
commissions months earlier. In the interwar period this placed a large percent-
age of Air Corps junior-grade officers at the bottom of the promotion list, with
little prospect of ever reaching field grade. Tn 1 930, 400 of the 494 Regular
Army first lieutenants in the Air Corps had wartime experience.^! The most
senior of them would have to advance 3,800 places through the captains' ranks
and one-third of the way through the entire list to reach major — a daunting
prospect. The effect on the entering second lieutenants, who could not even
make captain until the hump cleared, also must have been dramatic. The limited
promotion potential coupled with the lack of personnel turnover contributed to
the aging of the small officer corps. (Table 2 for the year 1931, the mid-point
between the wars, illustrates the interwar relation between age and rank.) It was
no wonder that the bulk of resignations from the whole officer corps, not just the
air branch, consisted of junior-grade officers. From 1924 through 1933, 3
colonels, 8 lieutenant colonels, 81 majors, 239 captains, 231 first lieutenants,
and 391 second lieutenants resigned from the Regular Army, an average of 95 a
year from a force of approximately 12,000.^^ As always, those with the least
invested in the service and the worst prospects of advancement were most likely
to resign. Well over 90 percent of the officer corps chose to stay with the colors.

The officer corps as a whole formed a conservative, all-white society removed
from the mainstream of American life. Postings to isolated forts and bases, lives
spent in the military ghetto of officers' on-base housing, a promotion policy of
glacial slowness, and a professional ethos that led to concentration on the techni-
cal aspects of their work and to the avoidance of participation in the partisan
civilian world accounted for much of the Regular Army officers' segregation.
The officers of the Air Service and Corps formed a small band of brothers set
apart even from the officer corps at large.* They numbered no larger than the
student body of a medium-size urban high school and they spent much of their
careers in small groups of a few dozen or less on primitive airfields. Their agita-

* Regular officers left the air branch by three routes: death, resignation, or retirement. Only a sta-
tistically insignificant number of them were dismissed or discharged. From 1925 through 1935, 131
regular officers died in air crashes, 35 died of other causes, 126 resigned, and 72 retired. At the same
time, the air branch grew from 913 regular officers to 1,303. As one would expect, retirements were
concentrated in the years after 1928 (70 of 72), as senior officers who joined the service at the time of
the Spanish-American War and later reached retirement age departed. Resignations peaked in 1930,
with 27, as the junior officers resigned to join the newly established commercial airlines, and trailed
off drastically during the Depression; only 16 regular officers resigned from 1931 to 1935. Figures
were compiled from the Aimual Reports of the Chief of the Air Corps, 1921-1935.

Table 2

Age and Rank of the U.S. Army Officer Corps, 1931

Mai (wfin

Rriff Gen

Col

Lt Col

Mai

Capt

1st Lt

2d Lt

Tota

. 7

116

117

138

132

147

149

123

156

209

192

178

113

211

136

124

285

139

134

298

144

128

303

132

172

354

169

230

451

159

317

535

146

376

101

623

116

381

115

612

382

143

586

400

213

642

188

248

438

295

316

261

278

249

268

270

310

258

329

178

136

314

182

248

265

275

286

259

260

155

Total

470

527

1,725

3,406

2,711

1,780

10,685

Extracted from the July 1, 1931 Army List and Directory.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

tion for a separate promotion list,^^ the flight or danger pay they earned while on
flying status (which many in the rest of the Army resented), and the fight
between the air arm and the rest of the service over the air portion of the budget
set the air arm apart from the Army as a whole. Although the leading cause of
accidental death* for the entire Army from 1927 to 1936 was automobile acci-
dents (660), the second leading cause of death was airplane accidents (459)'*^ —
a category confined to only one branch of the service. (See Table 3, Flight
Accident Statistics, 1921-1938.) This danger exclusively to themselves, their
low positions on the promotion list, and their mutual participation in an exhila-
rating, yet highly technical, occupation bound the air officers together.

Understandably the division of the budget and other service resources cre-
ated some of the fiercest tension in the Army. From 1920 to 1934, the total cost
of Army aviation ranged between 13.1 and 22.7 percent of the Army budget,
averaging 18.2 percent a year. This included not only direct appropriations to the
air arm but also indirect expenses such as pay, quartermaster and medical ser-
vices, ordnance, subsistence, construction, and issue of supplies from the war
reserve from other Army accounts.^^ Such expenses in an era of unremitting fis-
cal belt-tightening created bitterness within the rest of the Army as the finan-
cially conservative Coolidge administration, the Depression-ridden Hoover
administration, and the first Roosevelt administration sought to reduce War
Department expenditures without regard to military capability .^^

Spaatz's life in the interwar years was not uneventful. In 1919 he led the Far
West Flying Circus in mock dogfighting and stunting exhibitions as part of the
Air Service's contribution to the Liberty Loan drive. In December of that year, he
received a letter of commendation for his achievements in the Transcontinental
Reliability Endurance Flight. Spaatz won elapsed time west to east, finished third
west to east all types, and won second place west to east DH-4 class.^^ Colonel
(ex-Brig. Gen.) Mitchell, now head of the Air Service's Training and Operations
Group, had organized the flight of about eighty service aircraft as a promotional
effort to generate public enthusiasm for aviation.^^ By October 1919, Spaatz had
already, in the course of his career, amassed 6(K) hours of flight time; checked
out in eighteen types of French, British, and American aircraft (including the
treacherous Morane monoplane); and crashed five times.^^

In April 1919, Spaatz became one of only six men to ever receive the rating
of Military Aviator on the grounds of distinguished service.^*' Before World War
I, Congress had authorized the Aviation Section of the Army Signal Corps to
award Junior Military Aviator and Military Aviator ratings for piloting skill; the
ratings carried temporary increases in rank and pay. Spaatz himself had qualified
as a Junior Military Aviator. Congress discontinued the ratings in 1916 but
allowed their retention by those who had earned them. During the war. Congress

Fatalities resulting from illness were the leading cause of all deaths for the officer corps.

Table 3

Flight Accident Statistics, 1921-1938

1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938

Total

\,l nil nvvlUcllls

Aircraft hours (1,000s)

150

158

141

183

263

325

396

371

433

374

449

501

513

591

3,252

iNuniDcr oi acciucnis

361

330

283

275

311

334

227

249

390

471

456

423

442

412

453

430

358

375

1 <8

o,ljo

Number of fatal accidents

606

Number of fatalities

864

Number of injured

119

1393

Details of Fatalities

Regular Army, officers

296

Regular Army, enlisted men

221

Regular Army, flying cadets

Reserve Corps, officers

183

Miscellaneous

Accident Rates (per 1,000 flying hours)

Fatalities

0.94

0.86

0.88

0.35

0.25

0.27

0.31

0.15

0.23

0.16

0.07

0.13

0.11

0.14

0.10

0.12

0.09

0.11

0.27

Accidents

4.67

5.06

4.30

2.81

2.07

1.96

1.61

1.36

1.48

1.45

1.15

1.14

1.02

1.10

1.01

0.86

0.70 0.63

1.89

Coi^iled from the Official Reports of the Chief of the Aimy Air Sendee Coips.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

reinstated the award of ratings but for distinguished service instead of skill in
aviation. Aside from the honor, the rating entitled Spaatz to a flight pay of 75
percent of base pay, an emolument he continued to draw even after the National
Defense Act of 1920 limited all flight pay, except for distinguished Military
Aviators, to 50 percent. This benefit loomed even larger when Congress passed
the Pay Classification Act of 1922, compressing the differences between pay for
rank and emphasizing longevity of service. Under the new act Spaatz 's base pay,
for a major with less than 23 years' service, was $2,400 per annum.

Throughout the period between the two world wars, Spaatz probably earned
more per year than any other nongeneral officer in the Army. The family appar-
ently lived comfortably with little left over from day-to-day expenses. In 1925,
in planning for his expected retirement with thirty years' service in 1940, Spaatz
bemoaned his financial status, saying, "I have $300 in the bank and owe about
$2,000."5l His finances continued to do no better until very late in his career.
Nonetheless, the extra money certainly gave him the advantage of relative peace
of mind and the comfort of a lifestyle unavailable to many of his peers. It may
well have allowed him to concentrate on his profession without the distraction of
worry.

In 1921 Spaatz and Arnold, who had sealed their friendship during a mutual
tour of duty in California, served up a wacky public relations ploy. They per-
suaded the chef of a San Francisco hotel to prepare the first egg to be laid and
fried in flight. On the day of the great Egg Festival at Petaluma, the chicken cap-
ital of California, Tooey and the chef added a prize hen to the crew and headed
back for the bay area. They arrived sans poulet — the hen jumped ship at several
hundred feet and dived into San Francisco Bay. But the flight did not exactly lay
an egg; the chef threw a bash to celebrate his own safe arrival while the newspa-
pers carried the story .52

From 1922 to 1924, Spaatz commanded the 1st Pursuit Group — the only
pursuit group in the Air Service — at Selfridge Field in Michigan, just outside
Detroit. By June 1922, the nation's military aviation had shrunk to a force of
fewer than 10,000 officers and enlisted men.^^ At Selfridge, he earned a repri-
mand for neglect of duty. One of Spaatz's great qualities as a leader was his
ability to delegate authority and to allow his subordinates to do their jobs with
minimum interference from above. This time the trait backfired: his finance offi-
cer, 1st Lt. Howard Farmer, embezzled $15,000. A court-martial sent Farmer to
prison, and a review of its findings led to an official reprimand for Spaatz, who,
aware of Farmer's weakness for drinking and gambling, should have removed
him from temptation. Instead, he had accepted the officer's pledge not to gamble
while entrusted with government funds.^^ Although Spaatz was very upset af the
deserved reprimand, it was a measure of his force of character that he did not
overcompensate by too closely circumscribing the actions of future subordi-
nates.55

During his stay at Selfridge Field, Spaatz cemented his relationship with the

Early Career

Assistant Chief of the Army Air Service, Brig. Gen. Billy Mitchell, who regarded
the 1st Pursuit Group as his favorite organization.^^ After an inspection trip in
August 1922, Mitchell remarked, "I have had the First Pursuit Group in the air
every day that I have been here. Their work is extremely satisfactory." He
added, "I don't think we could have a better Commanding Officer of the
Group. During the course of these seignorial visits, Mitchell invariably
expected Spaatz to procure a powerful motor car, usually from Rickenbacker
Motor Corporation, for his personal use. On one occasion Mitchell shipped six
of his own horses to Detroit, asking Spaatz to find a government veterinarian,
forage, and men to fix up some stables.^^ Within three days Spaatz had fulfilled
the general's request.^^

In the course of his many trips to Selfridge, Mitchell, one of the most ardent
air power enthusiasts, took pains to imprint his views on Spaatz. Although
Mitchell predicted that bombardment aviation would someday have its principal
value in "hitting an enemy's great nerve centers," he gave primacy of place to
pursuit aviation.60 Mitchell believed that gaining air superiority over the enemy
air force was the first and the most necessary task of the air arm. Without free-
dom to operate, air could not perform any of its other missions or deny enemy
air the ability to conduct its own missions. Mitchell emphasized that friendly
pursuit aircraft must locate the enemy, concentrate against him, and drive him
from the sky. Only then could friendly air proceed with the bombardment of
enemy forces and installations.^^

In accordance with these theories and others developed from World War I
experience, the Air Service organized three types of combat units: pursuit, bom-
bardment, and attack. Pursuit had counterair and ground-strafing roles.
Bombardment would attack naval vessels and enemy industrial centers and other
key areas behind enemy lines and assist in attacks against field targets. Official
manuals, which were approved by the ground officers who dominated the War
Department General Staff, paid little attention to the planning or conduct of
strategic bombing. Instead, they concentrated on bombardment's role in ground
operations. Attack aviation would conduct low-level attacks with heavy machine
guns, caimon, and bombs against battlefield targets. Airmen who believed such
low-level attacks would expend both men and machines to little purpose were
overruled by groimd officers who valued front-line morale-boosting missions
against immediate tactical targets.^^

Spaatz took Mitchell's theories to heart. In February 1922, he wrote to the
Chief of the Air Service that he conceived of four distinct types of pursuit mis-
sions — offensive, defensive, night, and attack — each requiring a plane of differ-
ent design.^3 As commander of the only pursuit group, he participated in the
writing of several pursuit training and tactical manuals, including overall pursuit
aviation training regulations, as well as regulations for the pursuit pilot, squadron,
group, and wing.^^ In only one case did Spaatz envisage the employment of pur-
suit in an exclusively defensive role. "The first bomb dropped by an enemy on

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

A snow-covered ramp at Sel&idge Field filled with Boeing and Curtiss pursuits.
Frozen Lake Micliigan appears in the bacliground, early 1930s.

one of our cities," he stated, "will cause such a clamor that no executive would
be strong enough to withstand it." Spaatz noted, however, that defensive pur-
suit would be anything but defensive once airborne.^^ when asked to com-
ment on the attack aviation manuals, Spaatz indicated that "pursuit forces
should not accompany the attack forces in the manner of an escort but should
be concentrated over the objective of the attack at the time the attack forces
arrive to deliver the attack." Spaatz added, "The attack forces must be pre-
pared to disperse a small force of the enemy pursuit which may molest them
on their way to and from the objective."^^ It is important not to make too
much of the influence of this early thinking on his subsequent actions, but it
seems that Spaatz was at least predisposed to accept a doctrine that called for
loose escort of bombers by fighters and aggressive employment of fighter air-
craft at all times.

While serving in Michigan, Spaatz had his first encounter with "drop tanks,"
jettisonable aviation fuel tanks carried externally by fighter aircraft. He ob-
served, "This arrangement, of course, permits pursuit to penetrate to much
greater depth without destroying its characteristics."^'' Here was part of the solu-
tion to the long-range fighter-escort problem that would plague Spaatz and other
bomber commanders twenty years later. Spaatz had recognized one piece of the
long-range escort puzzle, but, like most other Air Corps officers, he was unable
to fit that piece into place, to fully realize that drop tanks would give an aircraft
of fighter performance a bomber's range.

Spaatz left the 1st Pursuit Group in 1924 to attend his branch of service's

Early Career

professional school, the Air Service Tactical School at Langley Field, near
Norfolk, Virginia, where he had time for reflection — especially when he was
hospitalized for a neck abscess that almost led to blood poisoning. While at
Langley, he kept a diary, a practice he would not resume until he went to
England in May 1940. Spaatz, in an introspective mood, attributed the death of
one of his classmates in an air accident in part to reflexes slowed by age. Thirty-
three years old at the time, he himself had just had a close call and wondered
whether his own skills were slipping.^^ In one of the few personally revealing
notes in his papers, he analyzed himself as follows:

CHARACTER ANALYSIS CAUSES AND REMEDIES

1 . Tendency to false illusion that nothing is worth-while except that done
by myself.

2. Tendency to be opinionated without sufficient knowledge.

3. Mental laziness . . . resulting in ability to group quickly certain things
but with no retentiveness, also resulting in inability to form definite conclusions
and pursue consistent line of thought.

4. Tendency to assume everyone acts with right motives hence no effort to
differentiate between men to separate those whose mental makeup prevent[s]
their acting with right motives as in case of Farmer [the erring finance officer].

5. Egotism which impels me to make authoritative statements on subjects
or about things with which I am unfamiliar or only vaguely informed.

6. Tendency to trust instinct rather than make effort to employ reason.

7. Shyness induced by egotism (hating to admit lack of knowledge), mental
laziness.^'

This gloomy self-evaluation accurately highlighted several aspects of Spaatz 's
personality. He had a quick mind but he was not an air power intellectual or
philosopher. He relied on instinct and intuition rather than on systematic
thought. Nor did he have any illusions regarding his depth of knowledge on
most subjects; throughout most of his career he displayed no great interest,
knowledge, or sympathy with affairs other than those directly affecting aviation.
Finally, he admitted his "shyness," which manifested itself in a painfully
wooden manner in staff conferences or formal briefings requiring a rapid inter-
change of ideas.

Before graduating from the Tactical School in June 1925, Spaatz traveled to
Washington, D.C., to attend the hearings of the House Military Affairs Committee
on the Curry Bill for a "separate Air Service." A month later he gave testimony
to the Lampert Committee of the House of Representatives which was investi-
gating U.S. aviation. After stating that he personally knew 60 to 70 percent of
the Army's flyers, Spaatz gave his views on the place of aviation in the U.S.
military: "The general feeling is that under present conditions we are not getting
anywhere." He went on to express his feeling that, as a new medium of combat,
the Air Service required its own unique regulations, training doctrines, and

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

methods of conducting warfare. He objected to the then current arrangements
under which "we follow the doctrines laid down by the Army for their opera-
tions so far as the Army is concerned." He added that "any work we may do is
based on the effect it has on the Army's operations. ... No well-defined policy
of independent operations by an air force acting independently of the Army is
being developed under present conditions." Finally, he noted the prevalent opin-
ion within the Air Service that the next war would start in the air and that if it
were to do so soon, "this country is absolutely defenseless."^^

After Langley, Spaatz was posted to Washington, D.C., as Assistant G-3 for
Training and Operations in the Office of the Chief of the Air Service. Arnold
occupied the office next door. Spaatz's four-year stay in Washington opened
with the controversial court-martial of his old commanding officer, Billy Mitchell,
during October and November 1925, in which Spaatz and Arnold loyally sup-
ported Mitchell. Spaatz participated in the ensuing cause ceUbre as one of the
first defense witnesses, testifying about the current strength of the Air Service.
In his judgment, 1,300 of the 1,800 planes available were obsolete and only 400
were "standard." Of those 400, more than half were of World War I vintage; fur-
thermore, only 26 of them were bombers and only 39 were observation planes.
Spaatz noted that the U.S. Air Service had only 59 modem planes fit for duty.
"By dragging all administrative officers from their desks," Spaatz said that he
could put 15 pursuit planes into the air, adding, "It is very disheartening to
attempt to train or do work under such circumstances."^^ In a key exchange, the
defense counsel asked Spaatz if he thought the War Department was slowing the
development of air power. The prosecutor objected that the question called for a
conclusion on the part of the witness, but in the accompanying hubbub, Spaatz
replied, "I do."

The defense counsel pressed, "Would the recommendation made by Colonel
Mitchell have improved the Air Service in the technical and other divisions?"
The prosecutor objected, and Spaatz was forbidden to say whether flyers were
sufficiently trained in gunnery to fight a war. Members of the court also ques-
tioned Spaatz. One particularly sharp exchange took place between Spaatz and
the president of the court, sixty-one-year-old Maj. Gen. Robert L. Howze.
Howze, an old Indian fighter who had earned a Congressional Medal of Honor
fighting the Sioux after Wounded Knee (the award of the medal was announced
the day the court-martial opened) and had commanded a division in France,
asked who was to blame for any shortcomings. Spaatz replied that, where gun-
nery was involved, the squadron commanders were at fault. Howze continued,
"Is there anybody higher up than the commander of this unit who is responsible
for the gunnery work?" Spaatz responded, "Well, in the case of the First Pursuit
Group [his old command], the commander of the VI Corps Area has charge of
it." Spaatz's pointed rejoinder drew the blood of the VI Corps Area Commander,
who happened to be a member of the court.

Maj. Gen. William S. Graves, leader of the U.S. Expeditionary Force in

Early Career

Brig. Gen. William Mitchell addressing his court-martial, Washington, D.C,
October 28, 1925.

Siberia, 1918-1919, asked whether his office had ever denied help to the air
squadron. Spaatz responded that when the people of Oscoda, Michigan, had
offered to rent a gunnery practice field to the Air Service for a dollar a year, he
had had trouble persuading the War Department to pay. The crowd laughed, but
Graves won the point when Spaatz was imable to recall specifically which office
had delayed the matter.

Neither Spaatz's nor Arnold's testimony swayed the court, which was even
less impressed with Mitchell's decision to conduct an all-out defense designed
to take advantage of the circus atmosphere engendered by the trial's heavy press
coverage. The court-martial suspended Mitchell bom active duty for five years,
and he resigned.^2

The statements Spaatz made at the court-martial illustrate the intensity of his
convictions about preparedness and the status of the Air Service. Despite warn-
ings that his appearance might jeopardize his career, Spaatz, who believed in
loyalty up and loyalty down, supported Mitchell. He displayed equal amounts of
courage and tactlessness in bluntly describing Air Service conditions and in fix-
ing responsibility for them. Spaatz later commented, "They can't do anything to
you when you're under oath and tell them answers to their questions."^^

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

During his first tour in Washington, D.C., Spaatz demonstrated another
unusual facet of his character, his respect for the independence and intelligence
of women. Although anything but a ladykiller or a Don Juan, Spaatz liked and
appreciated women. As the father of three daughters and no sons he became
used to living in a feminine household and he endured much good-natured teas-
ing about his "harem." He developed many deep friendships with remarkable
women in the course of his career. While in Washington, he encouraged his wife
to accept what was then a remarkable opportunity. For three years Ruth Spaatz
became the member of a professional standing acting troupe at the National
Theater. She eventually played leading roles. Given society's attitudes toward
working mothers and actresses, Spaatz's support of his wife seems all the more
unusual.^4 Later, he would be one of the first and most enthusiastic supporters of
the Women's Army Corps (WAC), in World War II. In fact, his executive offi-
cer for most of World War II was a WAC, which made him probably the only
officer of his rank in the U.S. armed services to have a woman serving in such a
role.

Spaatz continued on staff duties until the end of 1928, when he received
orders to command the 7th Bombardment Group at Rockwell Field in southern
California. One of his first actions there involved a publicity stunt conceived by
a close friend, Capt. Ira C. Baker. Eaker proposed to set a new world record in
flight endurance. In the moderate, predictable weather of southem California the
flight would be safer, less stressful, and free of weather-imposed interference.
There was also easy access to the media in nearby Hollywood. The idea appealed
to Spaatz's adventurous instincts and he quickly endorsed Eaker' s proposal.

Between January 1 and 7, 1929, the flight of the Question Mark, a Fokker
tiimotor transport aircraft, commanded by Major Spaatz and crewed by Captain
Eaker, Lt. Elwood R. Quesada, and Lt. Harry A. Halverson, set a world flight
endurance record of 150 hours, 40 minutes, and 14 seconds, shuttling between
Los Angeles and San Diego and gaining national and international attention. The
Question Mark, so named because no one knew when it would come down, had
its fuel tanks filled in the air 37 times, received 5,600 gallons of hand-pumped
fuel, and traveled 11, 000 miles. Perceptive observers noted that if Spaatz and his
crew could man a craft that long, so could bomber crews.^^ Less technologically
oriented observers had different opinions. When Ruth Spaatz pointed out the air-
craft flying overhead to the Spaatz's oldest daughter, seven-year-old Tattle, and
remarked, "That's your daddy, and he's been up there longer than any human
being has ever been in the air before. Isn't it marvelous?" Tattie crushingly
replied, "I think it's sort of dumb."''^

Early in the flight — on January 1, as the plane flew over the Rose Bowl foot-
ball game — the converted fire hose lowered for in-flight refueling came loose
from the tank opening above the Question Mark and drenched Spaatz with 72-
octane gasoline. Quesada headed for calmer weather over the ocean while the
other crew members removed Spaatz's clothes and rubbed him down to prevent

Early Career

bums. Spaatz told them, "If I'm burned and have to bail out you keep this plane
in the air, and that's an order."^^ When refueling recommenced, the unharmed
major, clad only in a parachute and a grin, stood halfway out an open hatch to
make sure nothing separated again.

On January 4, heavy fog prevented supply ships from locating the Question
Mark, which had flown inland toward the Imperial Valley and clearer skies. When
the Question Mark finally contacted a refueler, both aircraft almost hit the ground
after entering an air pocket. Throughout the flight, supply ships delivered box
lunches prepared by Air Corps wives or purchased from local diners, and when the
standing endurance record was broken, ground crews sent up five jars of caviar,
cheese, figs, and ripe olives.^^ Engine trouble finally forced the plane down.

The feat earned the Question Mark's crew Distinguished Flying Crosses.
Spaatz's citation read in part, "By his endurance, resourcefulness and leadership,
he demonstrated future possibilities in aviation which were heretofore not appar-
ent and thus reflected great credit upon himself and the Army of the United
States."^^ Of course, fleeting international fame and medals carried no weight
with penny-pinching clerks at the War Department. They forwarded the flight's
meal vouchers, approximately $75 per man, to the Comptroller General of the
United States, who refused payment, noting:

The fact that in the performance of the duty here in question the officers could
not procure subsistence in the usual manner or at the accustomed places and
that it was necessary to procure subsistence by means otherwise than ordinarily
procured, creates no status giving a right to have the subsistence furnished them
at the expense of the United States.so

The flight inspired several imitators and by the end of the year civilian aviators
had set an endurance record of 420 hours.^^

The Question Mark flight again demonstrated Spaatz's skill as an adminis-
trator and logistician. He set up more than adequate refueling and resupply
arrangements and showed his intense desire to fulfill his duty — even at risk to
himself. The drive to complete a task, in spite of obstacles, was his hallmark.

After three years at Rockwell Field, Spaatz assumed command of the 1st
Bombardment Wing at March Field in Riverside, California. From Califomia,
Spaatz traveled back to the Potomac in 1933 where he served for two years as
Chief of the Training and Operations Division in the Office of the Chief of the
Air Corps (OCAC). In 1935 he received his first promotion in seventeen years —
to lieutenant colonel.

With the promotion came orders to attend the Army Command and General
Staff School at Fort Leavenworth in Kansas. Most officers looked forward to
this posting because it was a mandatory stepping-stone to the rank of general
officer. Spaatz objected that he was too old (forty-four and only six years from
retirement) and that he had no interest in the operation of an infantry division.
He wrote Arnold, "I am going to Leavenworth not because I expect it will do me

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

any good, but primarily because I am ordered there and secondarily to get away
from here [Washington]. "^^ Hg some relief, though, that the course had been
reduced from two years to one.

True to character, Spaatz, as he had done twenty-one years earlier at West
Point, did barely enough course work to pass, finishing 94th out of 121. He
made little attempt to conceal his contempt for the failure of the courses to con-
tain a meaningful appreciation of air power. This attitude earned him an unfa-
vorable recommendation for any further training in general staff or high com-
mand duty.^^ The school had little influence on him and he apparently learned
almost nothing of value there.

Organization and Doctrine of the Prewar Air Corps

Upon leaving Leavenworth in July 1936, Spaatz became Executive Officer,
2d Wing, of the recently created General Headquarters (GHQ) Air Force,
Langley Field in Virginia. The three wings of GHQ Air Force were far larger
than the units that had previously held that designation in the Air Corps. As a
consequence, in going from a wing commander at March Field in 1933 to the
new post in one of the three major combat units in the service, Spaatz assumed a
position entirely in keeping with his seniority. The only operational squadron of
B-17s in the Air Corps made up part of the 2d Wing's order of battle. The
assignment to the big four-engine bombers showed how far Spaatz and Army air
power had come since the Mitchell court-martial.

Although the Air Corps Act of July 2, 1926, had changed the designation of
the Army Air Service to the Army Air Corps and had authorized an expansion to
1,800 aircraft and 20,000 officers and men, extra funds had never come and the
change of name had left the Air Corps' status unchanged; it remained one of the
Army's combat branches. Over the next nine years, numerous bills on air reform
were introduced in Congress, but not one received a favorable committee report.
The failure to obtain independence had led many Air Corps officers, including
Maj. Gen. Benjamin Foulois, to settle for something more obtainable. They pro-
posed to divide Army aviation into two components: (1) observation planes nor-
mally assigned the armies, corps, mobile units, and fixed harbor defenses; and
(2) remaining tactical support and striking force units grouped under the GHQ
Air Force. The GHQ Air Force would operate under the wartime Army Supreme
Commander (Army planning did not envisage a two-front war) to locate and
attack the enemy; to assist the Army ground forces by attacking enemy rear
areas; and to give direct support and cooperation, when required, to the ground
forces. Spaatz served under Col. Frank M. Andrews on an Air Corps board that
was authorized by the War Department to plan the creation of the GHQ Air
Force, a concept Spaatz supported.

On March 1, 1935, with the strong support of the Army Chief of Staff,
General Douglas MacArthur, GHQ Air Force became a reality, gathering under

Early Career

Maj. Gen. James E. Fechet, Chief, U.S. Army Air Corps, discussing tlie Question
Mark's fliglit witli its crew. Left to right: 1st Lt. Elwood R. Quesada, Capt. Ira C.
Eaker, Fechet, M^. Carl A. Spaatz, and Sgt. Roy G. Hooe.

its aegis all the tactical units based in the United States. It formed three combat
wings, one at its headquarters at Langley Field and the other two at Barksdale
Field in Louisiana and March Field in California. This measure at least brought
much of the Air Corps' combat strength into a single cohesive command struc-
ture.

Unfortunately, this reorganization grafted GHQ Air Force onto the already
existing Air Corps. Both the Chief of the Air Corps, who retained responsibility
for materiel procurement, persoimel recruitment, and individual training and
indoctrination of air crews, and the Commanding General, GHQ Air Force,
reported directly to the Army Chief of Staff. This duality led to friction and
competition between the two separate parts of the Air Corps — a situation of
divide and rule not unforeseen by the War Department. In March 1939, under
the pressure of rearmament and possible war in Europe, both GHQ Air Force
and the Office of the Chief of Air Corps became directly responsible to the
Chief of the Air Corps.

Technology and doctrine both underwent considerable changes in the post-
Mitchell Air Corps. Spaatz, who had started the 1920s as one of the Air
Service's pursuit (fighter) experts, ended the 1920s and spent most of the 1930s
as a bombardment commander, first as Commanding Officer (CO), 7th Bom-
bardment Group, from May 1929 to October 1931; then as CO, 1st Bomb Wing,

The Question Mark Flight, January 1929. Scenes from the aerial experi-
ment. Clockwise from above: The interior of the Question Mark reveals the positions
of an auxiliary gas tank on the floor, refueling apparatus on the roof, and berths. A
chase aircraft with its chalked message (opposite, above) shows one means of com-
munication before the introduction of reliable airborne radios. The gravity-fed
transfer of gasoline proceeds between aircraft (opposite, below). Spaatz (below)
wrestles with the refueling hose as it reaches the Question Mark.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

from November 1931 to June 1933; and finally as Executive Officer of the 2d
Wing, GHQ Air Force, from July 1936 to January 1939. This change in the tech-
nical focus of Spaatz's career reflected the changes in aircraft and philosophy
that influenced the Air Corps in the 1930s.

Between 1930 and 1932, two fast, all-metal, monoplane twin-engine
bombers entered the Air Corps inventory, the Boeing B-9 and the Martin B-10.
The B-10, with a speed of 207 mph and a ceiling of 21,000 feet, outclassed any
other bomber then in use in the world and most of the fighters as well. No
sooner had the B-10 entered production than the Air Corps accepted bids on a
newer generation of bombers, which resulted in the B-17. The B-17 weighed
35,000 pounds (compared with the B-lO's 9,000), and had four engines and a
service ceiling of 30,000 feet. At 14,000 feet, at a top speed of 250 mph it could
carry 2,500 pounds of bombs 2,260 miles. The prototype model first flew in
August 1935, yet the B-17, suitably modified and upgraded, remained a first line
bomber in the AAF fleet until the end of World War 11.^'*

As bombardment aviation prospered, pursuit aviation languished. The Air
Corps, squeezed with limited funding, concentrated its appropriations on bomber
development. The B-10 and the B-17 appeared not to need escort against enemy
fighters. Also, the B-17 could attack an enemy before he came within range of
sensitive American targets. With the enemy held at arm's length, the value of a
large force of defensive fighters depreciated. As a result, the 1931-1935 period
was the nadir of U.S. pursuit aviation and pursuit airframe development. The Air
Corps' top fighter, the P-26, had an open cockpit, nonretractable landing gear, a
range of 360 miles, and a top speed of 235 mph. This lag in development left the
United States almost a full generation of fighter aircraft behind the world's other
major aviation powers.^^

The most outspoken advocate of pursuit aviation in the service, Capt. Claire
Chennault, head of pursuit instruction at the Air Corps Tactical School (which
had moved in July 1931 from Langley Field to Maxwell Field in Alabama, just
outside Montgomery), fought for a more balanced doctrine. He emphasized both
the offensive and the defensive nature of fighter aircraft. Contending that pursuit
aircraft could successfully intercept and destroy bombers as well as enemy fight-
ers, he enunciated four major principles:

1. Attainment of air supremacy depends upon the success of the pursuit
force.

2. The primary function of pursuit is to gain air supremacy.

3. The first objective of pursuit is to destroy enemy pursuit.

4. Success of pursuit depends upon equipment, selection and training of
pilots, numbers, tactics, and organization in units large enough to provide effec-
tive concentration of force.**

His pleading did not convince the leaders of the Air Corps, who distrusted
him. Chennault retired on the grounds of ill health in 1937 and subsequently led
a volunteer American pursuit unit, the American Volunteer Group, known as the

Early Career

Flying Tigers, for the Nationalist Chinese forces fighting the Japanese. There he
showed that his concepts were workable even under adverse conditions.

Chennault left behind a few converts, such as Capt. Earle Partridge, who,
with other officers, slightly revived pursuit aviation in the late 1930s. Through
their efforts the Air Corps designed and accepted the P-40 fighter, which out-
classed the P-26, although it proved inferior to the first-line fighters of other
major aviation powers. The German Messerschmitt (Bf 109), the British
Spitfire, and the Japanese Zero — all designed and brought into production at the
same time as the P-40 — surpassed it.

Air Corps doctrine in the post-Mitchell era shifted materially. Fueled by the
changes in technology, by Mitchell's new writings (free of the need to conciliate
the powers that be), and by the theories of Giulio Douhet (the Italian air power
enthusiast and theoretician), most of the Air Corps accepted bombardment avia-
tion rather than pursuit aviation as the most important arm of the service.
Mitchell and Douhet advocated a form of aerial warfare that went far beyond the
mere support of ground armies. Air power, they argued, could strike directly at a
nation's means of production, its lines of transportation, the morale of its popu-
lation, and the will of its leadership.^^

This aggressive and unofficial doctrine (official War Department doctrine
focused on defending the continental United States) found a home in the Air
Corps Tactical School (ACTS), where the instructors, mostly junior officers,
adopted it and taught it to their classes.^* The major tenets of the ACTS included
the following:

1. The national objective in war is to break the enemy's will to resist and to
force the enemy to submit to our will.

2. The accomplishment of the first goal requires an offensive type of war-
fare.

3. Military missions are best carried through by cooperation between air,
ground, and naval forces, although only air can contribute to all missions.

4. The special mission of the air arm is the attack of the whole of the
enemy national structure to dislocate its military, political, economic, and
social activities.

5. Modem warfare has placed such a premium on material factors that a
nation's war effort may be defeated by the interruption of its industrial net-
work, which is vulnerable only to the air arm. The disruption of the enemy's
industrial network is the real target, because such a disruption might produce a
collapse in morale sufficient to induce surrender.

6. Future wars will begin by air action. Thus we must have an adequate
standing air force to ensure our defense and to begin immediate offensive oper-
ations. We must place ourselves in a position to begin bombardment of the
enemy as soon as possible.

7. The current limited range of our aircraft requires the acquisition of allies
to provide forward bases in order to begin action against the enemy.

8. Assuming the existence of allies and forward bases, the air force would

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

have the power to choose between attacking the armed forces or the national
structure of the enemy. The latter should be the primary objective.*'

The foregoing doctrine, given the inevitability of the small prewar force,
dictated a specific composition for strength available. The force would require a
preponderance of long-range bombers to operate offensively. Bombers would
maximize their effectiveness by extreme accuracy — 10 tons of bombs on target
would do as much damage as 100 tons of bombs dropped with 10 percent accu-
racy. Precision bombing meant daylight bombing; current and foreseeable tech-
nology could not provide for precise night bombing. Daylight bombing deep
into enemy territory, given current technology, meant that bombers would oper-
ate without fighter escort and would need the ability to outrun or outgun enemy
defensive fighters. The B-17, with its highly accurate and super-secret Norden
bombsight, fit this specification perfectly, as would its successors.

ACTS doctrine contained many assumptions that eventually proved invalid.
It underestimated the capacity of a modem industrial nation and its populace to
survive repeated and heavy bombing. It overestimated the ability of air technol-
ogy to develop bombs big enough to damage heavy equipment or reinforced
concrete and the ease with which those new bombs could be manufactured. It
discounted the possibility of improvements in air defense and fighter technology
that would reverse the advantage held by the bomber. In their most extreme
position, heavy-bomber enthusiasts assumed that fighter defenses would be
unable to locate bombers until they had dropped their bombs. Because bombers
could strike with seeming impunity, the best defense was a good offense. Enemy
forces would resort to their own attacks. Then the sky would fill with aerial
armadas passing each other virtually undisturbed until the side with the most
effective strength subdued the other.

In only one other nation did the advocates of strategic bombing gain a deci-
sive voice in shaping doctrine and affecting airframe design and acquisition —
Britain. There the followers of Marshal of the Royal Air Force (RAF) Hugh
Trenchard, the first Chief of Staff of the RAF, a service independent of the
British army and navy, also adopted a bombing philosophy similar to that of
Douhet and Mitchell. They, too, committed themselves to daylight bombard-
ment, believing, in the words of Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, in 1931, that
*the bomber will always get through. The only defence is offence, which means
you have to kill more women and children more quickly than the enemy if you
want to save yourselves."^'^ In Germany, France, Japan, and Italy, however, the
air services, even if nominally independent, foimd themselves subservient to the-
ories or general staffs that bound them to tactical support of their country's land
or naval forces.

The advent of radar and highly organized ground-spotter organizations, both

unforeseen by Air Corps bomber advocates, solved the defensive problem of
tracking the bomber force. One ACTS instructor, Maj. Haywood S. Hansell, a

Early Career

leading Air Corps bomber theoretician, who led the 3d Bomb Wing in Europe in
1943 and the XXI Bomber Command in Guam in 1944, later admitted, "If our
air theorists had had knowledge of radar in 1935, the American doctrine of strate-
gic bombing in deep daylight penetrations would surely not have evolved."^ ^

Similarly, improvements in fighter design led to faster, more heavily armed
types that could best the B-17 and could be overcome only if they were pre-
vented from reaching the bombers. The Air Corps, however, had rejected the
idea that fighters should escort the bombers deep into enemy territory. Current
technology seemed incapable of producing an aircraft that could (1) carry the
combined weight of fuel necessary for long missions and armament superior to
its opponents' and (2) retain the speed and agility to survive a dogfight imbur-
dened by the necessary weight penalties of long-range flight. In addition, the Air
Corps would never have the funds to build both a prewar bomber fleet and an
escort fighter fleet under a particularly parsimonious Congress. The Air Corps
maintained its stance against long-range escort through 1940. Only the fortuitous
development of the long-range P-51 and drop tanks for the P-47, as well as their
deployment in late 1943 and early 1944, saved American air power from a costly
mistake.

During the 1930s, Spaatz articulated few views on air doctrine. What can be
gleaned from his actions and writings as air observer during the Battle of
Britain, as Chief of the Air Staff, and as combat commander in World War II
suggests a clear affinity with the Air Corps Tactical School branch of air doc-
trine. He had a close relationship with Arnold, a leading bomber man; Spaatz
had served on the development boards for the B-17, the B-24, and the
and he believed in their ability to defend themselves. But there were indications
that, with regard to the tactical sphere of operations, Spaatz still adhered to
Mitchell's early dictum regarding the absolute necessity of establishing air supe-
riority before proceeding to other air operations.

Spaatz's Association with Arnold and Eaker

During the interwar years, Spaatz remained roughly one step behind Henry
H. Arnold and one step ahead of Ira C. Eaker, two of his closest friends in the
service. In many ways the careers of the triumvirate reflect the experience of the
entire Air Corps for the period.

Arnold to Spaatz to Eaker was not the double-play combination of a profes-
sional baseball team but the eventual chain of command for American heavy-
bomber forces in the British Isles. Henry H. Arnold (bom June 25, 1886), Carl
A. Spaatz (bom June 28, 1891), and Ira C. Eaker (bom April 13, 1896) had a
long association with one another. The three had first served together at
Rockwell Field in San Diego, California, in December 1918. Their task of
demobilizing units of the Air Service had been diametrically opposed to their
future effort of building up a strategic bombing force. Their friendships, both

SPAAiy AND THE AlR WAR IN EUROPE

personal and professional, had deepened through the years. Spaatz and Arnold
were the closest of confidants from 1918 until the latter's death in 1950. Eaker
was almost as close to both. Yet the three had different backgrounds, personal-
ities, and approaches to life.

Arnold graduated from West Point in 1907. Like Spaatz, he graduated in
the lower half of his class academically and did not achieve cadet rank. Four
years (and ten days of flight training) later he became one of the Army's first
four licensed pilots and one of the first twenty-nine licensed pilots in the coun-
try. Wilbur Wright even served as one of his instructors. Until slowed by a
series of heart attacks at the height of his career in 1941, Arnold was an
extremely energetic advocate of U.S. military aviation. He believed it should
become an independent armed service, and he dedicated his life to seeing that
it did. Although Arnold was highly intelligent, he was intellectually undisci-
plined; thus he tended to endorse a variety of contradictory ideas in rushing to
accomplish his goals. He was, on the one hand, astute enough to support the
very long-range bomber, the B-29; he was, on the other, naive enough to see
merit in what was derisively dubbed the "bats in the belfry" project to drop
fire-bomb-carrying bats on Japanese cities. He had little patience with people
who opposed his ideas but had an ability to get things done, especially when
dealing with production and personnel.

To his friends, Arnold demonstrated a charm, openness, and exuberance
that helped earn him the sobriquet "Happy" or just plain "Hap." To his oppo-
nents he was "a real S.O.B." One of his great regrets was missing the chance
to serve in a combat command during World War I. Instead he had become the
Army's youngest full colonel at age thirty-one and had spent the war in
Washington, D.C., serving on the War Department Staff, where he saw first-
hand the difficulties of organizing an air force from the ground up.

After the war, he stayed in the Air Service, rising to Assistant Chief of the
Air Corps in 1935; upon the flying death of Maj. Gen. Oscar Westover in
1938, he became Chief of the Air Corps. Highlights along the way include tes-
timony at Mitchell's court-martial, attendance at the Command and General
Staff School in 1929, and the winning of the Mackay Trophy in 1934 for com-
manding a flight of B-10 bombers from Boiling Field in Washington, D.C., to
Fairbanks, Alaska, and back. Late in life, Spaatz said of Arnold, "I know he
had confidence in me, because of the relationship we had before. With me, he
might sound impatient, but when I responded and gave him the reason for
what I was doing, that would end it."^^

Ira C. 'Tree" Eaker took a reserve commission in the Infantry after gradu-
ating from Southeastern State Teachers College in Oklahoma in 1917. In
November 1917, he transferred to the Signal Corps, Aviation Section; ten
months later he received his pilot's rating. From 1919 to 192^ he served in the
Philippines, and from 1922 to 1924, at Mitchel Field in New York. From 1924
to 1926, he was a pilot for the Chief of the Air Service, Maj. Gen. Mason

Early Career

Patrick; the Assistant Chief, Brig. Gen. James Fechet; and the Assistant
Secretary of War for Air, Trubee Davison. Unlike the fiery, hard-driving Arnold
or the taciturn Spaatz, Eaker was the diplomat of the trio. Although not asked to
testify at the Mitchell court-martial, because he served as assistant defense coun-
sel at Maj. Gen. Patrick's orders, he stayed up nights helping Spaatz and Arnold
prepare their statements.

In the late 1920s and 1930s, Eaker pursued his career. He participated in the
Pan-American Flight goodwill tour of 1926 and 1927 and the flight of the
Question Mark, and he graduated from the Air Corps Tactical School in 1936
and the Command and General Staff School in 1937. In 1936 he completed the
first transcontinental flight purely on instruments, flying the entire trip with a
canvas hood over his cockpit.

In 1932 the Army sent Eaker to the Joumalism School at the University of
Southern California; he earned a B.A. in joumalism in September 1933. This
education helped him to write three books with Arnold. The most significant
was The Flying Game, published in 1936. By 1941, he had gained his full
colonelcy and the command of the 20th Pursuit Group at Mitchel Field. Both
Spaatz and Arnold trusted him completely. That trust, Baker's skill in gaining
the respect of others, and his undeniable skills as an air leader and pioneer made
him Arnold's logical choice to arrange for the arrival of AAF combat forces in
England in 1942. When Arnold chose Spaatz to lead the U.S. Eighth Air Force
to Britain, both men mentally penciled in Eaker as second in command.^^

By the end of 1938, Carl Spaatz had spent twenty-eight years in the United
States Army, twenty-three of them as a flyer. From his days at West Point
through his course at the Command and General Staff School he showed little
appreciation of, if not disdain for, the academic side of the military profession.
He had independently conceived no profound or original thoughts concerning
his specialty — military aviation. His mind did not tum to systematic thinking but
worked intuitively. He was not an intellectual leader, but he became, nonethe-
less, an early convert to many of the advanced aviation ideas of his era. He
formed close associations with men such as Mitchell, Andrews, and Arnold, and
he absorbed their ideas as his own. Spaatz believed that U.S. military aviation
ought to be independent, and he placed great faith in the doctrine of strategic
daylight precision bombing. Similarly, he did not display great enthusiasm for
the technical aspects of airframe and engine research and development. He
served on numerous aircraft development boards and participated in the Question
Mark flight, but he was never assigned to his service's technological areas.

If Spaatz's intellectual and scientific prowess did not raise him above his
peers or catch the eye of Arnold, his breadth of experience in training, opera-
tions, administration, and staff work as well as his self-confidence, honesty, loy-
alty, and courage did. Spaatz was a man of action who invariably accompUshed
the tasks set for him — an invaluable trait for any officer. At Issoudun he had
demonstrated the ability to train and organize from the ground up. At the front

M^. Carl A. "Tooey" Spatz, ca. 1930.

Early Career

A jaunty Lt. Col. Henry H. Arnold and actress Bebe Daniels pose in fh>nt of a Boeing
P-12 "Peashooter," Long Beach, California, October 30, 1932.

he had shot down three planes in as many weeks. He had gained insight into the
problems associated with both pursuit and bombardment as group leader and
wing commander. In his tours in the operations, training, and plans sections of
the Office of the Chief of the Air Service/Corps, he had learned the bureaucratic
intricacies of the War Department and had developed a great dislike for repeti-
tive staff work. As a commander he would use his staff to insulate himself from
routine in order to free himself for decisions.

It was Spaatz's ability to make quick, correct decisions based on his wide
experience, common sense, and intuition, coupled with the moral courage to
face such decisions, that would make him an outstanding combat Air Force
leader.

Chapter 2

Prewar Planning
(January 1939-November 1941)

It takes close coordination with the Army to obtain maximum misuse of air power.'

— Spaatz's Battle of Britain Diary, August 28, 1940.

On January 12, 1939, Spaatz officially left the GHQ Air Force to assume
command of the Plans Section of the Office of the Chief of the Air Corps
(OCAC). He rejoined his friend Arnold, who had become head of the Air Corps
on September 29, 1938. Toward the end of November 1938, a few weeks after
the Munich crisis in Europe had ended, Arnold temporarily reassigned Spaatz
from Langley Field to Washington, D.C., and ordered him to draw up in secret
an expansion plan that would bring the Air Corps up to a strength of 10,000
planes within two years. This marked the first step of the Air Corps' planning
and preparation for World War II. For the next three years in roles as Chief of
the Plans Section, as a special Military Air Observer to Britain, and as Chief of
the Air Staff of the AAF, Carl Spaatz contributed to the Air Corps' preparations
for war.

Rearmament of the Air Corps

On November 14, 1938, the day the United States recalled its Ambassador
from Berlin and a week after the mid-term elections had returned reduced but
still overwhelming Democratic majorities in both houses of Congress, Arnold
attended a special meeting with President Roosevelt at the White House. Also
present were Harry Hopkins, head of the Works Progress Administration and
one of Roosevelt's chief advisers and troubleshooters; Robert H. Jackson,
Solicitor General of the United States; Louis Johnson, Assistant Secretary of
War; Herman Oliphant, General Counsel of the Treasury Department; General

SPAAiy AND THE AlR WAR IN EUROPE

Malin Craig, Army Chief of Staff; and his deputy, Brig. Gen. George C.
Marshall. The President apparently called the meeting in response to a series of
disturbing European events. In late September the Munich Conference, which
resulted in the German occupation of the Czech Sudetenland on October 3, fur-
ther revealed the unrelenting nature of Hitler's territorial demands. A meeting
with the U.S. Ambassador to France, William C. Bullitt, on October 13, con-
firmed for Roosevelt the dangerous state of European politics. And the increas-
ingly barbaric behavior of the Nazis toward the German Jews, displayed in such
incidents as "Crystal Night" on November 8, 1938, amply illuminated the
viciousness of the German stale's intemal policies. These events, the culmina-
tion of years of Hitler's foreign and domestic policies, conclusively demon-
strated to Roosevelt the rogue nature of the Nazi regime. They convinced him
that the United Stated needed to enlarge its airplane production capacity greatly
in order to counter the mounting security threat to the United Stated posed by
the Germans. Roosevelt intended these planes not only for the Air Corps but for
the French and British as well. Apparently FDR hoped that making an increased
U.S. manufacturing capacity available to the French and British would enable
them to procure enough aircraft either to forestall an attack by Hitler or to help
them defeat him if war came.^

At the meeting on November 14, the President did most of the talking. He
noted the weakness of U.S. defenses and pointed out that Germany had a
reported air strength almost double the combined Anglo-French total. The
President sought an Army Air Corps of 20,000 planes, with an annual produc-
tive capacity of 2,000 planes per month. He knew, however, that such a program
would not pass Congress. Therefore he asked the War Department to develop a
plan for building 10,000 aircraft and for constructing new plant capacity for an
additional 10,000 aircraft per year. Although his meeting concentrated on air-
planes, it supplied the spark for all subsequent Army and Army Air Corps pre-
war materiel and manpower expansion as the War Department sought not only
new planes but funds to provide a balanced, combat-ready Army.3

On November 17, Arnold detailed Spaatz along with Col. Joseph T.
McNamey and Col. Claude Duncan to draw up within the next month the Air
Corps' plan to meet the President's requests. This plan served as the blueprint
for further expansion of an Air Corps that in the autumn of 1938 had only 1,600
aircraft on hand. Plants working on aircraft contracts for the Air Corps had a
productive capacity of only 88.2 planes per month.^ Even six months later (June
1939), the Air Corps still had only thirteen operational B-17s and 22,287 person-
nel, only twice the strength of the Cavalry .5

In January 1939, Spaatz became Chief of the Plans Section of the OCAC.
Aside from fourteen weeks as a special observer in Britain during the summer of
1940 and one month as head of the Materiel Division, he remained in that post
until July 1941 when he became the first Chief of the Air Staff, Army Air
Forces. The major tasks of the Plans Section were the preparation of the Air

Prewar Planning

Msg. Gen. Henry H.
Arnold, Chief, VS.
Army Air Corps, 1938.

Corps annexes to the Anny war plans; the integration of the lessons of the war
in Europe into current Air Corps planning and training; the establishment of air-
craft production priorities; the coordination of all research and development pro-
jects associated with combat aircraft; and, most important, the creation and man-
agement of the various air expansion and rearmament programs introduced in
the prewar period.^

The first significant problem to face the Plans Section was Roosevelt's rejec-
tion of the expansion plan presented to him by the Army and the Air Corps. He
had asked for $500 million in Air Corps planes, but the Army and the Air Corps
had requested an additional $200 million for Army materiel, $100 miljion for
Navy aircraft, plus unstated amounts for air bases and air training. The President,
who was not at all sure Congress would approve the additional $500 million in
the first place, redistributed the funds giving $200 million of the $500 milUon to
the Army materiel branches, earmaricing $120 million for air bases and other non-
plane air items, and leaving $180 million for procurement of 3,000 combat air-
craft. He promised to find the Navy's money elsewhere. Congress passed the
expansion bill in April 1939, authorizing an Air Corps ceiling of 5,500 aircraft.^

Spaatz spent much of his time dealing with the nuts and bolts of training and
procurement. The problem of aircraft for the French and British proved vexing
from the beginning. On January 23, 1939, an advanced model U.S. Army dive-
bomber crashed during a flight test, killing the American co-pilot and injuring

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

the French pilot and ten others. This accident gave ammunition to members of
Congress and others who wished to build up U.S. forces before aiding Britain
and France or who sought to avoid sending aid to any belligerent in the hope of
avoiding entanglement in the coming war.

Yet the accident also established a precedent permitting a policy of more lib-
eral release of advanced aircraft. Within weeks the British purchased 650 air-
craft worth $25 million, while the French added another 615 planes worth $60
million. In the course of the year Canada, Australia, Belgium, Norway, Sweden,
and Iraq placed further orders. Although the American aircraft industry accepted
the orders, it feared that U.S. neutrality laws might prevent delivery in the event
of war and was reluctant to expand production facilities. In the face of this reluc-
tance, the French agreed to underwrite the cost of expansion for engines from
Pratt and Whitney and airplanes from Wright Aeronautical. By November 1939,
the British and French had invested more than $84 million in engine plants
alone. ^

These large orders ran head-on into the Air Corps' own 5,500-plane pro-
gram. In July and August 1939, the Air Corps let contracts of $105 million,
more than the entire business of the industry in any peacetime year prior to
1938. Congress spent an additional $57 million to buy new manufacturing
equipment for the aircraft industry. By the end of 1939 there was a backlog of
orders worth $630 million, with $400 million attributable to foreign purchases.^

The outbreak of war on September 1, 1939, the same day that George C.
Marshall officially became Chief of the War Department General Staff,
increased the pressure from the Western Allies for aid. On March 25, 1940, the
Allies received permission to purchase all but the most advanced models of U.S.
combat and trainer types. Aircraft available to the Allies included the B-17, B-24,
B-25, B-26, A-20, and P-40, all front-line aircraft in the Air Corps inventory.
After the fall of France, the British took over all French contracts and added more
of their own. Their orders soon reached 14,000 planes, and after Dunkirk the
administration continued its policy of filling Britain's immediate combat needs
over the requirements of Air Corps expansion.'" As a result, the Air Corps was
short of aircraft for training and for equipping its new and existing units.

The entire process left Spaatz shaking his head in disagreement; years later
he remarked, "In 1939, when the British Mission was here, my own feeling was
that we should build up our own air force rather than build up someone else's."'!
In a memo to Arnold he remarked, "It might be difficult to explain in the case of
the collapse of England and the development of a threat against the Western
Hemisphere or our possessions how we can agree that any airplanes can be
diverted at a time when we have only sufficient modem airplanes to equip a pal-
try few squadrons."12

Prewar Planning

Spaatz Observes the Battle of Britain Firsthand

In May 1940, Spaatz took on a new assignment as Assistant Military
Attache (Air) to Britain, or as he put it, "a high-class spy."l3 Arnold sent him to
Europe to get a firsthand view of the current state of the air war. Officially, he
went to study Royal Air Force (RAF) training and tactics. Unofficially, he went
to discuss British aircraft requirements in light of U.S. production and training
programs. As Chief of Air Corps Plans, a position he resumed soon after return-
ing from Britain, Spaatz had unique knowledge of the status of the Air Corps'
capabilities, including its readiness, training, procurement, and war plans. He
would find this knowledge invaluable as he assessed the British experience. He
could immediately apply whatever he learned from the RAF to the Air Corps'
programs.

The position Spaatz occupied came about as a direct result of the interven-
tion of President Roosevelt. In early 1940, the President and General Marshall
visited an Air Corps display; afterward the President asked for the number of air
attaches accredited to London. On learning that the embassy had two air
attaches, he suggested doubling the figure. ^""^ The Air Corps promptly asked the
British for permission to send two specialist officers as assistant air attaches and
requested the British to share the tactical and technical lessons in the war to
date. These officers would have diplomatic status as attaches, but they were
actually technical observers. Their official orders referred to them as "MiUtary
Air Observers." Although not explicitly stated, the Air Corps apparently
intended to fill the two attache positions with a series of technical and adminis-
trative experts, on relatively short assignments, to obtain access to the most
recent combat developments.

Although the RAF Director of Plans, Air Commodore John Slessor, gave the
suggestions qualified support, other sections of the Air Ministry greeted the
propositions with suspicion. The Chief of the Air Staff, Air Chief Marshal Cyril
Newall asked, "What guarantee have we that this information will not find its
way back to our enemies?" 'He added, "I am not prepared to be rushed by the
Americans, who, as always, wish to have the best of both worlds. They would
like to be our allies, but without any obligations, and they are not blind naturally
to the pecuniary advantages of such a state of affairs."^^

The Air Ministry's delay elicited a protest from the British embassy in
Washington. The British ambassador, the Marquis of Lothian, noted the unfa-
vorable impression created by the delay, especially in light of the President's
interest. He emphasized the advantages to be gained by having American manu-
facturers build more combat-ready aircraft, and concluded, "I regard an early
and favorable decision as highly desirable."!^ On March 11, influenced by the
interest of Lothian and the President, the Chief of the Air Staff recommended
approval of the proposal on the conditions "that information made available to
these Air Attaches should be treated with complete secrecy, and that we should

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

expect to obtain a reasonable amount of information in return for what we give."
The Chief of the Air Staff retained the full right to refuse the American attaches
any information, i'^ The British subsequently decided to deny the American
attaches access to all operations rooms and details of their workings,* to tell
them nothing about any aspect of radar, to give no information about stabilized
automatic bombsights, and to share no detailed drawings of power-operated tur-
rets.18

The first pair of observers arrived in Britain in April 1940. Instructions from
the Office of the Chief of the Air Corps required them to report on the ability of
bombardment aircraft to penetrate active antiaircraft defenses, on the use of
escort fighters, on the effectiveness of aerial bombing, on methods proposed to
increase bomber aircraft effectiveness, and on methods proposed to increase pur-
suit aircraft effectiveness. Significantly, the Air Corps sent one of its leading
ordnance, armaments, and bombing technical experts, Lt. Col. Grandison
Gardner.t and an expert in aircraft engines, Maj. Franklin O. Carroll. Gardner
stayed in Britain until the beginning of the German offensive in the west in May
1940. He became convinced of the need to incorporate either existing British
power-operated machine gun turrets, or if British designs could not be obtained,
the development of American turrets, into the construction of all future
American heavy bombers.^^ Both American ofiHcers reflected conventional Air
Corps opinions. Neither expected America to take an active part in the war.
However, Gardner did suggest that in the event the Americans supplied the RAF
with a number of B-17s, experienced reserve Air Corps officers proceed to
Canada to serve as civilian instructors to British crews.^l

Spaatz and Capt. Benjamin S. Kelsy were the second set of Military Air
Observers sent to Britain. They received the same instructions as Gardner and
Carroll.22 Two weeks before their arrival, the acting American military attache
in England, Col. Martin F. Scanlon, wrote the RAF Director of Intelligence,
whose branch had responsibility for supervising and escorting foreign military
visitors, to arrange inspections of RAF installations. Scanlon asked permission
for Spaatz and Kelsey to observe the headquarters of RAF Fighter, Bomber, and
Coastal Commands, to visit one station belonging to each command, and to
inspect one of each type of training school.^^ This itinerary matched Spaatz' s
expertise, as one of the chief Air Corps planning officers assigned to create and
sustain an up-to-date and expanding Air Corps training program. The RAF's
methods of coping with the rapid expansion of its force had a direct bearing on
his own responsibiUties.

* Within the operations rooms, RAF air defense fighter squadrons plotted all incoming infor-
mation (including radar bearings) on aircraft over Britain.

t Lt. Col. Gardner's previous assignment had been in the Air Materiel Division as Chief,
Aimaments Laboratory, Experimental Engineering Section. For two years before that he had served
as the operations officer and then the executive officer of the 19th Bombardment Group.

Prewar Planning

On May 28 Spaatz sailed into Genoa, Italy, on the U.S. liner Manhattan.
U.S. neutrality laws forced him to sail on neutral shipping that avoided the
blockade announced by the warring powers. Three days later, after a journey
through still-neutral Italy and belligerent France, he arrived in London. The
Dunkirk evacuation was in full operation, and the Allied coalition prepi^ed for
the hopeless second phase of the Battle of France. The next morning, June 1, he
was presented to the American ambassador, Joseph P. Kennedy. More impor-
tant for the purpose of his mission, Spaatz also renewed his personal contacts
with the principal embassy attaches for air. Col. Martin F. Scanlon and his
assistant, Maj. George C. McDonald. They provided his entree to the RAF.

On June 1, Spaatz 's first full day in Britain, he lunched with Air Chief
Marshal Newall.* He also met the RAF Chief of Intelligence, Air Commodore
Archibald Boyle. Two days later he lunched with his British opposite number.
Air Commodore Slessor.^'* During these early meetings, Spaatz noted that after

* RAF-AAF equivalent ranks:

Marshal of the RAF General of the Army

Air Chief Marshal (ACM) General

Air Marshal (AM) Lieutenant General (Lt. Gen.)

Air Vice-Marshal (AVM) Major General (Maj. Gen.)

Air Conunodore (A/Cmdr) Brigadier General (Brig. Gea)

Group Captain (GO) Colwiel (Col.)

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

only nine months of war both the Germans and the British had begun to run
short of trained crews. He learned that the British had captured German pilots
with less than 100 hours' flying time and that, for the British themselves, a
shortage of trained crews, not lack of aircraft, was the biggest bottleneck in
fielding a large force. He also learned that the RAF "apparently thinks as we
do, but [has] been hindered by higher-ups" with regard to the feasibility and
desirability of strategic bombing of the German economy .^^

For the next ten days, Spaatz visited the RAF's Training Command,
Technical Training Command, and training bases. The initial training system of
the British impressed Spaatz, but he considered their bombing accuracy low
and doubted the effectiveness of night bombing. Spaatz and the two other
American attaches who accompanied him agreed that, in the event of active
U.S. participation in the war, the most useful immediate contribution the United
States could make would be high-altitude long-distance bombers.26 This con-
clusion was probably based more on the predilection of Army Air Corps offi-
cers toward the use of large bombers than to any lessons directly related to their
visit. In almost every other phase of air activity, their observations must have
shown them that the RAF had outpaced 1940 Air Corps practice.

Meanwhile, the French, whose army had been shattered by the Wehrmacht,
on June 17 asked for an armistice. During this dark period of the war, Spaatz ini-
tiated informal staff talks to discuss the details of America's "almost inevitable"
entry into the war.^' Spaatz 's authority to begin such extraordinary discussions
was unclear. No secret instructions or hints of any have surfaced in Roosevelt's,
Arnold's, and Spaatz's personal papers. Given Spaatz's presence as an observer
in an ongoing program (the Air Corps continued to send short-term Military Air
Observers to England until the U.S. entry into the war) and his assignment to the
post before the outbreak of the German offensive on May 10, 1940, it seems
unlikely that any higher authorities would have anticipated the need for immedi-
ate emergency aid to England or would have authorized him to initiate such
negotiations.* Spaatz probably initiated these discussions on his own.

* Absence of proof, however does not mean that such instructions could not have been
passed to Spaatz after he went to Britain. Spaatz arrived in London during the repercussions of
the Tyler Kent affair, Kent was a code clerk in the American embassy. On May 20, 1940, the
British informed the Americans, using incontrovertible evidence, that Kent had totally compro-
mised U.S. diplomatic codes. As a result, all communications of the U.S. diplomatic service were
blacked out for two to six weeks between Dunkirk and the fall of France, while scores of special
couriers delivered new codes to all U.S. embassies. It may well have been that higher-ups in
Washington could not have told Spaatz to begin negotiations even if they had wanted to, unless,
of course, a courier hand-carried instructions from Washington to him. See David Kahn, The
Codehreakers: The Story of Secret Writing (New York: Macmillan, 1967), pp. 494-495, for more
on Tyler Kent. On the other hand, instructions could have reached Spaatz through the U.S. naval
or military attach6s' office. Because of known slackness in State Department signal security,
important message traffic to and from London, such as that between Roosevelt and Churchill,
came via the Navy message center.

Prewar Planning

Such a step was probably less radical than it might at first appear. As Spaatz
probably knew from his tour as Air Corps Chief of Plans, the U.S. and British
navies had come to a preliminary meeting of minds on war-fighting strategy as
early as December 1937.28 In late May 1940, as Spaatz may well have known,
the U.S.- Naval Attache in London, Capt. Alan G. Kirk, with the approval of the
British Admiralty, had recommended to his superiors the assignment of U.S.
naval officers as observers with British fleet units, which was agreed to.29 On
June 10, President Roosevelt gave strong public support to the British and
French in the famous "stab in the back" speech delivered at Charlottesville,
Virginia. The next day, at the President's insistence, the War Department trans-
ferred to the British "surplus" war materiel, including 500,000 Enfield rifles,
129,140,708 rounds of ammunition, 80,583 machine guns, 316 three-inch mor-
tars, 20,000 revolvers, 25,000 Browning automatic rifles, and 895 seventy-five
mm guns with a million rounds of ammunition, through an intermediary com-
pany of the U.S. Steel Corporation.30 On June 15, the British Admiralty set up a
committee, under the direction of Admiral Sidney Bailey, to consider questions
arising from possible naval cooperation with the United States.^^ As a result,
Spaatz ran little risk in opening exploratory talks of his own with the RAF; their
public disclosure would have added little fuel to the measures already approved
or imdertaken. Nor did he commit his country to more than information finding.
In any case, this demarche was one of the first efforts in combined U.S.-British
operational military planning.

On June 13, the day before the fall of Paris, Major McDonald, after dis-
cussing the subject of direct U.S. aid to the British with Spaatz, visited the RAF
Director of Intelligence. He informed Air Commodore Archibald Boyle that mil-
itary officers at the U.S. embassy were considering the possibility that the
United States would contribute directly to the war in the air over Europe. Acting
on the assumption that entry of the United States into the war was "almost
inevitable," McDonald suggested that plans be prepared for the dispatch of fifty
B-17s to Britain. If the proposal received a favorable hearing in the United
States, then pilots could be trained and special targets studied. Bearing out
Spaatz's responsibility in initiating this matter, McDonald indicated that if the
RAF "thought there was anything in it, he could arrange for the necessary
papers [emphasis in original] to be sent to General Miles [the senior U.S.
Military Attache in London] and General Arnold in the U.S.A. at once."32

The Director of Intelligence passed the McDonald-Spaatz suggestion on to
Slessor, who was "all for the plan" in principle. On June 16, Spaatz, McDonald,
and Slessor fully discussed the proposal and agreed on the details of a small air
expeditionary force. ^3 After this session Slessor circulated the plan to the appro-
priate branches of the Air Ministry so that each could contribute its share to the
final plan. The targets suggested by the RAF included oil plants at Vienna,
Regensburg, Leuna, Stettin, and Magdeburg; aircraft factories at Munich, Berlin,
Magdeburg, Dessau, and Kassel; and targets in northern Italy. They were

Spaatz and the Am War in Europe

beyond the range of cuirent RAF bombers or were small, requiring precision
attacks.3'*

Before these talks could progress further, on June 17, the British ambassador
in Washington, D.C., Lord Lothian, proposed to the President that talks between
the combined armies, navies, and, if necessary, air forces of the United States
and BritEiin might be useful. Roosevelt consented.^^ This agreement in principle
was immediately passed to the British armed services. On June 20, Slessor
informed the Ah Staff, "The President of the U.S.A. has authorized immediate
secret staff conversations on naval and air matters. . . . Major MacDonald and
Colonel Spaatz (the U.S.D. of Plans) have already asked me to give them an out-
line plan for the reception and operation of one heavy-bomber group and one
fighter group."^^ Both the RAF and Spaatz seem to have regarded these talks as
nothing more than courtesies, preliminary to the opening of formal staff conver-
sations.

Prime Minister Churchill, however, dithered over accepting the President's
offer. He feared that the Americans would use the occasion to insist on dis-
cussing the transfer of the British fleet to transatlantic bases in the event of
Britain's defeat. Foreign Minister Lord Halifax pressed the Prime Minister for
an early decision, explaining that Roosevelt might cool to the idea, that the situ-
ation m the Far East needed coordination, and that the service ministers were all
in favor of talks.^'' On June 30, Churchill agreed to the talks provided they
occurred in London where the British could ensure security. The President, who

Prewar Planning

wished to minimize publicity before the November 1940 national elections, was
happy to agree.^^

After further delay, on July 20, Lord Lothian learned that Rear Adm. Robert
L. Ghormley, Assistant Chief of Naval Operations, and Brig. Gen. George V.
Strong, Assistant Chief of Staff (head of the War Plans Division), had been
appointed members of a U.S. military delegation destined for London for talks
with British military leaders. Lothian thereupon pressed for the inclusion of an
air expert, which resulted in the addition of Maj. Gen. Delos C. Emmons,
Commanding General, GHQ Air Force. The true purpose of their visit was covered
by an announcement that they had come for a meeting of the Anglo-American
Standardization of the Arms Committee. The combined military talks began in
London on August 20.^^ These higher level contacts superseded the initial
Spaatz-McDonald-Slessor talks, and Spaatz returned to observing the war.

On July 10, the first phase of the Battle of Britain began with Luftwaffe attacks
on channel ports and shipping. Spaatz, who had requested and received permis-
sion to stay beyond his sixty-day tour of duty,'*'^ watched these events closely. A
new British disclosure policy made his observations even more valuable. A
request by Spaatz and the other American air attaches to spend three or four
days at a British fighter or bomber station in order to get a thorough look into
the operational use of the aircraft there had forced the Air Ministry's hand. The
workings of the operations room and of radar could not be concealed without
great embarrassment to all concerned. Therefore, the Air Intelligence section in
charge of escorting foreign officers requested instructions.'^^

The situation had changed drastically since April 1940. The British no
longer had allies outside the Commonwealth and, as Slessor pointed out, the
Germans had probably gained more information on radar from the French than
was likely to result from leakage from America. Furthermore, the Prime Minister
had agreed to exchange almost any sort of secret information with the Americans,
subject to his personal review.^^ on July 3, the Air Ministry ruled that there was
"no reason whatever why these officers should not be told of the existence of
R.D.F. [radio direction finding equipment, or radar — ^radio detection and rang-
ing], its purposes and its achievements."* The ministry added that "in fact there
is every reason why they should be told, so that they may report to their own
country that we have valuable items which would make an exchange of techni-
cal information worthwhile from the American standpoint. "^^ At the same time,
the Air Ministry opened operations rooms and all variations of radar to the
Americans, but did withhold all technical details and design information.

Spaatz spent the last two weeks of July with Bomber Command observing
tactics and methods. Nine of those days he spent with a Wellington twin-engine
night-bomber group. There Spaatz saw the small scale and ineffectiveness of

* The British used the term RDF to refer to all types of radar devices.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

current British night bombing. He therefore, not unnaturally, saw little reason to
question U.S. daylight precision doctrine.^^ Concerning the Wellington he
remarked, "Although night bombing has resulted in few losses, believe answer
to bombardment is altitude, speed and daylight attack, preceded by weather
reconnaissance plane in uncertain weather." A few of the more frank British
flyers, he added, "have doubts as to the effectiveness of their night attacks."^^

At this time neither Bomber Command nor the German night fighter defenses
had reached the high degree of effectiveness they achieved later in the war. Nor
had the British begun their policy of city area bombing to destroy civilian hous-
ing and demoralize the German work force. Instead, confronted with a situation
even worse than the prewar "worst case" estimates, Bomber Command, since
June 20, 1940, had targeted the German aircraft industry, but proved ineffective.
Less than a month later the head of Bomber Command, Air Chief Marshal
Charles A. Portal, ruefully confirmed Spaatz's observations: of the ten primary
aircraft industry targets "only three can be found with any certainty in moonlight
by average crews. Expert crews may be expected to find the remainder on clear
nights with a full moon, and average crews will sometimes find them after a
good deal of time has been spent in searching." In addition. Portal pointed out
that the air industry targets were in sparsely inhabited sites so that bombs miss-
ing the plants fell on empty ground. Because the vast majority of the bombs
dropped missed, the raids had no disruptive effect on the German economy.
Portal suggested bombing rail centers instead.^^ Rail yards occupied the center
of many German cities. Portal, who became Chief of the Air Staff in October
1940, would have the authority and opportunity to see that his suggestions were
carried out until the end of the war. The RAF's ineffectiveness in hitting specific
targets at night would eventually lead to the institution of the mass fire-raising
attacks in which hundreds of four-engine heavy bombers would drench the cen-
ter of a city, such as Hamburg or Dresden, with thousands of incendiary bombs.

The performance of the RAF against the Luftwaffe persuaded Spaatz that
the British could beat any German invasion attempt. On July 31, he informed
Arnold that if the Germans did not launch their invasion in August, they would
have to postpone it indefinitely: "Unless the Germans have more up their sleeve
than they have shown so far," Spaatz commented, "their chance of success in
destroying the RAF is not particularly good. In air combat, German losses in
daylight raids will be huge. In night attacks, the accitfacy of their bombing is of
very low order." An all-out attempt might win for the Germans, but Spaatz noted,
"if not, it would be the beginning of the end for German air supremacy.""*^

On August 2, Spaatz repeated these views at a breakfast meeting in Claridge's,
where the embassy's military attaches met with William J. Donovan, a "special
observer" from President Roosevelt. Donovan, a World War I hero and an old
fiiend of the President, had come to assess Britain's chances of staying in the
war."*^ After speaking out at the luncheon, Spaatz noted in his diary that
Donovan had agreed with his — Spaatz's — estimates of the threat of a direct

Prewar Planning

Bomb damage to London, autumn 1940.

German invasion of Britain. Both Donovan and Spaatz felt that the Germans
would try an alternative strategy of closing the Mediterranean and harassing
British ports and shipping with air raids and U-boats.^^ Donovan reported to the
President that the British would successfully resist invasion and were resolved to
continue fighting.^O The extent to which Spaatz 's advice aided Donovan in
reaching his eventual decision cannot be determined. As an authoritative
American military observer, however, Spaatz must have helped counter what
Donovan termed "a great deal of hopelessness [that] had been coming over those
in our high command here." At the end of August 1940, Donovan informed Air
Chief Marshal Newall, "I still have confidence that my judgment as to your
power of resistance to invasion and of your resolution is still right. "^^ It is not
unreasonable to assume Spaatz's similar views must have influenced the Presi-
dent's special observer.

During August, when Reich Marshal Hermann Goering, Commander in
Chief of the Luftwaffe, ordered his men to begin the decisive phase of the Battle
of Britain, Spaatz spent much of his time with Fighter Command, particularly
with No. 12 Group under Air Vice-Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory. (See Map 1
for RAF Fighter Group defensive sectors.) At that point he finally got a good
look at radar, including its early warning, ground-controlled intercept (GCI), and
Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) variants. This equipment enabled the RAF
accurately to track and to intercept German raids, as well as to distinguish its
aircraft from enemy aircraft. Spaatz and Lt. Col. Frank O'D. Hunter, an Army
Air Corps pursuit expert who had originally been sent to observe the French air

Prewar Planning

force, spent all of August 9 in the operations room at No. 12 Group getting a full
explanation of night and day procedures. Spaatz recommended the construc-
tion of similar underground bomb-proof control facilities in the Panama Canal
Zone and Hawaii. He noted favorably the efficiency of female RAF personnel,
which may have encouraged his own subsequent wartime support of U.S. Army
female personnel. Spaatz may also have formed an unfavorable opinion of Air
Vice-Marshal Leigh-Mallory's abilities. Spaatz criticized what he termed "too
much rigidity of control by the higher command, which as stated above, extends
even to the point of Group control of individual sections of a squadron. "^3

In mid- August, Spaatz spent three days at Dover, where he witnessed German
air attacks and watched British heavy antiaircraft artillery fire inaccurately on
friend and foe alike. During his stay at Dover, Spaatz, dressed in his rumpled
civiUan tweeds, wandered away from his escort and was promptly detained by a
British naval commander as a spy when he blxmdered into a restricted area. It
took some hours to establish his identity. Spaatz took the incident with his usual
good humor and a few days later signed himself in at an RAF field as "Col. Carl
A. Spaatz, German spy."^"* At the British Technical Establishment, he examined
downed German aircraft. Detailed reports on each plane soon found their way to
Arnold. As for the performance of the Luftwaffe, Spaatz noted that its bombing
had been "particularly lousy," and he suspected that it had been "too hastily con-
structed" to stand up for long to the apparently better trained RAF Fighter
Command.55

In the last week of August, Spaatz maintained his close contacts with the
RAF. On August 24, he attended bomber crew debriefings. From this and other
experiences in Britain he deduced, "General opinion is that German fighters will
not attack a well-closed-in day-bombing formation."^^ Three days later, he dis-
cussed tactics and operations with Slessor's deputy, Group Captain Baker, and
with McDonald and Hunter. They agreed that a modem, well-dispersed air force
could not be destroyed on the ground. ^'^ They further noted the unsuitability of
dive-bombers against well-defended targets and the relative effectiveness of
rapid-firing, hght antiaircraft weapons. In discussing the jealousy between the
British army and the RAF, which Spaatz had previously noted,^^ they stated, "It
takes close coordination with the Army to obtain maximum misuse of air power."^^
In other words, the more an air force conformed to the wishes of its army, the less
effective it would be.

On August 30, Spaatz informed the acting senior U.S. military attache in
London, Col. Raymond E. Lee, that there would be no blitzkrieg of England in
1940 and that, therefore, he would just as soon "go home and get to work."^^
The next day he received his orders to retum home. Before he left on September
9, a week before the British broke the German air offensive, he talked several
times with Slessor and experienced the first of the major Luftwaffe night raids
on London. Of Hitler's terror raids Spaatz noted, "Apparently indiscriminate
bombing of London has started."^! During one of the night raids he dined with

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

American press correspondent Drew Middleton. When Spaatz heard the bombs
drop, he recognized that the Gennans hsd switched from their cotmterair cffln-
paign to terror bombing, conceding air superiority to the British. He remarked to
Middleton, "By God, that's good, that's fine. The British are winning." Spaatz
continued, "The Germans can't bomb at night— -iell, I don't think they're very
good in daylight— but they haven't been trained for night bombing. Nope, the
British have got them now. They've forced them to bomb at night. The Krauts
must be losing more than we know."^^ Spaatz recommended that B-17s be
shipped at once to the British to add strength to the long-range British shiking
force.

After leaving England, Spaatz spent ten days in Lisbon. There he saw first-
hand the pitiful state of refugees fleeing Nazi-occupied Europe, which further
hardened his attitude toward the Ctennans. At lunch at the U.S. legation he told
those present, including the ex-govemcff of New Hampshire, John G. Winant,
who was on his way to London to replace Joseph P. Kennedy as ambassador to
England, "The English have develc^)ed real air power, whereas tiie Germans so
far appear to have developed a mass of air geared to the Army and [are] lost
when confronted with properly applied air effort."^^ gy tjiis Spaatz meant that,
despite the ineffectiv^iess of its current night-bombing cmnpaign, the RAF had
laid a solid foundation for development into an effective force; whereas the
Luftwaffe was flawed at its creation and rickety in its structure and, thus, would

John G. Winant, U.S.
Ambassador to Britain,
1940-1945.

Prewar Planning

be unable to sustain its early successes. Spaatz noted that Winant seemed im-
pressed with his views. A week later, with Generals Strong and Emmons, Spaatz
left Lisbon for Washington.

Spaatz' s stay in England had shown him the current state of air warfare, but
it had not shaken his belief in some key Air Corps doctrine. He had seen, for
instance, no reason to modify views concerning long-range escort fighters. The
Air Corps held that a formation of self-defending bombers did not need escort,
especially because such escort, in order to carry enough fuel internally, would
have to be larger, and therefore would be less maneuverable and combat capa-
ble, than lighter, shorter-range defending fighter aircraft. The performance of the
German heavy twin-engine fighter, the Bf 110, against the nimble, shorter-range,
lighter British single-engine Hurricanes and Spitfires, confirmed this conviction.
Spaatz also observed from German operations that close fighter escort, in any
case, did "not insure immunity from attack by hostile fighters on the bombers. A
comparatively fewer number of hostile fighters can, by determined effort, break
up the large [bomber] formation."^

After talking to RAF bomber pilots Spaatz also reaffirmed his belief in the
necessity of daylight precision bombing for accurate results and in the defensive
strength of large, heavy-bomber formations. Explaining away the apparent con-
tradiction between the assumption that determined fighter attack would break up
bomber formations and the assumption that a well-flown bomber formation
could defend itself, he observed that so far the Germans had not demonstrated
the ability to mount a determined attack on British bombers. Spaatz apparently
had not fully realized that the British had switched to night operations because
of excessive casualties suffered in daylight operations. These beliefs, typical of
those of many Air Corps leaders, would be modified only by costly direct
actions with "determined" German fighter planes in 1943.

But, as already noted, Spaatz had seen the ineffectiveness of the close escort
tactics the Germans employed to protect their bombers. In close escort German
fighters stayed with the bombers until British fighters attacked, at which time
the escorts tried to break up the intercepting fighters' assault. This tactic had
proved ineffective. It robbed the German fighters of their aggressiveness by
forcing them to react to British attacks instead of launching their own. In con-
trast, distant escort freed the fighters to leave the slow-moving bomber forma-
tions and to attack enemy fighters when they made their appearance. This obser-
vation may have helped Spaatz reach his brilliant wartime decision, in January
1944, to free the Eighth Air Force's fighters from the bombers by authorizing
them to search out and destroy enemy fighters. At the same time, Spaatz dis-
carded one of the tenets of prewar air thinking — that air bombardment could
shatter a civilian population's willingness to resist. Spaatz left Britain convinced
that the morale of the British and probably that of the German civil populations
would not collapse in the face of bombardment.

Spaatz 's stay in Britain also exposed him to technical innovations, such as

The Battle of Britain. Contending aircraft reflected the advanced aviation technology
of the era. Clockwise from above: The twin-engine Vicliers- Armstrong Wellington was one
of RAF Bomber Command's principal models. With a 4^00-pound bomb load and a max-
imum speed of 235 mph, it was among the best of its type. Hawker Hurricanes (opposite,
above) were the most numerous British fighters in the battle and bore the brunt of early
engagements with the Luftwaffe. Each was armed with eight Browning .303 caliber
machine guns and attained a speed of 350 mph. Marks 1 and lA Supermarine Spitfires
(opposite, middle) confronted the Luftwaffe in the later days of the battle. As heavily armed
as Hurricanes but faster, the Spitfires outfought and outlasted most German adversaries.
The Bf 109E flghter (opposite, below) was the Luftwaffe's mainstay in Germany's five-
month effort to dominate British skies. It was a formidable opponent at 350 mph and com-
bined machine gun and cannon armament. Its fUel-iivjected engine enabled pushovers into
sudden dives, giving its pilot the advantage in initiating and breaking off combat, but a
short range limited its ability to protect German bombers over Britain or to engage the
RAF at will. The Bf 110 (below, right), designed as a long-range "destroyer" (Zerstdrer),
fared poorly as a fighter and escort in the battle. The Heinkel 111 medium bomber
(below, left), carrying 4,410 pounds of ordnance and a crew of four, had only light
defensive armament. In the absence of German fighter escorts with sufficient staying
power, the graceful but slower Heinkels took heavy losses in the German aerial assault
on the British Isles.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

radar and IFF equipment that electronically identified friendly or enemy planes
on radar scopes; new combat tactics, especially night bombing and defensive
fighter deployment; and organizational and manufacturing problems and solu-
tions which would help his own planning in the United States. Unfortunately,
Spaatz appears not to have recorded any opinions he may have formed during
this trip of RAF leaders. He had only a brief meeting with Portal, Air Officer
Commanding (AOC) Bomber Command. A colonel, even one from a favorably
disposed neutral country, simply did not hobnob with officers at the highest lev-
els of command, especially when they were in the midst of their nation's single
most important battle since Trafalgar or, perhaps, Hastings.

Among the more junior RAF officers, however, Spaatz made several friends,
including Slessor, who became Chief of the Air Staff after World War II. In his
memoirs Slessor recorded a lively picture of the American air observer, whom
he described as "a man of few words but with a dry sense of humor that can
reduce me to a state of schoolboy giggles quicker than anything I know." Spaatz
was, Slessor continued, "a man of action rather than of speech, rather inarticu-
late but with an uncommon flair for the really important issue and a passionate
faith in the mission of air power."^^ Spaatz's acquaintance with RAF leadership
and methods, acceptability to the RAF, his optimistic reports that contradicted
gloomy predictions from other sources, and offers of help in Britain's darkest
hour had much to do with his selection a little over a year later to command U.S.
air power in Britain.

Spaatz's time in Britain did not turn him into an ardent Anglophile; even after
his retum to the States he continued to oppose sending aircraft to Britain at the
expense of U.S. Air Corps requirements. Yet he had been exposed to the latest avi-
ation technology and tactics available, and he had gained a better understanding of
the RAF, the force most likely to be allied with the U.S. Air Corps after America's
certain entry into the war. Spaatz's initiation of negotiations for Air Corps entry
into the war, even though superseded, and his often-stated belief in the ultimate
victory of the RAF earned him the respect of his British associates. More impor-
tant, Spaatz's transmittal of his faith in the RAF to Arnold and to Donovan may
have helped persuade the President to increase U.S. assistance to Britain and, as a
result, made Spaatz a key contributor to the growing Anglo-American relation-
ship.

Spaatz's failure to draw correct conclusions from the German and British

experiences about the survivability of daylight bomber aircraft also had impor-
tant consequences. He did not realize that procurement of an effective daylight
long-range fighter escort aircraft was a top priority or that Air Corps bomber
formations were no more likely to survive in daylight than RAF or Luftwaffe
bomber formations. If he had decided that the Air Corps, too, could survive only
at night, or that it needed to begin development of appropriate escort fighters
immediately, then the American strategic bombing effort in World War II,
which he was eventually to direct, might have taken an entirely different path,
with incalculable results.

Prewar Planning

Spaatz and Prewar Strategic Planning

On May 16, 1940, two days before Spaatz left for England, the Air Corps, at
the President's behest, increased its expansion plans. Spaatz's plan of December
1938 had called for an increase in annual military pilot training from 300 to
4,500 pilots. In the spring of 1939 the Air Corps had adopted a planning goal of
24 combat-ready groups — that is, fully equipped, completely trained, and capa-
ble of fulfilling their assigned missions by June 30, 1941. But the May 16
expansion raised these goals to 7,000 pilots per year and 41 groups. Barely 2
months later, on August 8, newer plans called for 12,000 pilots and 54 combat-
ready groups. The August 8 plans also called for 21,470 planes and a total of
119,000 personnel, almost 6 times the personnel envisaged in the summer of
1939. These were the changes Spaatz found when he resumed his post as Chief
of the Plans Division (upgraded from a section in May 1940), Headquarters, Air
Corps, in November 1940. In another month, on December 17, 1940, a new pro-
gram called for 30,000 pilots a year.^^

Between his return from England in September and his resumption of duty
in the Plans Division, Spaatz spent a month as Chief of the Air Corps Materiel
Division. Although the Materiel Division did the bulk of its work at Wright
Field in Dayton, Ohio, a recent Air Corps reorganization had moved the Office
of the Chief of the Materiel Division to Washington, D.C. This was probably
done in the hope of integrating the technical, aeronautical, and procurement
knowledge of the Materiel Division into the Headquarters of the Air Corps,
where it was desperately needed for planning purposes. It also made the
Materiel Chief readily available to Congress, where he had to justify his deci-
sions. Soon after Spaatz's brief occupancy of it, the Office of the Chief of the
Materiel Division returned to Dayton, where it has remained. Spaatz merely
occupied the post for a month while waiting for his appointment as an Assistant
Chief of the Air Corps, with its accompanying rank of brigadier general,* to
become effective so that he could return to the Plans Division.

As the authorized strength of the Air Corps ballooned, its structure under-
went reorganization. In October 1940, General Marshall began a new study of
Air Corps needs, which resulted in the unsuccessful^^ reorganization of
November 19, 1940, under which General Arnold became Acting Deputy Chief
of Staff for Air, but the GHQ Air Force was removed from his authority and
placed under the authority of the Army Chief of Staff in peacetime and under the
control of the Headquarters of the Commanding General of the Army in wartime.
This scheme, which once again separated the Air Corps' combat function from

* The posts of Chief of the Air Corps and the three Assistant Chiefs of the Air Corps endowed
their occupants with the ranks of major general and brigadier general respectively. The rank stayed
with the job; former occupants reverted to their Regular Army ranks, usually colonel or lieutenant
colonel.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Robert A. Lovett,
Assistant Secretary of
War for Air, 1941-1945.

its supply and training function, could not long survive. By the end of March
1941, Marshall initiated new studies that resulted in the final prewar air organi-
zation.^8

On June 20, 1941, the War Department issued a revised edition of Army
Regulation 9S-S, which governed the status, function, and organization of the air
arm. It created the Army Air Forces (AAF) headed by a chief, who also became
the Deputy Chief of Staff for Air and had the authority to supervise and coordi-
nate the work of the Office of the Chief of the Air Corps, the GHQ Air Force
(redesignated Air Force Combat Command), andidl other air elements. The reg-
ulation further created an Air Staff to assist the new deputy chief, which freed
the air arm from much of the dominance formerly exercised over it by the
ground officers who controlled the War Department General Staff. At Arnold's
behest, Spaatz became the first Chief of the Air Staff at the end of June 1941.
This organization sufficed untU March 9, 1942, when a final rearrangement of
positions gave the Army Air Forces equality with the Army Ground Forces and
greatly reduced the power of the General Staff.^ In another War Department
organizational move, in December 1940, Robert A. Lovett became Special
Assistant to the Secretary of War on all air matters. The foUowing spring Lovett
advanced to the post of Assistant Secretary of War for Air, a position left vacant
by the Roosevelt administration since 1933. Lovett would prove a powerful,
friendly, and effective civilian advocate fen* the AAF.

Negotiations with the British and strategic planning kept pace with air

Prewar Planning

expansion and reorganization. On January 29, 1941, committees from the U.S.
and British armed forces began secret meetings "to determine the best means
whereby the United States and the British Commonwealth might defeat Germany
and her allies should the United States be compelled to resort to war."^^
President Roosevelt had personally read, edited, and approved the U.S. delega-
tion's initial statement of views, presented to the British at the conference's first
session.^1 The final report, American-British Staff Conversations No. 1 (ABC-
1), submitted on March 27, 1941, stated, "The Atlantic and European area is con-
sidered to be the decisive theatre."'^ Both parties agreed to the principle of
defeating Germany first and, if necessary, Japan second. ABC-1 also provided
for a joint planning staff, a joint transport service, prompt exchange of military
intelligence, unity of command within each theater, integrity of national forces,
and for "U.S. Army air bombardment units [to] operate offensively in collabora-
tion with the Royal Air Force, primarily against German Military Power at its
source."^^

A second report on these staff conversations (ABC-2) dealt with air matters.
In it, the Americans agreed that until the United States entered the war, all air-
craft production from newly constructed manufacturing capacity would go to the
British. This decision, of course, delayed the Air Corps' 54-group program. It
was also agreed that, if the United States entered the war, new manufacturing
capacity would be split 50-50.^^ Spaatz, in his capacity as Chief, Plans Division,
had vigorously objected to the agreement because of its open-ended commit-
ment to supply aircraft to the British, which would reduce the reinforcement of
U.S. overseas possessions and the number of aircraft available for hemispheric
defense.^5 Arnold, who agreed with Spaatz and protested that a shortage of air-
craft reduced "to the vanishing point the present low combat strength of this
force," nonetheless reluctantly agreed to defer fiiU implementation of the 54-
group program.'^

In April 1941, the two powers agreed to exchange military delegations to
facilitate exchange of information and planning. A British Military Mission,
with joint army-navy-air representatives, came to Washington, and two separate
"Special Observer Groups," one U.S. Army and one U.S. Navy, crossed the
Atlantic to London. Because the largest initial combat force contemplated for
deployment to Britain was drawn from the Air Corps, an air officer, Maj. Gen.
James E. Chaney, headed the "Special Army Observer Group."'^

Under the impetus of ABC-1, U.S. military planners updated and further
developed Joint Army and Navy Basic War Plan Rainbow No. 5. This plan
accepted most of the strategic assumptions of ABC-1 and gained the approval of
the Secretary of War and the Secretary of the Navy in May 1941. Rainbow No.
5 provided detailed breakdowns and deployment schedules for Army (including
air) and Navy units allocated to areas of anticipated conflict.

On July 9, President Roosevelt requested the Joint Board of the Army and
Navy — the predecessor of the current U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff — to prepare an

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

estimate of the "over-all production requirements required to defeat our potential
enemies."^^ When the President's request descended on the War Department
General Staff, the War Plans Division (WPD), the staff's most prestigious sec-
tion and its major military planning component, was already swamped. WPD's
chief. Brig. Gen. Leonard T. Gerow, appointed Maj. Albert C. Wedemeyer to
head the group preparing the estimate. Wedemeyer, in turn, expected Lt. Col.
Clayton Bissell and other air personnel in the WPD to prepare an air annex.
Bissell went to Col. Harold George of the newly formed Air War Plans Division
(A WPD), part of Spaatz's new Air Staff. Bissell asked George to bring over a
team to help out. George objected and went to Spaatz, his immediate superior.
Both he and Spaatz realized that if the WPD prepared the air plan, Army ground
officers would base their estimates on tactical close air support needs while
shortchanging strategic air war needs. The two went to Arnold, who supported
their position. Arnold suggested to Gerow that because WPD already had an
overload of work, the Air Staff would help draw up the air requirements. Gerow
acquiesced. He and Spaatz "discussed the over-all problem prior to the work
being conducted."^^

George and three other air officers, Lt. Col. Kenneth H. Walker, Maj. Laurence
S. Kuter, and Maj. Haywood S. Hansell, prepared the air aimex in one week,
August 4-11, 1941. Because of its clear definition of the AAF's strategic aims
and its call for a gigantic air arm to accomplish those aims, the Army Air Forces
Annex, "Munitions Requirements of the AAF for the Defeat of Our Potential
Enemies" (AWPD/1), proved to be a key document in the AAF's preparation for
the war. It defined three AAF tasks in order of importance: (1) to wage a sus-
tained air offensive against Germany; (2) to conduct strategically defensive
operations in the Orient; and (3) to provide air actions essential to the defense of
the continental United States and Western Hemisphere. The air offensive against
Germany had four goals; (1) reducing Axis naval operations; (2) restricting
Axis air operations; (3) undermining "German combat effectiveness by depriva-
tion of essential supplies, production, and communications facilities" (a strategic
bombing campaign); and (4) supporting a final land invasion of Germany .^^ To
accomplish its mission, AWPD/1 called for 2,164,916 men and 63,467 aircraft,
of which a total of 4,300 combat aircraft (3,000 bombers, 1,300 fighters) were
slated for Britain.

In mid- August, Gerow reviewed and accepted AWPD/1. Marshall followed
suit on August 30, as did Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson on September 11.
AWPD/1 reached the President's desk a few days later. Along with the Army
and Navy requirements, it formed the beginning of the Victory Program on
which the government based its initial industrial mobilization. Stimson's and
Marshall's agreement with the plan meant that the AAF had the approval of the
War Department's top civilian and military officials for its ambitious wartime
expansion.

During 1941, Spaatz may have made what in retrospect seems one of the

Prewar Planning

biggest mistakes in his professional life. He has been accused of having had in
his hands, but not having appreciated, the solution to the long-range escort-
fighter problem. Spaatz apparently failed to realize that available technology in
the form of expendable, externally carried fuel tanks, called drop tanks, could
satisfactorily solve the problem of range extension. One scholar has stated,

Literally hundreds of crewmen lost their lives because escort fighters of suit-
able range were not ready when needed. The lack of escort fighters jeopardized
the whole effort to prove the feasibility of strategic air power. What an irony
that he who was to command the Eighth Air Force and suffer the brutal losses
incurred in ramming home the Combined Bomber Offensive in 1943 and 1944
had it in his power in 1941 to provide the solution but did not."

Although it is true that the Army Air Corps did not fully realize the possibil-
ities of drop tanks, singling out Spaatz as the man responsible for this situation
on the basis of one questionable document seems unfair. As the basis of his
charge, the scholar cited a broadly written memorandum composed by Maj.
Hoyt S. Vandenberg and signed by Spaatz. The scholar concentrated on the doc-
trinal aspects of the memorandum, noting its opposition to the "carrying of
bombs" and "provision of excessive range" (drop tanks), both of which "require
additional and unnecessary [sic] weight and operational complexities that are
incompatible with the mission of pursuit." Furthermore, bombs and additional
range would "provide opportunities for improper tactical use of pursuit types. "^-^

Despite its language, however, this memorandum addressed aircraft produc-
tion more than doctrine. It disapproved production change no. 3 (the addition
of both a 75-gallon auxiliary fuel tank and provisions for carrying either 300-
pound or 600-pound bombs) for 623 P-39D aircraft. In a background memoran-
dum to Spaatz, Vandenberg justified the refusal on the ground that all the pro-
posed changes "would tend to slow up production and reduce the combat effec-
tiveness of the airplane." Vandenberg also suggested that only essential changes
be approved.^4 Spaatz's Plans Division, faced with desperate aircraft shortages
throughout its training and readiness programs, concentrated on pushing aircraft
through the production system. As a consequence, Vandenberg argued that "a
determined effort should be made to keep the pursuit airplane as simple as pos-
sible."85 As a technical detail it should be noted that the P-39D aircraft's design
limited it to operations under 12,(X)0 feet, and at no time did the Air Corps seri-
ously consider using the plane as an escort for heavy bombers. Production, not
doctrinal considerations, motivated Spaatz's action.

Although the Air Corps began a limited-range extension program in 1940
and expanded it in 1942,86 Spaatz's and Vandenberg's attitudes toward long-
range fighter escort typified prevailing prewar Air Corps views. The authors of
AWPD/1, in August 1941, showed equal shortsightedness. "It has not yet been
demonstrated," the plan stated, "that the technical improvements to the bom-
bardment airplane are or can be sufficient to overcome the pursuit airplane."

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Consequently, the plan observed, "It is unwise to neglect development of escort
fighters designed to enable bombardment formations to fight through to the
objective." The aircraft envisioned by the plan was not an aircraft of pursuit per-
formance with extended range, such as the P-51, but, instead, was a convoy
defender like the YB-40 (a B-17 modified by the addition of extensive armor
plate and several additional .50 caliber machine guns). AWPD/1 called for the
funding of an experimental squadron of thirteen such planes.87 In combat with
the American Eighth Air Force over Germany, in 1943, the YB-40 proved a
costly failure. Similar opinions appeared in the AAF's last prewar review of its
pursuit aircraft requirements. In October 1941, Spaatz, as Chief of the Air Staff,
and at Arnold's behest,88 appointed a board of pursuit and air materiel officers
to recommend "the future development of pursuit aircraft." The opinions of the
board's members, which included Col. Ira C. Eaker and Col. Frank O'D. Hunter,
illustrated the thinking of the AAF on the eve of the war.

Eaker, in particular, would have played a key role in this board's decisions.
He had just returned from England, where he had served as Special Air Observer
until October 1, 1941. His primary mission had been to determine the feasibility
of integrating the radio systems of American ground echelons, pursuit forma-
tions, and aircraft into British operations. 89 However, Amold had also instructed
Eaker to conduct "a broad study of all phases of fighter operations." This
included obtaining "the best thought now prevalent on the subject of escort
fighter protection."90 Eaker did a thorough job. He not only talked to many
senior RAF officers, he came back with dozens of copies of British reports con-
cerning British and German fighter tactics and performance. He undoubtedly
shared the information he collected with the pursuit panel.

The views of the RAF on bomber escort aircraft, as Eaker accurately
reported, paralleled those of the AAF. Eaker's visit to England came just at the
conclusion of a limited upsurge in RAF daylight bombing missions. The RAF
dtfected those missions, nicknamed "circus" raids, at targets on the French coast
within range of British fighter planes. The purpose of these raids was to produce
attritional combat between escorting RAF fighters and attacking German fight-
ers. They failed because the Germans soon adopted a policy of engaging only
when they held the advantage. The Germans could adopt such a policy because
the limited range of the RAF escorts did not allow bombing of targets vital to
the German war effort.9l Circus operations reinforced the prevailing RAF opin-
ion that short-range fighter aircraft could not provide strategic escort.

In May 1941, shortly before launching the operation, the Chief of the Air
Staff and a former head of Bomber Command, An- Chief Marshal Portal, had
replied to a query from Churchill on fighter escorts by noting, "Increased range
can only be provided at the expense of performance and maneuverability." He
added, "The long-range fighter, whether built specifically as such, or whether
given increased range by fitting extra tanks, will be at a disadvantage compared
with the short-range high-performance fighter."92 On September 28, Portal

Prewar Planning

expressed similar views to Eaker, drawing the logical conclusion "that the
proper escort fighter will be a ship exactly like the bomber it is going to escort."
This heavily armored and armed aircraft would take station at weak points in the
bomber formation and by "expel[ling] heavy caliber fire in all directions," make
it "very difficult for the light single seater fighters. "93 The commander of the
RAF Test, Research, and Experimental Unit spoke to Eaker of the impossibility
of the large fighter getting through a screen of small fighters, saying, "They will
sting it to death."94

The organization and design of the RAF contributed to its inability to con-
ceive of aircraft combining bomber range and fighter performance. The raison
d'etre of Fighter Command was the air defense of Britain. Its planes, especially
the superb Spitfire series, had been designed and built for that purpose alone.
Therefore, they emphasized performance over endurance, which was not needed
for defense of English air space. Fighter Command had little operational need to
develop long-range fighters. Likewise, Bomber Command had committed itself,
despite limited circus operations, to the strategic bombing of Germany at night.
Night operations depended on avoiding and deceiving the enemy's defenses, not
fighting through them, which would have required escort aircraft. Bomber
Command, too, had little operational need for escort aircraft. Given the per-
ceived lack of need and the limited resources available, the RAF's refusal to
invest in escort aircraft and its failure to pursue technical solutions to fighter
range extension were understandable. In fact, the RAF never developed or
employed substantial numbers of long-range fighter escort aircraft during the
war.

These strongly held opinions of a future major ally, with over two years of
hard-won direct combat experience, which had been confirmed by AAF
observers, undoubtedly influenced the AAF pursuit board. Eaker, himself, con-
tinued to advocate the development of a convoy defender until its experimental
employment, under his own command, demonstrated the fallacy of the idea in
actual operations. In any case, the board's officers had probably held views sim-
ilar to those of the RAF even before their exposure to Baker's reports and docu-
ments.

The AAF pursuit board, like the RAF, could not overcome the seeming tau-
tological improbability of the successful long-range fighter escort and made no
recommendation whatever for one. Instead, the board suggested consideration of
a "convoy defender." "Only with the assistance of such an airplane," warned the
board, "may bombardment aviation hope to successfully deliver dayUght attacks
deep inside enemy territory and beyond range of interceptor support." Yet the
board feared that the size and expense of such a convoy defender would interfere
with other production and development projects. It thus gave low priority to
development of a convoy defender prototype, concluding:

The Board is unable to say whether or not the project is worthwhile, and can
only point out the need for himishing day bombardment with the very maxi-

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

mum attainable defensive firepower if that form of attack is to be chosen to
gain a decision in war against any other modem power.''

The board also considered a long-range pursuit aircraft with a range of 2,000
miles and an operating altitude above 25,000 feet, which would have sacrificed
climb and maneuverability for range and endurance. But the board did not rec-
ommend the development of a prototype, nor did it envisage the use of drop
tanks by this plane.96

Operational employment and accessory equipment also received attention by
the board, which recommended the high-priority development of nineteen items
of new equipment, including new gunsights, pressurized cockpits, new means of
aircraft propulsion, and "expendable external auxiliary-fuel tanks." The board
defined pursuit's mission in these words: "The general mission of our pursuit
aviation is to seek out and destroy, by air combat, hostile aircraft which attack or
threaten to attack our vital installations on the ground or oiu" friendly aviation in
the air. The principal target is the hostile bomber" [emphasis added].97 Here the
board enunciated a principle embraced by none other than Hermann Goering,
the Luftwaffe's commanding officer. Interestingly enough, almost all students of
great strategic bombing campaigns of World War II cite Goering 's directives to
attack Allied bombers in preference to Allied fighters as a key tactical error.

The board saw a need for adding drop tanks and for increasing the safety of
bombers on deep penetration raids. Yet it never connected the single-engine pur-
suit aircraft and drop tanks with the bomber protection problem. Neither did the
rest of the AAF until almost too late. Ironically, a future commander of the
Eighth Air Force did have the solution to the fighter escort problem in his reach,
but failed to grasp it. However, that failure, if failure it be, applies more to
Eaker, who sat on the development board, than to Spaatz.

The refusal by Spaatz, Eaker, and the board to place a high priority on
fighter escort stemmed more from technical considerations than from a denial of
the necessity for it. The recent observations of both men in Britain had shown
the disadvantages of the Bf 1 10 against the Spitfire and Hurricane. RAF techni-
cal personnel were convinced that a plane capable of both long-range combat
and successful dogfighting could not be built — a view shared by Spaatz and
Eaker and reflected in the board's findings. Eight years earlier Spaatz had writ-
ten Arnold concerning a long-range fighter prototype: "If this plane used as a
single seater operates to its full range of 1,000 miles, it would undoubtedly be
used for the purpose of accompanying bombardment." In that case, Spaatz thought
that the fighter "would be forced to meet interceptor pursuit of the enemy which,
with a much lower cruise range, will have greatly superior performance. "98

Spaatz and Eaker, of course, had seen the British and the Germans both
resort to night bombing because their bombardment aircraft could not survive in
hostile daylight skies. They discounted that experience by calculating that the
B-17 flew higher, was more rugged, and carried more and heavier guns than any
European bomber. They also assumed that the Americans would maintain

Prewar Planning

tighter defensive formation than the British or Germans.

Events proved the Americans and British correct in their assumption that no
heavy fighter could successfully perform long-range escort in Europe. The P-38,
an American twin-engine fighter, had its greatest impact in the Pacific against a
very different foe. The P-38, because of its higher operating altitude and faster
diving speed, a factor of its greater weight, was not helpless against German air-
craft; it just operated at a disadvantage in a melee because of its relative lack of
maneuverability, especially when opposing pilots were of equal ability. The P-38
performed better than the Bf 1 10 in the strategic escort role, but as soon as suffi-
cient numbers of long-range single-engine fighters became available, the AAF
hastened to replace it.

Ironically, the aircraft that proved the ultimate solution to the long-range
escort problem, the P-51 (Mustang), had its maiden flight in October 1940, a
year before the pursuit board met. The Mustang was the direct result of a con-
tract between the British government and the North American Aviation Corporation.
The contract, signed in January 1940, specified completion within 120 days of a
prototype single-engine fighter aircraft. Within 117 days, North American rolled
out the plane, complete except for its engine. The design incorporated lessons
learned from the early days of the war and included simple lines, for ease of pro-
duction; an in-line water-cooled engine, frowned upon by the AAF because of
its vulnerability to damage compared with a radial air-cooled engine; and an
advanced laminar-flow wing section design for improved performance. As rec-
ompense for giving permission to the British to produce the aircraft in the
United States, the AAF took delivery of two of the initial ten aircraft for testing.

The original U.S.-produced and -designed Allison engine of the P-51, the
same used in the P-40, did not provide enough power and limited the P-51 's best
performance to altitudes below 15,000 feet, an operational ceiling unsuitable for
escort of heavy bombers. The British, who appreciated the possibilities of the
Mustang's sleek airframe, replaced the original engine with their own powerfiil
Rolls-Royce Merlin engine. The mating of one of the outstanding piston-driven
aircraft engines ever made and a superb airframe resulted in a hybrid of distin-
guished performance, perhaps the best propeller-driven fighter of World War n.

The Americans, too, made a key contribution to the Mustang's development.
In their search for a suitable long-range escort they added increased internal tank-
age, which extended the P-51 's escort range to 475 miles (the maximum range of a
P-47 with drop tanks) and 108-gallon drop tanks, which extended its escort
range to more than 650 miles (to Berlin and beyond). These improvements made
the P-51 the preferred escort for the American heavy bombers and the dominant
fighter over Europe for the last year of the war. Unfortunately, it did not come
into mass production in the United States until 1942 and did not reach American
fighter groups in England until December 1943. It reached the Eighth Air Force
just in time to help turn the tide of the air war, in conjunction with the yeoman-
like service of P-47s equipped with new longer-range drop tanks, and to prevent

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

the U.S. strategic bomber effort from foundering because of excessive losses
sustained in unescorted deep-penetration missions into Germany. 99

Moreover, the aircraft was a bargain; in 1943, each P-51 cost $58,824, com-
pared with $105,567 for a P-38 and $104,258 for a P-47.100 An aircraft privately
designed and built in less than four months, with no govemment research and
development input, cost less, was easier to produce, and outperformed the two
aircraft the AAF had spent years bringing to fruition. Perhaps the P-51 was a
technological freak aided by wartime combat experience and superior British
engine technology, or perhaps the Air Corps aircraft development program had
limited itself to overly conservative engineering. lOl

As 1941 drew to a close, the most important and dramatic portion of
Spaatz's career lay before him. In the three years prior to U.S. entry into World
War II, Spaatz had worked at the center of U.S. air expansion. Few officers
could equal his many years of command experience or his breadth of knowledge
of the current state of AAF readiness and plans for future production. He under-
stood his force's lack of training and the long delays to be expected in securing
replacement aircraft, and this knowledge may account for much of his subse-
quent reluctance to commit his command in Britain to combat until it was fully
ready. Finally, his trip to Britain, which gave him knowledge of modem combat
and acquainted him with senior RAF officers, made him an obvious choice for
leadership when the United States entered the war in Europe. His seniority enti-
tled him to a large role, but he could keep such a role only by successful perfor-
mance.

Chapter 3

Spaatz Commands the
Eighth Air Force
(December 1941-November 1942)

If we fold up here, where will it stop? It could be an
irreparable blow to our side, at the very time our Allies are
hanging on by a hair absorbing terrible punishment, and
counting on us to live up to our big promises. We're the
only force in U.S. uniforms capable of hitting the number-
one enemy for a long time.'

— Maj. Gen. Pritchard to Brig. Gen. Savage,
Archbury Field, England, late 1942

Early in the afternoon of December 7, 1941, Spaatz at home in Alexandria,
Virginia, answered his phone. He exclaimed "Christ, no!," slammed down the
receiver, and headed for the front door.2 The Japanese had attacked Pearl
Harbor. Almost ten years earlier, after participating in maneuvers based in Oahu,
Hawaii, Spaatz had written that the exercises had, "conclusively demonstrated
the ineffectiveness of carrier based airplanes against land based airplanes." To
be fair to him, one should note that he had also suggested the dispersal of Army
aircraft in Oahu to forty or fifty airfields — a move that would have rendered the
Japanese attack against the AAF much less effective.^

Like many officers in Washington, D.C., in late 1941, Spaatz had braced for
an imminent outbreak of hostilities with Japan, but the date and location of the
attack, Pearl Harbor, instead of the Philippines, had surprised him. The next day.
Congress, after President Roosevelt's dramatic "day of infamy" speech, declared
war on Japan. On December 11, Hitler declared war on the United States.
Hitler's action allowed the Allies to implement the decision that formed the
bedrock of all U.S. and combined Anglo-American prewar plaiming — Germany

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

first. Hitler had not even obtained a Japanese declaration of war on the Soviet
Union in return.

In the next year, Spaatz would devote all his energies to defeating the Nazi
regime. He would organize, lead to Britain, and send into combat the first incre-
ments of an armada destined to rule the daylight skies over Europe. He would
defend the AAF's doctrine, its public image, and the integrity of his forces
against all comers. And he would oversee the allocation and organization of
much of his force for participation in the Allied invasion of North Africa in
November 1942.

When Spaatz reached his office on December 7, he and several others who
had also just arrived discussed what to do. Spaatz placed the Air Staff and AAF
Headquarters on a round-the-clock manning basis. Next, he ordered the 31st
Pursuit Group to the Seattle area and the 1st Pursuit Group to the Los Angeles
area, and he activated the Western Aircraft Warning Service.4 The destruction of
the fleet left the West Coast wide open to attack.

Among those present at Spaatz 's office in the Munitions Building on the
mall in Washington, D.C., were Robert A. Lovett, Assistant Secretary of War
for Air, and Maj. Lauris Norstad, Chief of Intelligence for the Air Force Combat
Command. They all sat on the floor with their backs toward the wall and lis-
tened to a hasty and inadequate intelligence briefing on Japanese strengths and
intentions. They discussed the applicable war plans and settled on Rainbow No.
5 which provided for a two-front war, with the main thrust in Europe and hold-
ing action against Japan. Because Arnold was on a trip to the West Coast, Spaatz
was, to use Norstad's phrase, "sitting in the seat," the man responsible for mak-
ing decisions. He promptly decided to implement the plan. In less than an hour
after the news of the attack broke, Spaatz was calling AAF units and ordering
them to fulfill their roles in Rainbow No. 5.5

Rapidly unfolding events in the Pacific soon destroyed the strategic basis of
the plan. The attack on Pearl Harbor eliminated whatever chance the U.S. Navy
might have had of preventing an all-out Japanese attack on the Philippines and the
tiny U.S.-held islands of Guam and Wake. Moreover, the loss of the British cap-
ital ships HMS Prince of Wales and HMS Repulse on December 10 plus the
impotence of the U.S. Navy and the incompetence or unpreparedness of the
defenders produced further disasters in Malaya, Burma, the East Indies, the
Philippines, and the Pacific islands. These events forced the Americans to divert
considerable air resources to the war against Japan, but not to abandon their
commitment to defeat Germany first.

At the first of the great series of Allied strategic planning conferences, the
Arcadia Conference held in Washington, D.C., from December 24, 1941, to
January 14, 1942, the Americans and the British agreed that Germany remained
the chief enemy. Among the decisions made, two affected the AAF's hope of
launching a bomber offensive from Britain: the Allies reluctantly decided (1) to
send additional troops to the Pacific and (2) to mount an invasion of French

The Eighth Air Force

North Africa. The Americans would garrison the stops on the air ferry route
from Hawaii to Australia; supply more garrisons for islands such as Christmas,
Borabora, and Samoa; and station a large number of troops in New Caledonia to
help the French. Because the British could not meet their strategic commitments
to Australia and New Zealand, the Americans sent 61,000 troops and over
500,000 tons of cargo to help defend both countries.

Troops sent to the Pacific required more shipping than troops sent to Britain
because those units sailing to the Far East expected to enter combat soon after
arrival. This meant that they had to carry all equipment required for combat with
them which had to be combat loaded, i.e., completely assembled and packed on
the ship in a manner that enabled the off loading of essential weapons, ammuni-
tion, and supplies first. Loading for combat emphasized combat necessity, not
efficient use of a ship's storage space. Hence, combat loading consumed more
shipping tonnage.6 In contrast, troops going to Britain still had months of train-
ing and preparation before them and did not have to travel combat loaded. The
diversion of shipping to the Pacific war slowed AAF deployment to Britain.

Roosevelt and Churchill further complicated matters by directing an inva-
sion to be mounted against French North Africa known as Super-Gymnast. The
British, whose 8th Army had just relieved Tobruk and seemed to have defeated
the Germans and Italians, had great interest in a North African invasion. The
Americans, except for Roosevelt, had less enthusiasm. They had to find shipping
to send a force across the Atlantic and were not about to allow the siren song of
then- ally to bring them to grief in the Mediterranean. This alternative kept more
shipping tied up and unavailable for carrying men and mat&iel to the British
Isles.7

An Axis resurgence in Libya undercut the planning to invade North Africa
by bringing into question the attitude of the Vichy government, which gave
every indication that it would support the Germans as long as they continued to
win. On March 3, 1942, the Combined British and American Chiefs of Staff
(CCS) dropped Super-Gymnast as an operational possibility.^ The Americans
advanced a new alternative. One American in particular, the new head of the
War Plans Division, Brig. Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower, had already sent two
important memoranda to General Marshall proposing that the Allies launch an
early invasion of Europe. Eisenhower had good reasons for the suggestion. It
placed a minimum strain on shipping. It did not disperse the escorts vital to the
North Atlantic line of communications to Britain. A buildup in England would
force the Germans to put a larger garrison in western Europe, leaving fewer
troops to fight the Soviets. Once ashore in France, the invaders would find better
land communications than anywhere else in Europe. Numerous airfields already
existing in England allowed for the establishment of the large air force necessary
to gain air superiority over the beachhead. An invasion of western Europe would
allow the British to employ offensively a maximum portion of their combat
power because they would not have to leave behind a large force to defend the

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

home islands. And the attack would cause the Germans to fight on yet another
front .9 One can find no better statement of the U.S. Army's rationale for an
invasion of northwestern Europe. Eisenhower n\ade passing reference to a U.S.-
British air attack designed to clear the way for the landing but no mention of a
strategic bombing campaign against the Reich.

By the end of March 1942, the Operations Division (OPD), the successor to
the War Plans Division under the Army reorganization of March 9, delivered yet
another plan to Marshall emphasizing the need for a massive assault from
England to France. Marshall, of course, needed no convincing. He and Secretary
of War Stimson urged the President to approve the project. Instead, Roosevelt
approved the idea of developing a plan and clearing it with London. Within two
days of the President's decision, OPD produced a draft invasion plan, including
an analysis of troop readiness and availability, supply requirements and shipping
resources, and an AAF outline for attacks on either September 15, 1942, or April
1, 1943. Marshall and Stimson presented this latest design to Roosevelt, who
approved it, authorizing Marshall and Harry Hopkins, FDR's chief aide, to
travel to London to secure British agreement to a common strategy. The Presi-
dent made clear to the British his support of the plan by sending Marshall not
only as Chief of Staff but as an envoy or negotiator "in the name of the
President."iO

The U.S. delegation arrived in London on April 8. It included an air planner.
Col. Howard A. Craig. The Americans repeated the arguments of Eisenhower's
memoranda and stated that if all preparations went forward, a combined force of
5,800 aircraft and 48 divisions could begin the attack against northwestern
Europe. The plan had three phases. The preparatory phase (code-named
Bolero) was to include development of a logistics base, movement of troops
and equipment, establishment of a preliminary front using England to stage
commando raids and to mount strategic air attacks against occupied Europe and
Germany on an increasing scale, and contingency planning for a possible emer-
gency offensive in 1942. The second phase (Sledgehammer) was the cross-
channel invasion to seize beachheads in the Le Havre-Boulogne area. The third
phase (Roundup) was the expansion of the beachhead and breakout. The
Americans promised to have 1 million men, 30 divisions, and 2,550 combat air-
craft ready by April 1, 1943, but only 372 divisions and 700 combat aircraft by
September 15, 1942.11

For the next six days the British and American planners and the British Chiefs of
Staff discussed the "Marshall Memorandum," as the British dubbed the plan. On
April 14, the British accepted the plan with one proviso — ^that all necessary mea-
sures be taken to prevent a joining of Japanese and German forces. 1 2 The Americans
had no objections.l3 The Marshall Memorandum, especially the Bolero phase, was
the strategic foundation for Spaatz's own plans for the buildup of the U.S. Eighth
Air Force in England. By the end of July 1942, the ground under this foundation had
shifted, threatening to bring down the planning basis of the AAF in Europe.

The Eighth Air Force

The decisions at the Arcadia Conference and the acceptance of the
Marshall Memorandum substantially modified AWPD/1. The diversion of ship-
ping to the Pacific overturned deployment predictions, and the preparation for a
land invasion meant less time for the strategic bomber offensive and an in-
creased emphasis on the creation of tactical air power to support the invasion.
On February 12, 1942, General Arnold announced that the AAF would send to
the British Isles 16 heavy-bombardment groups, 3 pursuit groups, and 8 photo-
reconnaissance squadrons, 512 heavy bombers, 225 fighters, and 96 reconnais-
sance planes. In a personal telegram to Churchill, which examined the disposition
of U.S. armed forces throughout the world, Roosevelt supplied a tentative sched-
ule for the arrival of the AAF in Britain:

July 1942 — 3 heavy-bomber groups (105 planes), 1 medium-bomber
group (57 planes), 3 light-bomber groups (171 planes), and 5 fighter groups
(400 planes);

October 1942 — 11 heavy-bomber groups (385 planes), 3 medium-bomber
groups (171 planes), 5 light-bomber groups (285 planes), and 7 fighter groups
(560 planes);

January 1943 — 15 heavy-bomber groups (525 planes), 7 medium-bomber
groups (399 planes), 7 light-bomber groups (399 planes), and 13 fighter groups
(1,040 planes).

The President explicitly noted that the fighters were "to be used as fighter
escort for daylight bombing and for offensive sweeps. "14 The man intended to
prepare the way for this armada. Brig. Gen. Ira C. Eaker, arrived in England on
February 20 and established the VIII Bomber Command on February 23.

On February 2, 1942, Arnold made Spaatz Commander-designate of the AAF
in Britain. Spaatz also became Commanding General of the Air Force Combat
Command (the successor to GHQ Air Force). The position carried with it the
rank of temporary major general. For the next three months, Spaatz applied his
organizational skills to preparing the AAF for overseas movement. He suggested
on March 31 that the Eighth Air Force be made the intermediate command head-
quarters between the U.S. Army European Theater of Operations and its subordi-
nate AAF commands. Thus, the Commanding General of the Eighth Air Force
would be not only the chief of all AAF units in the theater but also the auman
responsible for overseeing both a large strategic and a large tactical air force.
Official orders established the Eighth as such exactly one week later, on April 7.

When Spaatz assumed command of the Eighth Air Force on May 10, the ini-
tial movement of personnel and materiel had already begun. Some potential
organizational and command problems had also been solved. ABC-1 established
the principle that the theater air forces of each nation would be treated as sepa-
rate entities under the strategic direction and command of one of the Allies.
Moreover, Amold gained Marshall's agreement that the U.S. Army in Britain
would be organized along functional lines. Instead of dividing Britain into geo-

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

graphically denominated corps or army areas, each composed of a force of all arms,
the senior officers of the Army Ground Forces, the Army Air Forces, and the Army
Services of Supply in the theater would command only their own branch and be
directly subordinate to the theater commander. Arnold had hewn to one of the cardi-
nal rules of air power: Air power must be concentrated to be most effective. Spaatz
would command an air force composed of all air and aviation support units in the
theater. Air components would not be split up and parceled out to army ground gen-
erals in charge of subregions. This arrangement relieved the theater commander of
the administrative and tactical details of operating an air force and provided flexibil-
ity enough to accommodate the vast air armada then contemplated for deployment to
Britain. The Headquarters of the Eighth Air Force, as the highest level AAF head-
quarters in England, was therefore responsible for the theater's air power.

The Eighth consisted of an air force headquarters and four subordinate com-
mands, each carrying the number of the overall headquarters: VIII Bomber
Command, VIII Fighter Command, VIII Air Support Command, and VIII Service
Command. The composition of these commands corresponded to expected func-
tions. The Vin Bomber Command, consisting of heavy-bombardment groups, each
containing 32 aircraft, would carry out the operational aspects of the strategic
bomber offensive. Later in the war, the Eighth's heavy-bombardment groups
gained authorization for a front-line strength of 48 planes. The VIE Air Support
Command, made up of the medium-bombardment groups, the light-bomber groups,
and the dive-bomber groups (all of 52 planes each), would provide tactical support
and interdiction for the ground troops invading France from England. The VUI
Fighter Command, made up of the fighter groups (75-80 planes each), would
escort, according to the situation and its range capabilities, the planes of either the
Bomber Command or the Air Support Command. If required. Fighter Command
could also join the Air Support Command in du-ect assistance to the ground troops.
The functions of VIE Service Command included supply and maintenance of all
items peculiar to the Air Force. As the size of the Air Force increased, additional
echelons appeared between the commands and the groups. First came wings,
formed of several groups. Next, for the heavy bombers only, came bombardment
divisions containing three to five wings.

Combat aircraft equipping the three fighting commands varied in quality from
poor to excellent. The B-17E, although somewhat undergunned by later standards,
outclassed any other daylight heavy bomber in the world. In addition to speed and
high-altitude capability, the B-17E had a rugged construction that allowed it to
absoib unbelievable amounts of batde damage and still retum to base. Variants of
flie B-17 served as the backbone of the Eighth's bombers throughout the war. The
B-17E had a combat radius of approximately 750 miles.*

"* The combat radius is the straight distance a plane can fly from its base and retum. It takes into
accoimt taxiing, taking off, forming up, and landing, and is calculated at 3/8 to 2/5 of the aircraft's
rated range.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

The B-25 Mitchell medium bomber had a combat radius of about 500 miles
and a bomb load of 3,000 pounds. It was usually operated at altitudes below
20,000 feet and thus was unable to attack targets defended by heavy antiaircraft
guns, which usually guarded strategic targets. It was sturdy and fairly heavily
armed.

American fighters did not measure up to world standards. The P-39
(Aircobra), although fast, lacked the maneuverability and altitude to contend
with German fighters. It had a combat radius, allowing 10 minutes of combat, of
150 miles. The P-40 (Warhawk) had a similar combat radius. But given proper
tactics and disciplined pilots, it could hold its own against the German fighters at
lower altitudes. By 1942, the AAF official history acknowledged its obsoles-
cence.l5 The twin-engine P-38 (Lightning) was a good high-altitude heavy
fighter with a combat radius more than double that of other American fighters. It
could hold its own at high altitudes against German aircraft but its engines
reacted badly to the unique combination of high humidity and extreme cold
found over northwestern Europe during winter; it operated more satisfactorily in
the wanner Mediterranean and the Pacific.

Upon taking over command, Spaatz immediately began the final prepara-
tions for sending the Eighth to England. Contrary to what one might suspect, the
headquarters personnel of the Eighth Air Force did not consist of a group of elite
officers hand-picked by Spaatz and Amold for their dedication to the ideals of
daylight strategic bombardment. In fact, Spaatz had inherited the Eighth Air
Force Headquarters because its previous assignment, preparing for a possible
invasion of French North Africa, had lapsed, leaving it available for reassign-
ment. The Eighth's former Commander, Col. Asa N. Duncan, became Spaatz's
Chief of Staff, and Ehincan's staff continued its work for Spaatz. The new staff
faced an abrupt change in focus from planning a tactical mission in support of a
possible small-scale invasion to planning both the major ground support and the
major strategic air campaigns of the American armed forces in Europe. Spaatz's
staff faced a daunting challenge; in spite of the grandiose numbers and missions
described in AWPD/1, the AAF appears to have done little operational plaiming
for combat over Europe. In early April 1942, Maj. Henry Berliner, a personal
friend of Spaatz and the Eighth Air Force Assistant Chief of Staff for Plans,
approached Col. Richard D'O. Hughes of the target planning section of the AAF
Air Staff. Major Berliner admitted that Spaatz had sent him to find out if any
serious planning existed concerning the Eighth's mission. Hughes shared target
intelligence he had gathered and an impressed Berliner asked him to meet
Spaatz the next day. At the meeting, Spaatz, as usual, said little, but he absorbed
everything that Hughes related. A few days later General Marshall ordered the
Eighth Air Force to prepare and to present to him in ten days a complete opera-
tional plan. Berliner and his staff promptly appeared, hat in hand, at Hughes's
door. Hughes noted, "they had none of them ever made an operational war plan
before in their lives, none of them had had the opportunity to study the problems

The Eighth Air Force

involved, and a more scared and nervous bunch of officers I have seldom seen."
Hughes agreed to help and within five days he prepared a slick and plausible
plan. Shortly thereafter he found himself transferred permanently to Spaatz's
headquarters. 16

On May 10, Spaatz and Arnold met at Boiling Field to discuss the move-
ment of the Eighth to Britain and Hughes's plan. Spaatz "expressed the hope
that the force would not be stampeded into premature action by political pres-
sures and other influences."!? He warned against exaggerating AAF strength
and cautioned that he intended to operate on the basis of 100 percent reserves at
all times, until the pipeline of replacement combat crews and machines had been
put in place and filled. Spaatz wanted it understood that he would not begin
combat operations until his force was ready. 18

Four days later Spaatz and Marshall met, and Spaatz again presented his
(and Hughes's) basic concept of operations. The Americans meant to draw the
Luftwaffe into combat and destroy it in a battle of attrition. A great air force, as
Spaatz had observed in England, could not be destroyed in one or two battles.
He had seen how constant action had broken the German air offensive while
bringing the British themselves to the brink of defeat. It would take months of
constant bleeding of experienced pilots and loss of first-line machines to draw
the sting of the Luftwaffe and make a cross-channel invasion possible. 19

To force the Luftwaffe to come up and fight, the Americans intended to
bomb targets of such economic or military importance that the Germans would
have to defend them or lose the war. General Spaatz contended that "the full or
partial destruction of Ploesti would force the enemy to defend many of those tar-
gets now considered unimportant." Once Hitler's chief source of natural petroleum
in Ploesti, Romania, dried up, the synthetic oil plants of the Reich would have to
be defended or Germany would be helpless to fight a modem war. 20

Given the Marshall Memorandum, tactical air plans for the European inva-
sion ranked high on the agenda at this meeting. Marshall discussed the strength
of Nazi defenses and the necessity of reducing them. He next turned to the need
for air superiority over Allied preinvasion troop concentration points and asked
what the AAF could do to counter night movement of enemy armored forma-
tions. Marshall also expressed concern about the AAF's capability to protect the
invasion areas. Spaatz, in turn, suggested that timely reconnaissance and prop-
erly stationed planes would solve those problems. He defined for Marshall the
difference between air superiority and air supremacy. Air superiority meant that
the stronger force could operate with freedom but could not guarantee that the
opposing air force would be unable to execute damaging air raids. Au- supremacy
meant that the opposing air force would be completely unable to operate effec-
tively. Spaatz emphasized that the cross-channel invasion required air supremacy
before October, when bad weather would tie up the air arm and the plan.
Marshall accepted a weather deadline of "early October" and asked Spaatz to
brief Secretary Stimson.2l

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Henry L. Stimson,
Secretary of War,
1940-1945.

The next day Spaatz explained his basic concepts a third time to the Secretary
of War. Stimson noted that the strategic targets differed from those of AWPD/1.
Spaatz replied that the original conceptions of AWPD/1 "involved the usage of
Air Power — supported by ground forces," but that the present planning "in-
volved Air Power — supporting ground forces [emphasis in original]." Spaatz
then spoke of having two U.S. expeditionary air forces, one of which "would
attack vital enemy industries and interior installations" while the second would
"establish air supremacy over a limited area — ^permitting ground forces a neces-
sary latitude to carry out the mission." Clearly, Spaatz conceived of two separate
American expeditionary air forces — one strategic, one tactical. Both would
operate under the same overall commander. Stimson promised his full support to
Spaatz.22

On May 16, 1942, Spaatz and company terminated their series of confer-
ences with nearly two hours of discussion with Maj. Gen. Robert C. Richardson,
Jr., Marshall's personal representative, who was to leave shortly for a tour of
Pacific combat zones. Richardson's task was to determine for the Chief of Staff
the minimum amount of Army resources required to hold the line against Japan.
This rationale would enable Marshall to devote the remainder of his forces
against the more powerful foe in Europe.

After the obligatory explanation of the basic concepts and exhortations
against premature commitment, discussion turned to more technical matters of

The Eighth Air Force

General George C.

MarshaU, Chief of Staff,
U.S. Army, 1939-1945.

compatibility of AAF and British equipment and of target selection. Spaatz men-
tioned railroads, waterways, and troop concentrations. Richardson pointed out
the importance of submarine production as a key target. Both generals discussed
the effect of combined Anglo-American command on target selection and
agreed that the Americans should retain the right to select their own targets.
During the targeting discussions, Spaatz included German aircraft production,
noting that the necessary rate of destruction would be twenty planes a day. With
regard to fighter escorts for the bombers, Spaatz expressed the then standard
AAF opinion on the defensive prowess of the B-17 as a gun platform.23

Finally, discussion turned to methods of sending the Eighth to England.
Spaatz presented a plan to fly the Eighth's aircraft over a Maine-Labrador-
Iceland-England ferry route. Richardson was impressed, and as he departed,
indicated that Marshall, too, had expressed great optimism about the plan's suc-
cess. The key element of the plan was its provision of aircraft and crews in
England as early as possible. Aircraft that arrived crated and disassembled via
sea transport would need to be assembled and checked out. Their entry into
combat would be thus delayed. Each B-17 heavy bomber would lead four P-38
fighters. The flying of hundreds of planes across the relatively undeveloped
North Atlantic route required detailed and accurate scheduling to assure the
presence of vital supplies and navigation aids along the way. The plan also sacri-
ficed future combat strength for immediate effect, because the inexperienced

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

crews ferrying the planes would suffer attrition at a fairly high rate, while all
seaborne airplanes and crews would arrive intact, provided German submarines
did not sink them. Once the route had been established, as it was later in the war,
regular ferry crews, rather than combat crews, delivered the planes.24

In these conferences Spaatz left no doubt in the minds of his superiors, mili-
tary and civilian, about what he intended to do and how he meant to do it. The
Eighth Air Force, when fully prepared and only then, would be hurled en masse
against vital German targets that absolutely had to be defended by the Luftwaffe.
The Luftwaffe would destroy hself on the guns of the Eighth' s bombers and, if
possible, those of its short-range fighters. And as the battle of attrition continued
in the air, the Eighth would also throttle the Luftwaffe on the ground by destroy-
ing the aircraft production industry. This action would ensure air supremacy for
the invasion of Europe and severely damage Germany's capacity to wage war.

Spaatz's knowledge of the Luftwaffe's size, strength, and deployment came
almost entirely from British intelligence. The AAF official history admitted,
"When the war began, the AAF probably was more deficient in its provisions for
intelligence than in any other phase of its activities." The same source also
stated that the AAF remained dependent on British intelUgence for the combat
status of the Luftwaffe and for target information for the balance of the war. 25
The British possessed reasonably accurate reports on those matters in part
because of their European intelligence network^^ and in part because of their
breaking of top-secret German codes (known as the Ultra secret), especially
those of the Luftwaffe. The breaking of the codes enabled the British to obtain
accurate readiness, location, and order of battle information on Luftwaffe com-
bat formations.* This information gave Spaatz confidence in his assumptions
that the Germans would continue to deploy the bulk of their air power on the
Eastern Front or Mediterranean. Furthermore, code breaking could give him
quick warning of any change in enemy air plans.

Spaatz's strategy, given the disposition of the Luftwaffe and the on-time
delivery of the aircraft promised him, did not seem unreasonable. The Luftwaffe
had between 4,000 and 4,400 front-line combat aircraft for most of 1942,
60 percent of them deployed against Russia, a little less than 10 percent assigned
to the night fighter defenses of Germany ,27 and a large contingent in the
Mediterranean. Spaatz may have faced no more than 400 to 500 machines of all
types, which gave a large statistical edge to his own initial strength of 512 heavy
bombers and 225 fighters, plus the several thousand British bombers and fight-
ers stationed in Britain. Any major German redeployment or upset of Spaatz's
timetable would invalidate his calculations.28 Postwar examination of captured
Luftwaffe records revealed that Spaatz faced a larger force than he had antici-

* It is doubtful that in May 1942 the British were directly sharing the Ultra secret with the
AAF. However, information derived from Ultra, but not attributed to it and suitably disguised,
would have figured in the British appreciation of German air strength made available to Spaatz.

The Eighth Air Force

pated. German day fighters on the Western Front began the year numbering 292
aircraft and ended the year numbering 453. In September, German day fighter
strength reached a high of 574 and then dropped to 500 for the following two
monlhs.29

The most salient point of Spaatz's plans was the emphasis on destroying the
Luftwaffe rather than on conducting a strategic bombing campaign against the
German war economy. Spaatz would strike at important economic targets pri-
marily to force the Luftwaffe to defend them and only secondarily to damage
German production. He apparently muted his own beliefs in the effectiveness of
strategic bombing in order to present to Marshall and Stimson views more in
keeping with the role of the Eighth Air Force as only one part of the U.S. forces
to be employed against Germany. To concentrate on strategic bombing at the
expense of tactical air operations in support of U.S. ground units would hardly
have persuaded his listeners of the AAF's willingness to join the combined-arms
team envisaged for Europe. Lack of cooperation may have cost Stimson's and
Marshall's support for AAF logistics priorities. Or, practical as always, Spaatz
may well have realized that the destruction of the Luftwaffe was a necessary
preamble to the freeing of American air power to conduct both strategic and tac-
tical operations at will.

On May 21, Spaatz learned of the first of the diversions of strength that
eventually hamstrung the Eighth's ability to engage in an effective strategic
bombing campaign in 1942. Admiral Ernest J. King, Commander in Chief of the
U.S. Fleet and Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), insisted that the Eighth divert
four B-17Es to the defense of Alaska. Spaatz, unaware that King had foreknowl-
edge (thanks to the breaking of Japanese naval codes) of the upcoming Midway
Island campaign, viewed the action with a jaundiced eye. Such withdrawals, in
his opinion, were merely the entering wedge of a whole series of possible diver-
sions that could only hinder the creation of a stable air force.30 Spaatz com-
plained about the diversion of the B-17s to Alaska; he strongly protested the
dissipation of his force and the disruption of his movement to England. In the
interest of safety, Spaatz said he could not allow the B-17s to shepherd more
than four fighters each across the Atlantic. Arnold regretted the diversion of the
B-17s but insisted that "certain pressure" (King) made it necessary.^'

Later that morning Spaatz met with Arnold and Maj. Gen. Millard F.
Harmon, Spaatz's successor as Chief of the Air Staff. The three analyzed a letter
Spaatz had just received from Eaker expressing "the opinion that the R.A.F.
would attempt the dispersal of our units and absorb them within the British
Command."32 Because both parties accepted the assumption that the U.S. bomb-
ing force would operate semiautonomously, this dispute centered on the control
and basing of U.S. fighters. During the ABC talks in January and February 1941
and in a final report of March 27, 1941, the Americans had agreed to undertake
the air defense of the bases of U.S. naval imits in British waters and of certain
other areas as well.33 In the summer of 1941, the Air Ministry and the U.S.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Observer Group made concrete plans to station U.S. pursuit groups in Northern
Ireland, with the clear intention of having the Americans assume full responsi-
bility for the air defense of that sector. The Observer Group further agreed to
allow individual pursuit squadrons to gain operational experience by working
with British units in different sectors of the British air defense network.34

The rapid buildup of tactical air forces required by the Marshall Memoran-
dum and the AAF's intention of building up a large strategic bombing force led
the Americans to change their opinion on the proper basing for the pursuits.
Arnold expounded the new strategy to Portal in mid- April 1942. In order to gain
air supremacy over Europe and to divert the Luftwaffe from the Russian front,
Arnold said, the United States and Britain would have to concentrate the greatest
mass of aircraft as soon as possible in England. Because night bombing alone
could not wear the Germans down in time for the cross-channel invasion, day-
light bombing must resume. In its first stages, daylight bombing would necessi-
tate a large force of fighter escorts to hold down losses from enemy fighters.
Once the day bombers had gained greater defensive firepower and perfected for-
mation flying, they would extend their attacks beyond the range of their fighter
escorts.35 American pursuit units would have to have fields close to the French
beaches and within escort range of their bombers.

This new policy encountered British opposition. When Maj. Gen. James E.
Chaney, head of the U.S. Observer Group in Britain, presented Arnold's new
plan to the British on May 8, the head of Fighter Command, Air Chief Marshal
Sholto Douglas, insisted that U.S. fighters become part of the British integrated
air defense establishment, the Air Defense of Great Britain (ADGB).36 Chaney
replied that his instructions were to limit the use of U.S. fighters to bomber
escort and invasion support. The British appealed to the RAF Delegation in
Washington to explain the British position to Arnold. It was not possible "to
accept for operational training in the front line between 200 and 300 American
fighters without V.H.F. [radios] or I.F.F. or any knowledge of routing and recog-
nition or flying control or, in fact, of any procedure at all." In the event of an
enemy raid, "the Americans could not cross their fingers and say they were not
playing. They must take their share in the defence of what was in fact an Anglo-
American air base."

In a reply that the Air Ministry found most unsatisfactory, the RAF Dele-
gation said, "You are up against a very strong determination on the part of
Arnold, Spaatz, and others to concentrate the training and employment of their
forces in the U.K. entirely upon proving the daylight bombing offensive can be
made a success." Attempts to explain the technical difficulties to Spaatz in par-
ticular had failed, but the RAF Delegation thought that he might come to accept
universal fighter control once he reached Britain and experienced those difficul-
ties. The delegation warned that the Americans would not easily be turned from
their determination to use their pursuits primarily as escorts.3'7

On May 12, Chaney delivered a new proposal asking to put two fighter groups

The Eighth Air Force

on fields near U.S. bombers (in the Huntingdon area) and to delay the arrival of an
additional five groups. Portal rejected it. The delay jeopardized the Marshall
Memorandum objectives. The plan to occupy Northern Ireland had already
gained the approval of the Combined Chiefs of Staff; moreover, the RAF had no
objection to the proposal that the primary task of the U.S. fighters be offensive
and had already offered cooperation in the early stages of the bomber offensive.
Portal insisted, however, that U.S. pursuit units in RAF sectors have not only
offensive tasks but convoy escort and air defense duties as well. The Chief of
the Air Staff proposed that the United States eventually take over British No. 12
Group's sector, the second most important sector for the defense of eastern
Britain and the sector defending the U.S. bomber bases.38 The issue remained at
an impasse until Arnold's visit to Britain at the end of May 1942, to discuss the
reallocation of U.S. aircraft production with the British.

While in Britain, Arnold apparently agreed to station the first two and the
last U.S. fighter groups in the Huntingdon area and the second two in Northern
Ireland. British sources state that he further agreed to the fitting of one fighter
squadron into each active RAF Fighter Sector (to gain operational experience)
and to the eventual takeover of the Northern Ireland and other group sectors.39
Given Arnold's subsequent instructions to Spaatz, which forbade the integration
of U.S. fighters into British air defense schemes, either Arnold changed his mind
or the British assumed agreement where there was none.

While Arnold preceded him to London, Spaatz, with what must have been a
sense of relief, left the round of conferences in Washington to supervise the
overseas movement of his forces. On May 23, he flew to Fort Dix in New Jersey
and inspected all units. From there he motored to Mitchel Field in New York
City, and, on May 25, he flew into Grenier Field in New Hampshire. His com-
mand's aircraft had already started to arrive — 57 P-39s and 3 B-17s. By May 28,
the total had risen to 76 P-39s and 17 B-17s, with an additional 78 P-38s at Dow
Field in Bangor, Maine, and 31 transports at Westover Field in Massachusetts.^^

The next three days were taken up by meetings with Maj. Gen. Harold L.
George, the head of Ferry Command, who controlled the ferry route itself, not
the planes traveling through it; Maj. Gen. Sherman Miles, the Army Corps Area
Commander for New England; and Col. Howard A. Craig of the Air Staff.
George agreed that Ferry Command had the responsibility for the proper func-
tioning of the movement route and would estabUsh communications and provide
housing, supplies, and weather reports. General Miles agreed to provide groimd
security. Spaatz said that the Eighth could provide its own air defense.41

On June 1, Spaatz began his flight for Prestwick, Scotland, the first leg of
which ended at Presque Isle.42 Thanks to the Battle of Midway in the Pacific,
the trip to Scotland took seventeen days. On the evening of June 1, as Spaatz,
George, and Craig worked to perfect plans, they received a priority call from
Brig. Gen. Laurence S. Kuter relaying orders from Marshall to halt all movement.
Midway had claimed its first casualty — the Eighth's departure for England. At

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

8:30 P.M. Kuter issued orders placing all units on six-hour alert for movement to
the West Coast, where they would pass to the control of the Fourth Air Force.^^
Spaatz relayed the changes to his subordinates and ordered the transports to
Presque Isle to unload 80,000 pounds of supplies and then to comply with War
Department orders. By June 3, Spaatz had returned to the District of Columbia.

Victory at Midway unscrambled the Eighth's plans. On June 6 and 11, the
1st Fighter Group and 97th Heavy Bombardment Group returned to Spaatz's
control. He escaped Washington on June 10 and arrived at Grenier Field that
evening. Winging into Presque Isle by 1 1:30 the next morning, Spaatz inspected
each item covered in his previous visit.44 On June 12, Spaatz tried twice to fly
the 569 miles to Goose Bay, but thunderstorms and icy conditions forced him to
turn back. Communications remained unsatisfactory. Weather and communica-
tions failed to cooperate on June 13 as well. Frustrated, Spaatz wired Arnold to
send "the best communications expert in the country" to Presque Isle at once.
On June 14, Spaatz landed in Goose Bay — two hours ahead of his staff. Despite
more unfavorable weather reports, Spaatz wished to get a first-hand idea of the
difficulties involved in the 776-mile flight to Bluie West I (B.W.I.) Field,
Greenland, so he pushed on to Greenland on June 15. Once there, he received a
wire from Arnold asking when the first contingent would start for Britain.
Spaatz replied that the B-17s not needed for escorting fighters or for weather
patrols would start at once; the 1st Pursuit Group could start in a week. On June
17, Spaatz's party flew the 779 miles to Reykjavik, Iceland. They completed the
last leg (884 miles) to Prestwick on June 18.45

Spaatz alighted at Prestwick to the greetings of Brig. Gen. Ira Eaker, who
had done a thorough job in preparing Britain for the initial presence of the AAF.
Soon after his arrival on February 20, 1942, Eaker had set up the first AAF
headquarters in Europe. He then proceeded to RAF Bomber Command Head-
quarters, where he began studies of its staff procedures. Next, he drafted recom-
mendations for training, equipment, and employment of U.S. imits. He found
time to examine British airfields intended for American use, to present a plan for
reception and assignment of bombers, to prepare a scheme for supply and
administration of such units, and to take appropriate steps toward close coordi-
nation of effort with the RAF. On February 22, two days after Eaker arrived at
Bomber Command, Air Chief Marshal Arthm- T. Harris replaced Air Marshal
Richard Peirse.

On June 19, Spaatz and Eaker motored to London to pay a call on the U.S.
theater commander, Maj. Gen. Chaney. (The next day Maj. Gen. Eisenhower
relieved Chaney and assumed command of the European Theater of Operations
[ETO].) The two airmen then called on the American ambassador, John G.
Winant, a great air enthusiast who had been a Navy pilot in World War I. He
wished to visit all of the Eighth's installations. Spaatz invited Winant to accom-
pany him on his first inspection trip. Before completing his last call of the day,
on Portal, Chief of the RAF Air Staff, Spaatz held a press conference. Unlike

The Eighth Air Force

current press conferences, those of World War II tended to be mannerly, with
newspaper men throwing slow pitches and off-the-record comments staying off
the record. Spaatz did well. Quentin Reynolds, Drew Middleton, Ed Beattie, and
the rest of the press corps liked Spaatz's straightforward answers as well as his
honest desire to stay out of the limelight. The correspondents honored Spaatz's
request that his presence in the British Isles not be mentioned. In that, they had
no choice. Strict U.S. military censors subjected all news stories to their flinty-
eyed gaze before release, pruning them of information valuable to the enemy. If
Spaatz could keep his presence secret a while longer, perhaps the Germans
might be less prepared for the AAF's first raids. Perhaps more important, the
American public might be less inclined to demand immediate action if it
remained unaware of the Eighth's arrival in Britain.46

On June 20, Spaatz held a full-scale staff conference at High Wycombe. After
a complete briefing, he set the tone for his command. First, he complimented
Eaker for "his splendid work and accepted any commitments made by him in
toto." He stressed the necessity for a "pleasant" relationship between his staff and
the British. "The 8th must do well," he noted, "otherwise our prestige would suffer
at home as well as with the British who depend on the U.S. effort." Spaatz ended
on a cautionary note. The Eighth should take advantage of British experience, not
British tactics. The B-17s and daytime operations must start under fighter escort
and not count on their own firepower until they had to make penetrations beyond
escort range.4V Spaatz's remarks about the defensive power of the B-I7s demon-
strated, at this point, more concem about lack of numbers, skill at formation fly-
ing, and gunnery training than any lack of faith in the ability of the B-I7s to
conduct unescorted deep penetration missions. He would need his fighters for the
early shallow penetrations and for supporting the upcoming invasion.

For the next two weeks Spaatz threw himself into the task of preparing a
logistics and base structure for his command capable of sustaining the Eighth for
a prolonged campaign. (See Map 2, Eighth Air Force Installations, 1942.) He
flew all over England and Ireland, laying the groundwork for large-scale air
force repair and supply depots. These large facilities would serve as the back-
bone of the Eighth's logistics efforts. They would be the first recipients of new
planes and supplies from the United States and would condition them for dis-
patch to the combat units. In addition, they would handle complex repairs and
overhauls beyond the capacity of the forward depots assigned to the combat
groups. Spaatz reported to Arnold that by January 1, 1943, he would have 3 mil-
lion square feet of storage for air supplies, which would enable the depots to
operate at full capacity. These main depots would require at least 25,000 addi-
tional personnel. Spaatz also planned for 20 forward supply depots to serve the
combat groups.48 Kay Summersby, Spaatz's British driver during the summer of
1942 and later General Eisenhower's driver and confidante, remembered Spaatz
at this time as a "serious man, serious to the point of grimness, and certainly the
hardest working man in the whole U.S. Army Air Force [sic]."^^

The Eighth Air Force

The first bottleneck Spaatz encountered was the shortage of labor and con-
struction supplies in the British Isles. The British, although willing to help,
found difficulty in squeezing either commodity out of their overstrained war
economy. At one point, when Air Marshal Christopher Courtney, the RAF's
chief supply officer, humorously promised that the bases for the first six groups
would be ready on time even if they lacked "plush chairs," Spaatz replied that
his units would sleep in tents if necessary.50

Next, Spaatz traveled to Northern Ireland to inspect newly created Eighth
Air Force training facilities. He planned to set up a training command to give a
final polish to newly arrived combat crews from the United States.5i The British
agreed to hand over seven airfields and a headquarters facility. On July 4, 1942,
the AAF activated the Eighth Air Force Composite Command at Boiling Field in
Washington, D.C.,52 which was soon transferred to Ireland. Spaatz knew full
well that Amold would send him crews as soon as they could make the trip —
well before they had finished their training.

Two factors prevented this training command fix)m completing its mission: (1)
the scarcity of active U.S. combat formations (new groups were sent into combat
very soon after arrival, before their training could be enhanced) and, by midsum-
mer 1943, (2) the higher training level of arriving groups. In fact, because of diver-
sions to North Africa and elsewhere, combat crews did not arrive in Northern
Ireland for training until September 1943. The few replacements reaching the
Eighth were easily handled at one of the two AAF training fields in England.53
The Eighth disbanded the training command by the end of 1943.

The aircraft needed for operations arrived after a painfully slow journey over
the ferry route. The first two, a B-17 bomber and a C-47 transport, arrived on
July 2. Six days later a grand total of eight B-17s, seven P-38s, and five C-47s
had arrived. Spaatz's reception plans for his forces were not helped by constant
changes in the number of aircraft scheduled for the theater. By June 19,
Arnold's original promise of February had grown by one heavy-bomber group
(32 bombers), nine fighter groups (675 fighters), six medium- and six light-
bomber groups (624 planes), eight transport groups (480 transports), and four
observation groups (144 planes). Many of these additional 2,000 aircraft were
intended to provide support for the cross-channel invasion.54 Subsequent strate-
gic decisions sending groups to the Pacific or to North Africa caused numerous
delays in the planned shipments for England. Not until July 27, 1943, did the
Eighth report a strength of sixteen heavy bomber groups — the original figure
promised by Amold in February 1942.55

Establishing the Autonomy of the Eighth Air Force

Aside from the primary task of readying his force and deploying it in battle,
Spaatz had to establish the autonomy of the AAF in England, not from the U.S.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Army — whose overall leader in Britain, Eisenhower, faithfully adhered to the
agreements allowing the Eighth to operate as a whole — but from the Royal Air
Force. The RAF, at this stage in the war, was far larger than the AAF in Britain
and incomparably more experienced. The RAF had committed itself to night
bombing because its own operations had shown that daylight bombing raids
against Luftwaffe-defended targets produced unacceptable losses of men and
machines. Therefore, the RAF wanted the Americans to abandon their attempt to
bomb in daylight and to join with them in night raids. Initially, at least, the
British also wanted to employ U.S. fighters to augment their own air defenses.

On June 22, Spaatz paid an informal call on Rear Adm. St. G. Lyster, British
Chief of the Naval Air Staff. Lyster suggested U.S. fighter protection for British
shipping, a suggestion that Spaatz resisted. His fighters' primary function was
U.S. bomber protection, and the instructions given to him from Arnold through
Eisenhower were clear: U.S. fighters would not "be integrated with British
fighter units employed in the defense of the United Kingdom, or into the British
Fighter Command. "56

The following day Spaatz and Eaker drove to RAF Fighter Command to
confer with Air Chief Marshal Sholto Douglas.57 Spaatz again emphasized that
the primary function of U.S. fighters was to support U.S. bombers. He did con-
cede, however, that his fighters would be trained in air defense procedures to
assist the RAF in the unlikely event that it could not cope with a renewed
German air offensive against Britain. Douglas suggested that the most expedi-
tious way to acquaint American pilots with operations was to blend U.S.
squadrons with British wings until they learned procedures. Spaatz agreed to
consider this suggestion. Next, Douglas "expressed the hope that eventually the
U.S. Air Forces would take over an entire sector. "58 Spaatz pointed out that the
Americans would then have to assume responsibility for the air defense of that
sector. Douglas admitted "that if U.S. forces did take over a sector, U.S. Air
Forces might be called upon to furnish Fleet Arm protection."59 Spaatz deferred
his decision.

He continued his delaying tactics on other occasions during the summer
when the RAF again made tentative attempts to gain closer operational control
of the AAF in Britain. On July 7, Douglas repeated his attempt to pin down
Spaatz on sector air defense. Finally, on July 15, Eisenhower and Spaatz met
with Douglas and Slessor and obtained British agreement to the principle "that
the integrity of the 8th Air Force must be maintained in any organizational set-
up — ^but there was no objection to all Air Powers being under one Command. "60
If not in this meeting, then at some time during the summer, Spaatz made sub-
stantial concessions to the British. He allowed the attachment of his fighter
squadrons to British groups for final training and acclimatization and agreed to
the eventual assumption of control of British sector and group areas.61 Spaatz
might well have taken the calculated risk that the integration of his fighters both

The Eighth Air Force

Air Chief Marshal
Sholto Douglas, Air
Officer Commanding,
Fighter Command,
RAF, 1942.

offensively and defensively into the British air control network would be a lia-
bility only if the Germans launched attacks on Britain — a possibility that he dis-
counted. Spaatz probably did not object to the responsibility for the air defense
of his own fields, if needed. In return, he gained a well-functioning control net-
work with which to coordinate his own operations. In any case, Spaatz's accom-
modation became unnecessary with the unanticipated transfer of all his active
fighter groups* to the North African operation, and it came too late to head off
unfavorable press reports. One, which appeared on the front page of ttie August
8 issue of the New York Times, began, "The widely advocated British-American
air offensive against Germany is not being carried on because of British-
American inability to agree on methods or objectives."62 The article added that
British air officers doubted the ability of U.S. heavy bombers "to do the job."
Instead, according to the Times, the British wanted the Americans to build night
bombers. Although the American and British publics may have failed to grasp
the import of the RAF's suggestion, professional air officers knew that the
AAF's switch to night bombing would bring the entire American air effort xmder
total British control. Three days later the New York Times printed Spaatz's
rebuttal on page two.^3 He asserted that the dispersal of men and planes dictated

* The Eighth did retain the British-Gained ex-RAF Eagle squaxlrons just transferted to its con-
trol.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

by strategy, bad weather, and the necessity of putting American crews through
advanced operational training — not disagreement over tactics — had delayed the
start of the joint air offensive.

The opening of Park House, where Spaatz and most of his staff lived and
took their meals, allowed him to entertain high-ranking RAF officers in comfort
and privacy. Spaatz also visited them often at their offices or over a working
lunch. On occasion, his diary recorded the subject of discussion. On August 8,
for example, he and Air Chief Marshal Wilfred Freeman, Vice-Chief of the Air
Staff, "conferred" on the transfer of the Eagle Squadrons — fighter squadrons
composed of American citizens who had joined the RAF to fight the Nazis
before Pearl Harbor— from the RAF to the AAF. (In September the three
squadrons of combat-experienced pilots became part of the Eighth Air Force,
forming the 4th Fighter Group.)64 Between August 11 and 21, Spaatz saw Air
Vice-Marshal Norman H. Bottomley, Assistant Chief of the Air Staff (Opera-
tions), five times.65 Although some of their conversations must have centered
on coordination for the first U.S. heavy-bomber raid on August 17, Bottomley
was the officer, subject to Portal's and possibly Churchill's approval, who
defined operations. If he accepted operational independence for the AAF, the
goal was three-quarters gained.

Bottomley and Spaatz had lunch on August 1 1 and dinner at Park House on
August 13 for a preliminary round of negotiations. Five days later, probably
after both sides had reviewed the original scheme, the two met again. The next
day Spaatz sent Bottomley a letter, perhaps a draft proposal, and the two dined
that evening at Park House.66 Although speculative, this scenario fits with sub-
sequent events.

On August 20, Spaatz forwarded to Eisenhower a draft proposal on Anglo-
American operations. The same day, in light of the commencement of active
U.S. operations on August 17, the Eighth Air Force and the Air Ministry
together held the first of a series of weekly meetings to discuss operational ques-
tions. At the first two meetings, both attended by Spaatz and chaired by Slessor,
the chief order of business was consideration of a joint U.S.-British directive on
daylight bomber operations involving fighters. 67 Modifications to suit both
staffs and the approval of Eisenhower and the British resulted in the promulga-
tion, on September 8, of the "Joint American /British Directif [sic] on Day
Bomber Operations Involving Fighter Co-operation."

The joint directive divided the development of the day bomber offensive
into three successive phases and provided command procedures for implement-
ing each. In phase 1, U.S. bombers would fly with combined U.S.-British fighter
cover. In phase 2, U.S. fighters would escort the bombers while the British sup-
plied diversions and withdrawal cover. In phase 3, the AAF would operate inde-
pendently in cooperation with the RAF, a phrase ambiguous enough to allow the
AAF complete control over its own operations. The directive did, however,
imply U.S. coordination and adjustment of operational intentions with British

The Eighth Air Force

air control plans. The joint directive effectively laid to rest the question of inte-
gration of U.S. forces into the RAF.68 Spaatz had convinced the RAF that the
AAF should retain its operational integrity.

Although Spaatz had fended off too close an embrace from the RAF, the
"Joint Directif," at least in the minds of the RAF's top leaders, merely allowed
the AAF to continue its experiment in daylight bombing.69 The British, as the
New York Times had implied, did not believe it would succeed. Portal flatly pre-
dicted failure. On September 26, 1942, he stated to Archibald Sinclair, the
Secretary of State for Air, with remarkable accuracy the conditions the U.S.
strategic bombers would face in October 1943:

The Americans will eventually be able to get as far as the Ruhr, suffering very
much heavier casualties than we now suffer by night, and going much more
rarely. They will in effect do area bombing with the advantage of the absence
of decoys. If it can be kept up in face of the losses (and I don't think it will be),
this will of course be a valuable contribution to the war, but it will certainly not
result in the elimination of the enemy fighter force and so open the way to the
free bombing of the rest of Germany. I do not think that they will ever be able
to regularly penetrate further than the Ruhr or perhaps Hamburg without abso-
lutely prohibitive losses resulting from being run out of ammunition or from
gunners being killed or wounded.™

Called Peter by his close associates, Portal was the youngest of the Combined
British and American Chiefs of Staff. He had begun his military career m 1914 as
a motorcycle dispatch rider. A year later he joined the Royal Flying Corps, eammg
a Distinguished Flying Cross and shooting down several German aircraft before
the end of the war. Between the wars he served as Commander, British Forces,
Aden; as instructor at the Imperial Defense College; and as Director of
Organization on the Air Staff. Personally somewhat remote and cool, he nonethe-
less established excellent working relationships with Spaatz, Eaker, Arnold, and
Eisenhower. The British Chiefs of Staff and Churchill respected him for his strate-
gic ability and brilliant intellect. Because he was virtually unflappable, he could
weather the storms of Churchill's fanciful military ideas, often hurled with insult-
ing vehemence by the Prime Minister at the Chiefs of Staff, and temper those ideas
with wisdom. Portal worked exceedingly long and hard hours during the war, leav-
ing behind him a voluminous official, but scant personal, correspondence.

Despite his sincere doubts about U.S. daylight bombing policy, which he
beheved would delay the Americans' eventual and necessary conversion to night
bombing until 1944 or later, he loyally supported the AAF's determination to
build up the largest possible force in Britain. Always a realist, he probably
accepted the political fact that the Americans were so wedded to daylight bomb-
ing that only repeated setbacks and not advice could divorce them from it. He
may also have recognized that vocal opposition to daylight operations could
only work against British interests in the long run. Any undermining of the AAF
buildup would result in the dispersal of units slated for Britain to other theaters.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Early Operations

Even as Spaatz fended off the British with one hand, he had to use the other
to restrain Arnold. Arnold wanted AAF aircraft operating from Britain against
the Germans as soon as possible. He had promised Churchill action by July 4,
nine days before Spaatz arrived in Britain.^l As Commanding General of the
AAF, Arnold naturally had priorities very different from those of the leader of a
combat air force like the Eighth. Arnold had to justify AAF appropriations to the
President, the Congress, and the public. In addition, he had to maintain AAF
production and strategic priorities in the face of challenges from the British and
the U.S. Navy. All this required a perception of the AAF as a successful and
aggressive weapon actively being used against the enemy.

In the summer of 1942, the AAF's image needed bolstering. Navy air had
won at Midway while the public still wondered about Army air's performance at
Pearl Harbor and in the Philippines. Furthermore, Amold knew that Roosevelt
wanted to see results from the AAF which would justify the massive aircraft
production program and shipping priorities slanted toward the projection of air
power. On June 28, Spaatz received orders from Amold to schedule a raid for
Independence Day. Because his B-17s had not yet arrived and his 31st Fighter
Group had just received its unfamiliar Spitfires, he chose a squadron of light
bombers assigned to the VIII Air Support Command. The unit had landed in
Britain months earlier as part of a token U.S. force. Spaatz and Eaker viewed the
raid as a premature commitment.

The results, from Spaatz's viewpoint, justified his counsel against forcing
action too early. The morning of July 4 six American crews and six British
crews, ail in RAF Boston Bombers and all flying in a joint formation, with the
Americans in relatively protected positions, attacked German airfields in
Holland. Two of the planes with American crews were downed and two more
failed to reach their target. The attacks inflicted little damage. From Arnold's
point of view, however, the raid was successful. Not only had Americans been
bloodied, but one of their pilots had heroically managed to bring home his
severely damaged plane. Capt. Charles C. Kegelman was promptly promoted to
major and awarded the first Distinguished Service Cross (DSC) earned by a
member of the Eighth Air Force. British and American papers gave the story of
the raid headline treatment. To complete the episode Spaatz personally pinned
the DSC on Kegelman on July 11. His command diary sourly noted, "The cam-
eramen and newspapermen finally got what they wanted — and everybody
seemed contented."^^ But not Amold, who continued to press Spaatz for more
AAF action and publicity.

Spaatz not only had to meet Arnold's demands, he had to satisfy Dwight D.
Eisenhower, the new head of the European Theater of Operations (ETO). Spaatz
and Eisenhower had not known each other well before their current assignments.
They had crossed paths only three times — once at West Point, where Eisenhower

The Eighth Air Force

Air Chief Marslial
Charles A. Portal, Chief
of the Air Staff, RAF,
1940-1945.

graduated a year after Spaatz, in 1915; again in Washington, D.C., from 1933 to
1935, when Spaatz served in the Office of the Chief of the Air Corps and
Eisenhower was in the Office of the Chief of Staff; and, finally, during the first
six months of the war, when both men had served in high Army and AAF staff
positions. Although the new theater commander was not an air enthusiast, he
was much less closed-minded about the AAF than many staff and ground offi-
cers; he even had a private pilot's license. Marshall had selected him for his cur-
rent position and had p'omoted him to lieutenant general. Eisenhower had spent
the previous seven months working hand in hand with the Chief of Staff as head
of the Operations Division of the War Department's General Staff and had pre-
pared the Marshall Memorandum, which set out the invasion plans for north-
western Europe agreed to by the Anglo-American Allies. Having written the
plan, he would now execute it.

On June 26, Spaatz had his first appointment with his new commanding offi-
cer. It was the start of an effective, close, working relationship that did much to
advance the cause of the Allies and, to a lesser extent, the AAF. This first meet-
ing proved typical. Spaatz agreed to notify Eisenhower one week before his
units were scheduled for combat or to telephone him at any time day or night
that AAF units entered combat. Eisenhower, as the officer responsible for con-
ducting the amphibious assault on the Continent, was naturally concerned that
vm Air Support Command (Vm ASC) had not yet set up its headquarters in

Spaatz and the Am War in Europe

Maj. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz congratulating newly-promoted Maj. Charles C.
Kegelman to whom he hais just awarded the first Distinguished Service Cross
earned by a member of the Eighth Air Force.

Britain. Spaatz sent a cable "asking for Colonel [Robert C] Candee to get here
immediately with Air Support Headquarters." Then Spaatz and Eisenhower
agreed to locate VIII ASC Headquarters at Maj. Gen. Mark W. Clark's II Corps
Headquarters. In this they adhered to the essential principle of co-location of a
tactical air headquarters with the headquarters of the ground unit it supported.
Clark's II Corps Headquarters commanded all Army Ground Forces in
Eisenhower's theater and was scheduled to have direct tactical control at the
invasion beachhead.^3

Spaatz did not walk away empty-handed from his first meeting with
Eisenhower. He obtained support for his position against the British on the role
of U.S. fighter aircraft in England. In a letter to Arnold dated the day of the
meeting, Eisenhower confided:

We intend to insist that the American squadrons should be looked upon as an
offensive force with the result that our fighter squadrons will be fully engaged
fighting over hostile territory. If we are going to provoke a fight, we have got
to have the close support units to fight with, and they must not be worn out by
keeping them on regular alerts.'''*

Apparently Spaatz had drawn Eisenhower's attention to the fact that any

The Eighth Air Force

Eighth Air Force fighter assigned to air defense over England and naval support
over the English Channel might be a fighter unavailable for tactical air missions
over a beachhead.

The Spaatz-Eisenhower relationship eventually grew into what Spaatz later
termed "a rather close personal relationship, and I think on both sides that
mutual confidence made it unnecessary to have long detailed explanations for
courses of action. "75 From July 1 to October 31, 1942, the two generals "con-
ferred," to use the term employed in Spaatz's Command Diary, fifty-five times.

On June 26, after dinner at High Wycombe, Spaatz, Eaker, Winant, and Air
Chief Marshal Harris retired to Eaker' s apartment for drinks and discussion.
Harris had met Spaatz and come to a first-name basis with him during a trip to
the United States as a member of a British purchasing commission in 1938, and
again when he headed the permanent RAF Delegation to the United States in
late 1941. That evening Spaatz and Harris agreed that, given 5,000 bombers,
they could end the war in three months. When Winant pointed out that current
production schedules should soon supply that force, Spaatz noted that attrition,
operational damage, and commitments to other theaters had significantly altered
the situation. As Spaatz's Command Diary narrated, Spaatz and Harris disagreed
at only one point. Spaatz "contended that the war could not end until the Allies
gained a foothold on some point now occupied by Germany, and operated from
that territory against the enemy." Harris insisted that "a prolonged bombing of
the enemy's vital industry alone could finish the job." Placing troops on occu-
pied soil meant supporting them, thereby jeopardizing other operations. Harris
also raised the possibility of another Dunkirk disaster. Spaatz replied that "no
such effort should be attempted until the Allies were certain of the results and
that the propitious moment was only when and if the Allies gain complete
SUPREMACY [sic] in the air."76

This discussion neatly summarized the differences between these two great
practitioners of strategic bombing: Spaatz, the flexible, pragmatic disciple of
Billy Mitchell, who, despite his belief that strategic bombing alone could defeat
Germany, also anticipated and accepted having a large percentage of his force
assigned to tactical air missions supporting an invasion of France; and Harris,
the inflexible student of the great British air power advocate, Trenchard, who
insisted in the face of all opposition that his bombers could win if he was given a
chance to prove it. Almost two years later, when the two men actually had 5,000
bombers between them, they would find themselves unable to end the war
within their self-imposed deadline, perhaps because diversions prevented them
from applying the full effort of their bombers.

In June 1942, Spaatz and Harris had much in common. Both had received
their commands in February, and neither led a large force. Spaatz hoped to have
at least 500 modem heavy bombers by January 1, 1943. Harris, despite taking
great risks to get 1,000 bombers in the air for a raid over Cologne, hoped to have
a similar number. Harris had mounted this large raid only by including 370

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

aircraft and their half-trained crews from his operational training units and by
having his regular units put up every bomber airframe they had, including sec-
ond-line aircraft.77 When he took charge, he found a total operational force of
only 374 medium and heavy bombers, of which only 44 were four-engine
Lancaster heavy bombers — ^the mainstay of the British night-bomber campaignJ^

Harris also found a new directive for operations, dated February 14, 1942,
which authorized him to employ his effort "without further restriction" in a cam-
paign whose primary objective "focused on the morale of the enemy civil popu-
lation and in particular, of the industrial workers." This directive continued a
policy first enunciated in a directive of July 9, 1941, which called for attacks
against civilian morale and the inland transportation system in Germany. The
Air Ministry issued the February directive to take advantage of a newly devel-
oped radio navigational aid, Gee, which promised greater accuracy in night
bombing of targets within its range, 350 miles from Mildenhall. The accuracy of
the system varied from 0.5 mile to 5 miles.79 Targets within range included
Germany's chief industrial area (the Ruhr) and the coastal ports of Bremen,
Wilhelmshaven, and Emden.^o

The bombing of Germany to reduce the morale of its civilian population,
especially the work force, which emphasized the targeting of city centers rather
than precision targets and the use of large numbers of incendiary bombs, became
an idee fixe with Harris. He had observed how the RAF had scattered its effort in
vain attempts to bomb the Germans' transportation system, synthetic oil indus-
try, and capital ships at Brest, From these failures he drew firm conclusions that
Bomber Command lacked the accuracy to destroy precision targets and that any
attempt to divert his forces to such targets should be resisted at all costs. He
dubbed plans that promised to end the war by knocking out a single system of
key targets "panaceas" and those who advocated them "panacea mongers."

A study issued on August 18, 1941, six months before Harris's assumption
of command, had already drawn attention to Bomber Command's inaccurate
night bombing. The Butt Report, named for its author, D. M. Butt, a member of
the War Cabinet Secretariat, had concluded, after examination of 633 photos
taken by attacking aircraft, that only one aircraft in five dropped its bombs
within five miles of its target. Only 7 percent of the British bombers attempting
to demolish the Ruhr dropped their bombs within five miles (or within seventy-
five square miles) of the target.8i The Butt Report, with its damning indictment
of RAF night navigation, spurred the development of electronic navigation aids,
such as Gee. The report may also have tipped the scales toward adoption of the
area-bombing policy embraced by the February 14 directive by eliminating any
option featuring precision night bombing. The Butt Report could only have
strengthened Harris's mistrust of precision targeting.

Like the majority of high-ranking British and American airmen, Harris had
spent his adult life in the service. In 1914, he had joined the Rhodesia Regiment
and had fought as a mounted infantryman during the conquest of German South-

The Eighth Air Force

Command, RAF,
1942-1945.

Air Chief Marshal
Arthur T. "Bomber"
Harris, Air Officer
Commanding, Bomber

West Africa. Forswearing the infantry, he had trekked to England where he

joined the Royal Flying Corps and finished the war as a major. For the next fif-
teen years he had commanded various bomber formations throughout the British
Empire. He had served on the Air Staff for five years before going to the United
States in 1938 to head a British purchasing commission. At the start of the war,
he commanded the crack No. 5 Group, where he displayed his talent as a hard-
driving director of bombing operations.

Harris had a forceful personality and was prone to wild overstatement of his
views. In support of his opinion that the Army would never understand air
power, he was said to have remarked, "In order to get on in the Army, you have
to look like a horse, think like a horse and smell like a horse."82 in an even more
pungent utterance Harris was supposed to have said, "The Army will never
appreciate planes until they can drink water, eat hay, and shit!" When stopped
for speeding on a road between High Wycombe and London, he replied to the
constable's admonition that he might kill someone, "Young man, 1 kill thou-
sands of people every night! "83 Harris also enjoyed a special relationship with
Churchill, which, if not personally close, was at least founded on a mutual inter-
est in advancing Bomber Command. Churchill needed a means to strike at
Germany proper before the cross-channel invasion, and Harris wanted as large a
force as possible to bomb Germany into surrender by air alone. Harris had
"direct contact" with the Prime minister.84 The proximity of High Wycombe

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

(Headquarters, Bomber Command) and Chequers (Churchill's country resi-
dence) facilitated frequent and frank exchanges of views between the two men.
This easy availability for face-to-face discussions often gained Harris the advan-
tage of Churchill's support and a strengthened position with the Air Ministry.

Spaatz, whose position in dealing with the AAF staff was also strong,
although it rested on his relationship with Arnold rather than with the head of
government, nonetheless came under increasing pressure to commit his forces to
combat. Throughout July, the combat aircraft of the Eighth trickled m. On July
1, the 97th Heavy Bombardment Group's first B-17 landed at Prestwick, but it
was not until July 27 that the entire group and its ground echelon were com-
pletely assembled.85 The 1st Fighter Group's initial P-38 touched down in
England on July 9, but the group was not operational until mid- August. The 31st
Fighter Group completed its conversion to Spitfire MK Vs, becoming opera-
tional on August 12. All of the groups had been rushed overseas after receiving
only minimal unit training in the United States. The 97th lacked experience in
formation flying, high-altitude operations, gunnery, and navigation. When
Spaatz and Eisenhower inspected a bomber group in late July, they flew a gun-
nery training mission with a crew that had never fired on the range before, had
just arrived from the United States, and had not even initiated crew training.
After the flight Eaker chewed out his subordinate in a furious letter, asking:

What would you think of an infantry regimental commander who, when told

the commanding general was coming to inspect his regiment, assigned the lat-
est recruit to put on the effort as representative of the organization? That is
exactly what General Eisenhower, General Spaatz, and I think of you and your
judgment and that of your organization commanders. It was a disgraceful per-
formance. It wasted their time and gave them an erroneous idea of the state of
your crews."

Practice missions alleviated many of these problems and, on August 9, the 97th
received orders for its first mission, which weather postponed until August 17.

For Arnold back in the States, mission no. 1 could not come too soon. He
had asked, then requested, then cajoled, and eventually prodded Spaatz for
action. On July 16, Arnold had noted, "The movement of the First Pursuit Group
with its accompanying heavy bombardment has not progressed by a long shot as
I had hoped." On August 9, he had written, "I am personally gravely concerned
over the apparent extension of the time period which you had anticipated neces-
sary to complete the training of oiu: units prior to their actual entry into combat."
He continued, "The strategic necessity for the immediate or early initiation of
effective, aggressive American Air Force offensive operations becomes more
and more apparent here daily." The harried AAF leader closed by admonishing,
"Where doubt exists as to the ability of our units to acquit themselves ade-
quately, I urge that you do not be over conservative."87

Arnold needed results to justify the retention of top priority for allocation of

The Eighth Air Force

air resources to the strategic bomber offensive in Britain. Perhaps even more
than Marshall he had opposed the newly agreed upon invasion of North Africa
(Torch).* The diversion of heavy-bomber groups to North Africa delayed the
bomber offensive from England called for in AWPD/1. The longer the delay, the
greater the gathered momentum of the demands generated by other theaters. On
July 24, as part of the final settlement concerning the invasion decision,
Marshall had allotted to Admiral King fifteen heavy- and medium-bomber
groups for use in the Pacific. In addition, the U.S. Chiefs of Staff shifted heavy-
and medium-bomber groups from the scheduled buildup in England to the North
African operation. In November 1942, the Eighth would have to transfer four
Y eavy-bomber and four fighter groups already in England to Torch. North
Africa, where the battle was against German and Italian ground units, would be
a ground forces theater. The Pacific would be either a Navy show (in the central
Pacific) or the ground Army's (in MacArthur's area of operations). In 1943, at
least, the European Theater of Operations with its scheduled air offensive
against the enemy's homeland, would be the theater that got the AAF its share
of newsprint, but only if Arnold could get results.

The press stories of disagreement between American and British airmen
added to Arnold's desire for action. On August 15, Arnold felt compelled to call
a press conference to defend the AAF. The conference, which the New York
Times described as "perhaps the most active military press conference held in
Washington since the war began," had extensive off-the-record portions. In
reply to a question on the bombing of Germany he could only say it was "merely
a question of getting the planes over there."88

The next day, in the Sunday Times of London, Peter Masefield, a well-
regarded British aviation expert, roundly condemned the American heavy-bomber
effort. Masefield echoed the view of the RAF Air Staff, which had concluded
that the B-17 and the B-24 were unsuitable for day operations in Europe. In
January, on the basis of its experience with twenty early model aircraft, the Air
Staff had concluded that "unless the Fortress or the Liberator can be adapted for
employment at night they are unlikely to achieve more than intermittent harass-
ing operations in daylight in a European theatre and in the face of modem air
defenses. "89 Masefield suggested that the Americans produce and operate
British-designed heavy bombers at night alongside the RAF.^o The American
papers also carried the story.

The day after Masefield' s article appeared, Spaatz held a joint AAF-RAF
press conference to emphasize cooperation between the two forces and to finally
launch mission no. 1.

Spaatz had intended to lead the mission himself.^l Eisenhower approved
these arrangements,92 with the proviso that both Eaker and Spaatz not fly on the

* The decision to invade North Africa is discussed later in this chapter.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

same mission, but apparently, the British objected. What would happen, they
asked, if a ranking officer were downed over occupied France and ended up in
the hands of German military intelligence? Spaatz and Eaker reluctantly accepted
the British view but decided that the psychological value of a general flying was
worth the risk. Spaatz, however, had already learned one of the most important
secrets of the war; the British had already fully briefed him on the ability of the
British Government Code and Cypher School (GC and CS) at Bletchley Park to
decrypt the messages of the German top-secret Enigma enciphering machine
(used by all the German armed services and many civil and police organizations
as well).* Spaatz obviously knew too much. Therefore, Eaker, Spaatz's deputy
and Commander of VIII Bomber Command, who did not yet know the Ultra
secret,93 led Eighth Air Force heavy-bomber mission no.l, directed at the
Rouen-Sotteville railroad marshaling yards.94 The targeting officer of the Eighth
Air Force, Col. Richard D'O. Hughes, selected the marshaling yards because
they were far enough from the town to minimize killing French civilians and
because they fell well within the range of escorting Spitfires.95

The attacking planes bombed with reasonable accuracy; approximately half
of the 18.5 tons of bombs released fell in the general target area. They damaged
ten of twenty-four lines of track, destroyed some rolling stock, and scored direct
hits on two large transshipment sheds in the center of the yard. The attack may
have temporarily disrupted service, but it caused no lasting injury to the Germans.
Serious damage to such a target required the attack of a far larger number of
bombers.96 An overjoyed Spaatz greeted Eaker as soon as the latter alighted
from his aircraft.

After the first raid Spaatz enthusiastically told Arnold, "It is my opinion and
conviction that the B-17 is suitable as to speed, armament, armor, and bomb
load. I would not exchange it for any British bomber in production." Arnold sent
Spaatz's message directly to the President, adding, "The above more than vindi-
cates our faith in the Hying Fortresses and precision bombing. "97

As Arnold's letter to Spaatz on August 19, 1942, indicated, the news of the
Rouen raid was the perfect tonic which Arnold couldn't wait to share with the
"highest authorities." He told Spaatz:

You can't blame me for being a little impatient, because I have been impatient
all my life. ... I was very glad to get the information covering the operation of
the bombers over Rouen. That mission came just at the right time to act as a
counter-irritant to the British report that our airplanes were no good, etc. etc.
As a matter of fact, the President had me up to Hyde Park day before yester-
day, asked me about that article, and told me he was much concemed. I assured
him that there was no reason for being concemed. I hope we are right.

* The high-grade signal intelligence material produced by the British Government Code and
Cypher School was tightly controlled and distributed under the code name Ultra. Hence references
to GC and CS as the IJltra organization and to the material as Ultra or the Ultra secret.

The Eighth Am Force

Lt. Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Commanding General, European Tlieater of
Operations, and Eiglith Air Force commanding generals, summer 1942. Left to right:
Lt. Gen. Robert Candee (Commander, VIII Air Support Command), Brig. Gen.
Frank Hunter (Commander, VIII Fighter Command), Col. Asa Duncan (Chief of
Staff, Vm Bomber Conunand), M^. Gen. Walter Frank (Commander, vm Service
Command), Eisenhower, Maj. Gen. Carl Spaatz (Commander, Eighth AF), and
Brig. Gen. Ira Eaker (Commander, VIII Bomber Command).

Arnold was still greatly worried about "the tendency of the Strategic
Planners to take aircraft away from the European Theater and throw it in the
Southwest Pacific Theater." He lamented, "We are so dispersing our effort that
we will have an overwhelming superiority in no theater. This in itself violates
the approved conception of employment of aircraft." Arnold asked Spaatz
whether he could "get Eisenhower and Portal together and for you to get every-
body over there to stand up on their hind legs for the Air Force that is needed?"^^

In quick succession, on August 19, 20, and 21, the Eighth sent out three
raids. None consisted of more than twenty-four B-17s, and the last one sent
against the Rotterdam shipyards was recalled at the French coast after being six-
teen minutes late for its escort. Attacking German fighters damaged one of its
planes, but the bombers seemed to have defended themselves well. Spaatz sent
reports of these pinpricks to an impatient Arnold. In a hurried letter, hand-car-
ried to Arnold, Spaatz wrote that the latest operations indicated "we can bomb
accurately from high altitude." Spaatz further commented favorably on his
bombers' ability to maintain formation, fly formation through flak, and defend
themselves against the Germans' best fighter, the Focke-Wulf 190 (FW 190).99

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

The King and Queen of England inspecting an Eighth Air Force Held with Maj.
Gen. Carl A. Spaatz, sununer 1942.

Earlier the same day Spaatz, who said he had delayed judgment until operational
experience allowed him to gauge with accuracy the value of U.S. training and
equipment, had justified his actions to Arnold. "First let me say that I can imag-
ine what a strain this inaction has been on you and what a lot of gripes you have
had to put up with and answer. But I really believed we were justified in with-
holding action with our B-17s until we could get off to a good start and am fol-
lowing a similar policy with the P-38s." Then Spaatz told Arnold that critics had
begun to recant:

In spite of the London Times, Seversky or anyone else the B-17s are far supe-
rior to anything in this theater and are fully adequate for their job. The British
themselves admit this and say that with similar equipment and training they too
would day-bomb. They are unanimous in their praise of our Bombing accuracy
about which they had their fingers crossed until now.'""

Arnold, recognized that Eisenhower because he had Marshall's complete
c(H)fidence and would soon be a power in his own right, should have the best air
advice available, especially if he were in charge of American air power's most
important theater. Arnold tried to supply Eisenhower's staff with high-quality
officers. On July 30, Arnold informed Spaatz that to help him meet Torch plan-
ning obligations he was sending him Colonels Vandenberg and Norstad. Arnold
wanted Eisenhower to accept Spaatz's headquarters as his own air planning unit.

100

The Eighth Am Force

"Get him to use you in that way as he is the head of all U.S. Anny Forces in
Europe." Arnold added, "/ want him to recognize you as the top air man in all
Europe [emphasis added]." A few days later Arnold rather querulously observed,
"I am not satisfied that Ike is using you and your staff to the extent that we
hoped he would. Perhaps geographical separation, or other factors not in evi-
dence here lead him toward decisions without the advice and coimsel of the air-
thought represented in your command." Arnold had wanted to offer Eisenhower
"any officer in the Army Air Forces whom he might wish to have as his Chief of
Staff but was unable to derail Brig. Gen. Walter Bedell Smith's assignment as
Eisenhower's Chief of Staff. lOl

Spaatz replied on August 11, "Hansell will be the top planner for air and as
such under the present instructions will be the Theater Commander's Air
Planner." Spaatz went on to point out that Hansell would live in the same house
with him and other key officers of the Eighth. Norstad and Vandenberg were
assigned to Headquarters, ETO, as air planners for the cross-channel invasion
and Operation Torch respectively.i^^

The complexity of these arrangements apparently caused Spaatz some con-
cern. On August 14, he told Arnold, "I am certain that it would be a mistake for
two large Air Staffs to be built up here."i03 Spaatz suggested a solution to Arnold
and Eisenhower, and so, on August 21, Arnold, at Ike's request, gave Spaatz
additional duties as Air Officer for ETO and appointed him head of the Air
Section of the ETO staff, thus assuring the Eighth of active participation in theater
planning.

Earlier, on July 7, Arnold had given Spaatz a second hat by appointing him
Commanding General, AAF, ETO, which did not add a plane or private to
Spaatz's command, but did elevate him a step on the ETO organization charts.
Before that, as Eighth Air Force Commander, Spaatz was a tactical commander
and therefore was organizationally outranked by the Commanding Generals of
the Service of Supply, ETO, John C. H. Lee, and Army Ground Forces, ETO,
Mark Clark, who had theaterwide administrative training and doctrinal responsi-
bilities.

Spaatz now wore three hats (CG, Eighth Air Force; CG AAF, ETO; Chief,
Air Section, ETO Staff) with one goal — ^keeping air power and its advocates at
the forefront of the theater scheduled to receive the preponderance of U.S.
wartime air strength. When Eisenhower was officially transferred to the
Mediterranean in January 1943, an airman succeeded him. General Marshall's
selection of Lt. Gen. Frank M. Andrews as CG, ETO placed the theater in the
hands of a man committed to daylight strategic bombing.

In September 1942, Arnold, eager for more materials with which to wage his
air power publicity campaign on the home front, applauded Spaatz for suggest-
ing photographs of bombing results. "People believe more readily what they see
than what they hear," he noted, "Every daily paper in the United States will fea-
ture the pictures if you can get them to us."i04 Arnold extolled the value of posi-

101

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Maj. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz,
according to his driver,
"the hardest working man
In the whole U.S. Army
Air Forces," summer 1942.

live publicity, saying: "Within the borders of [the] continental United States,
two most important fronts exist, namely, aircraft production and public opinion.
Nine months have passed since Pearl Harbor, and the American public now
wants to see pictures, stories and experiences of our Air Forces in combat zones.
The public is entitled to expect us to furnish . . . them." Arnold directed Spaatz
to give the subject of publicity and news coverage "his full and immediate coop-
eration."l05

Spaatz had probably borrowed the idea of bomb damage photos from Harris,
who habitually trotted them out to impress the Prime Minister and others with
his efforts. Eventually Arnold, too, kept albums stuffed with strike photos, duti-
fully supplied by Spaatz, in his office to spring on unsuspecting visitors. He cir-
culated the photos and even a glossy monthly magazine entitled Impact*
throughout Washington. Air power publicity was rapidly growing. On Septem-
ber 7, 1942, for instance, the lead story in Time magazine covered the Eighth
and its coimnander.

Spaatz also cultivated the press, though less ebulliently than Arnold. Several
times he invited correspondents such as Ed Beattie and Joe Morrison of United

* Impact was a security classified publication, but it appears to have circulated fteely through-
out the AAF and official government circles. In fact, its security classification may have lent it a cer-
tain cachet, making readers think they were "in the know."

102

The Eighth Air Force

Press, as well as Walter Lippmaim and Wes Gallagher of Associated Press for din-
ner and late-night poker at his residence in London. He held press conferences in
July and August. On August 23, Spaatz even allowed Arthur Sulzberger, publisher
of the New York Times, to accompany him on a flight to High Wycombe where
Eaker would be decorated with the Silver Star. The flight almost ended in tragedy
when the pilot of their plane ground-looped on landing, wiping out the props and
landing gear. Happily, everyone in the plane walked away from the crash. 106

After a while. General Marshall, who did not want one part of the Army
praised at the expense of another, cabled Eisenhower on August 19, questioning
the advisability of all the attention given U.S. air raids and airmen. The next day
Eisenhower passed the word to Spaatz, who temporarily muted his public relations
activities. Spaatz persuaded Time to take him off the cover of the September 7
issue (but not out of the lead story) and had his chief of staff substitute for him on
a March of Time radio broadcast scheduled for that very evening. '0?

In the meantime, Spaatz and the Eighth continued to struggle toward full
operational readiness. In August, the Eighth Air Force sent out eight heavy-
bomber missions, including one completely aborted. The largest August raid had
only 30 B-17s. In September, the Eighth laimched only four heavy-bomber mis-
sions, including another aborted mission. It lost its first 2 B-17s to enemy action
on September 6 and had two new heavy-bomber groups (the 301st and 92d) enter
combat on September 5 and 6. On its busiest day it sent out 76 heavy bombers.

The next month the Eighth mounted only three raids, the largest of which
numbered 108 heavy bombers. Two more groups (the 93d and 306th) entered
combat, while the Eighth Air Force lost its first B-24 in combat. Yet for every
few steps forward there would be one backward. On October 21, the 97th Bomb
Group, the Eighth's most experienced heavy-bomber formation, transferred to
the Twelfth Air Force, which the Americans had formed to support the Allied
invasion of French North Africa, scheduled for early November 1942. Its second
most experienced group, the 301st Bomb Group, went to the Twelfth Air Force
on November 8. In November, the Eighth finally matched the number of mis-
sions flown in August — eight. It put 91 bombers in the air for the month's
largest mission and had three additional groups enter combat (the 44th, the 303d,
andthe305th.)l08

These first short steps failed to please Arnold. His records showed 178
heavy bombers in England by September 30,109 but as yet no single mission had
come close to matching that figure. He sent Spaatz the first of a series of mes-
sages that would continue for the next sixteen months and were directed at the
U.S. bomber commanders in England. Arnold sarcastically noted, "It is believed
that some powerful reason must obtain which limits your heavy-bomber opera-
tions to an apparent average of less than one per week. Weather conditions alone
are not believed the cause, nor the preparation of some of the two hundred heavy
bombers under your control in England for use in other theaters. Request full
information on the subject."! 10

103

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Arnold, who had never led a unit in combat, never seemed to appreciate fully
the difficulties involved. Spaatz, Andrews, and Eaker repeatedly had to defend
their seemingly dismal operational readiness rates which, in the autumn of 1942,
could be attributed in large part to bad weather and training requirements. Before
Spaatz could field all the bombers on hand, he had to finish training their crews,
all of which arrived unready for combat. Weather played a far larger role than
Arnold would acknowledge. An authoritative postwar study of weather as it
affected heavy-bomber missions stated that weather reduced "the potential effort
planned on a monthly basis by 45 percent."' n This figure included the summer
months, which, of course, contained the best flying weather.

Spaatz and Eaker, however, were encouraged by their progress. In a series of
memos written for internal AAF use, Eaker gave his and Spaatz 's views. After
the first four missions, he confidently stated his conviction that "in the future,
successful bombing missions can be conducted beyond the range of fighter pro-
tection."! 12 Six weeks later, after suffering his initial losses fi'om German fight-
ers, Eaker reiterated his beliefs:

Our bombing experience to date indicates that the B- 17 with its twelve .50 cal-
iber guns, can cope with the German day fighter. There will be losses, of
course, but there is no evidence that the losses will be of such a high order as to
make day bombing uneconomical. I think it is safe, now, to say that a large
force of day bombers can operate without fighter cover against material objec-
tives anywhere in Germany, without excessive losses.

Such losses as did occur could be much reduced, Eaker thought, with the
provision of a B-17 type convoy defender aircraft, already existing in prototype,
"with extra ammunition supply and extra armor, flying on the flanks of the
bomber formations." He requested the shipment of a group or squadron of such
planes as soon as possible. 113

Eaker seems not to have yet accepted the technical feasibility of a long-range
escort fighter. He did not ask for more P-38s or for the development of an even
longer-range fighter. In reply to Arnold's criticism, Eaker wrote, "Three hundred
heavy bombers could attack any target in Germany with less than four percent
losses." A smaller number of bombers, which would lack the self-defensive
strength of the larger force, would suffer greater losses. "The daylight bombmg of
Germany with planes of the B-17 and B-24 types is feasible, practicable and eco-
nomical."! i^ In the next year, the Luftwaffe day-fighter force would amply
demonstrate the inaccuracy of Eaker's and Spaatz's initial assessments.

Spaatz's Command Style

In early August, Spaatz settled Eighth Air Force Headquarters (code-named
WiDEWlNGS) in Bushy Park, on the outskirts of the Hampton Court palace
grounds, southwest of London. Spaatz himself occupied a comfortable house

104

The Eighth Air Force

nearby in Wimbledon. He continued seeking out comfortable if not palatial resi-
dences throughout the war — a habit that gave rise to ill-concealed jealousy
among critics. They complained that such self-indulgence and Sybaritism were
only to be expected of a fly-boy general. Spaatz did like his comforts, but there
was a method in his practice: Spaatz made his quarters his command post, a
command post where he housed many of his staff officers and held daily staff
meetings.

Shortly after the war one officer told an interviewer, "General Spaatz appar-
ently does not like an office. He likes to be alone, to relax in the atmosphere of
his home, and so we used to take major things out to him." Spaatz's deputy or
chief of intelligence would take documents to him at lunch time. "At the end of
the day," the officer continued, "you found yourself with a collection of papers,
cables, etc. to go out to Park House because most of the key people lived
there."! 15 The same officer fiulher observed:

We lived and messed there and there was nearly always some key personnel
around there day and night — ^it operated on a 24-hour basis. I can remember
being there at two o'clock in the morning, rushing over to General Spaatz s
house; General Anderson came out in his bathrobe, and General Spaatz served
us tea. During a big night we were up all night in some cases.

Living and working together fit in with Spaatz's philosophy of leadership.
Spaatz once said of himself, "I may be peculiar in that 1 refuse to be seated at a
desk with a bunch of papers in front of me to pore over."ll'7 In the same context
Spaatz philosophized, "I doubt you can run any big outfit . . . immersed in all the
details ... so you must delegate responsibihty." He went on, "It has always been
a fetish of mine that you can't delegate responsibility without delegating author-
ity with it."i 18

A long-time friend also spoke of Spaatz's attitude toward routine:

Tooey, like some literary characters, was inclined to get up very late and work
very late. He was a night worker more than a day worker. So actually [he did]
much of [his] work in pajamas in a messed up bedroom at 10 or 11 o'clock in
the morning. That's just the way he worked; I'm not disparaging him. He was

firmly in command The last thing in the world he wanted was an 8 o'clock

officers' call someplace with everybody sitting down at desks pushing papers
around. He just didn't want to be bothered with administration or minor mat-
ters. He refiised to be.'"

Spaatz ran a military household that had much more in common with the

staffs of Lee and Napoleon than the German General Staff. By keeping his
senior officers close at hand, messing, drinking, and even gaming with them, he
established a firm and deep rapport with his subordinates. He did not make a
habit of issuing long, detailed orders. Former Air Force Chief of Staff, General
Curtis LeMay, who served under Spaatz in both the Pacific and European the-

105

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

aters of World War II, recalled many years later that he "never got any direct
orders from General Spaatz on anything," but after a few hours of sitting at the
same poker table in the evening, he understood what Spaatz wanted him to
do. 120

Not everyone appreciated Spaatz 's methods. The informality of his head-
quarters led some to believe that he was lazy, lax, or merely a good old boy
prone to cronyism. As late as June 1943, after a year's close association with
Spaatz, Eisenhower wrote of "the only weakness" he had found in Spaatz:

I have an impression he is not tough and hard enough personally to meet the
full requirements of his high position. He is constantly urging more promotions
for subordinates and seeking special favors for his forces. My belief in this
regard is further strengthened by the type of staff he has accumulated around
him. He has apparently picked officers more for their personal qualifications of
comradeship and friendliness than for their abilities as businesslike, tough oper-
ators.

Repeated urgings from Eisenhower to correct this perceived defect produced no
change. Spaatz's request for a liquor ration for his units also raised Eisen-
hower's ire.121

By freeing himself from the mundane chores of excess paperwork, Spaatz
freed himself not only for decisions but for personal leadership. Throughout the
war his relative freedom from his desk enabled him to visit and inspect the com-
bat, training, and supply units under his control. Of course these units "prettied"
themselves up for his visits, but he had far too much experience doing the same
thing himself not to know how and where to look for any shortcomings. Because
of his desire to avoid personal aggrandizement and his less than charismatic per-
sonality, these visits had none of the flamboyant trappings that similar visits
from Patton or Montgomery might have had. Spaatz went to see, not to be seen.

The Eighth Air Force and the North African Invasion

Even as Spaatz labored to create an effective force in England, events in the
Middle East drastically changed the Allies' strategic plans. German Field
Marshal Irwin Rommel launched an offensive in the Libyan desert that, after
overcoming fierce British resistance, captured the fortress of Tobruk, shattered
his enemies, and sent them reeling back to El Alamein, Egypt, the last defensible
position in front of the Suez Canal. The debacle in the Middle East, the locale of
Britain's major effort against the European Axis powers, threatened one of the
basic strategic underpinnings of the Eighth — ^that Britain would be the base for
an Anglo-American ground offensive against Germany in either 1942 or 1943.

Churchill, already jolted by the disasters to British arms suffered at the
hands of the Japanese in Malaya, Burma, and the East Indies, now needed to

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The Eighth Air Force

shore up a rapidly crumbling situation in the Mediterranean. Added strength for
that theater could come only from forces designated for the cross-channel inva-
sion; Churchill set out to divert them to North Africa. As he remarked in his
memoirs, "During this month of July, when I was politically at my weakest and
without a gleam of military success, I had to procure from the United States the
decision which, for good or ill, dominated the next two years of the war." He
had to ask the United States to abandon plans for a cross-channel invasion in
1942 to undertake the occupation of French North Africa in the autumn or win-
ter by a large Anglo-American expedition. "I had made a careful study of the
President's mind and its reaction for some time past," remarked Churchill, "and
I was sure that he was powerfully attracted by the North African Plan." The time
had come, Churchill believed, to shelve the cross-channel invasion, "which had
been dead for some time."l22

Roosevelt himself needed American troops in action against the Germans in
1942,123 if possible before the congressional election of November 1942.
Although leaning toward the proposed North African operation, the President
gave General George C. Marshall, the outstandingly talented U.S. Army Chief
of Staff and one of the strongest supporters of the cross-channel invasion, one
last chance to persuade the British Chiefs of Staff to carry it out in 1942.124

Marshall, Admiral Ernest J. King, Chief of Naval Operations, and Harry
Hopkins, arrived in London on Saturday, July 18. They immediately closeted
themselves with Eisenhower, Spaatz, and Admiral Harold R. Stark, chief
American naval officer in the British Isles. Over the weekend, the Americans
discussed a revision hurriedly thrown together by Eisenhower's staff, of the pre-
vious cross-channel invasion plans. This revision called for the establishment of
a secure foothold on the Cotentin Peninsula of Normandy.125 Eisenhower, who
had been recommended for command of the American forces in Britain by his
mentor, Marshall, supported it, as did Spaatz.

During the weekend Spaatz contended that a cross-channel invasion in 1942
had a better chance than one in 1943. He based his reasoning on the condition
and disposition of the Luftwaffe. In July 1942, the German summer offensive
had taken Sevastapol and broken through Soviet defenses toward Stalingrad.
This offensive had absorbed the bulk of the Luftwaffe's resources and would
obviously do so for several more months. During the winter months the Luftwaffe
could rehabilitate itself and would therefore be a much more formidable oppo-
nent in 1943 than in 1942.126

Spaatz repeated this position,i27 but he and the rest of the Americans failed
to move the British in ensuing meetings. On the day Marshall arrived in
England, Churchill and the British Chiefs of Staff met and unanimously decided
that the proposed autumn 1942 cross-channel invasion "was not a feasible or
sensible operation."l28 Because the British would be supplying most of the
resources required in any action, their refusal to go along ended all prospects of
an early invasion. When the U.S. delegation reported this impasse to the Presi-

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Spaatz and the Am War in Europe

dent, he replied with a list of alternative U.S. actions against Germany, but indi-
cated a preference for U.S. actions against French North Africa. Marshall bowed
to the inevitable and agreed to a U.S.-British invasion of French North Africa
code-named Torch. By July 30, Roosevelt and Churchill made their tentative
agreement on a North African campaign.

The Allies' decision to invade French North Africa by November 1942 had
important long-term and short-term effects. It undermined large-scale U.S.
heavy-bombardment operations launched from the British Isles and postponed
the cross-channel invasion until 1944. More immediately, Torch or its ramifica-
tions required that Spaatz substantially modify his plans and expectations from
midsummer to the end of 1942 and beyond. On August 6, he received a letter
from Arnold detailing, with what turned out to be undue optimism, the final
results of the Marshall-King-Hopkins mission to London:

1. The cross-channel invasion would be abandoned for the year.

2. The air buildup in Britain would continue.

3. Torch would be executed.

4. More aircraft might be diverted to the Pacific.

5. A Torch planning unit would be created in London.

The letter contained a postscript: "1 have just agreed with General Marshall fliat
Doolittle will go to England at once as Commander of Air Forces for Torch."129
By selecting Brig. Gen. James H. Doolittle, America's reigning air hero, Arnold
at least assured the AAF that it would receive extensive press coverage of its role
in Torch, whatever that role might be. Subject to Spaatz's and Eisenhower's
approval of Doolittle, the Eighth had made its first contribution to the North
African venture — its air commander. Doolittle had been slated to command the
4th Bombardment Wing (Medium) for the VIII ASC. He checked into Widewings
the same day, August 6.

Torch not only delayed the cross-channel invasion, it slowed the buildup of
the Eighth. In mounting the North African invasion, the Allies had accepted the
necessity of assuming a defensive posture in operations against the Germans
from Britain. As a consequence, Britain for the time being no longer required a
rapid buildup in air power to support a ground offensive. The North African
invasion would consume resources and shipping originally destined for Britain.
All this meant that the U.S. bomber offensive mounted from England would
start considerably later and with far less force than that envisaged prior to July
1942.

The shift to Torch disconcerted Spaatz. He believed that the Eighth was
making great progress. He had even somewhat optimistically convinced himself
that "the presence here now of 200 B-17's would be a major factor in crippling
German air power and insuring air supremacy next spring."'30 in a letter to
Arnold, he wrote that he was "much concerned about possible diversion of units

108

The Eighth Air Force

from the Eighth Air Force. . . . Regardless of operations in any other theater, in
my opinion this remains the only area from which to gain air supremacy over
Germany, without which there can be no successful outcome of the war."i3i

Four days before the Eighth's first B-17 raid over Europe on August 13,
Eisenhower cabled Marshall that the current air plan, with which Generals
Spaatz, George S. Patton (one of the ground force commanders), and Doolittle
agreed, called for forming "the nucleus of Torch Air Force from the Eighth Air
Force — to be supplemented as necessary direct from the United States."i32

Eisenhower required the Eighth to contribute two heavy-bomber groups,
three medium-bomber groups, two P-38 groups, two Spitfire groups, one trans-
port group, and one light-bomber group. To compensate for these losses, he
asked for five additional heavy-bomber groups in Britain.

By August 18, Spaatz had been charged with the planning, organization, and
training of a new air force, the Twelfth, code-named Junior, which would com-
mand the AAF units assigned to the North African operation. Spaatz directed
each of his various command headquarters to sponsor the creation of a corre-
sponding unit of Junior. On September 23, Doolittle assumed command, with
Vandenberg as his chief of staff. '33 By October 24, the day Headquarters
Twelfth Air Force embarked for North Africa, the Eighth had supplied 3,198
officers, 24,124 enlisted men, 134 and 1,244 planes for Junior. Until well into
January 1943, 50 percent of the Eighth's on-hand supplies and much of its main-
tenance work were devoted to the Twelfth. Well might Spaatz ask, "What is left
of the Eighth Air Force after the impact of Torch? We find we haven't much
left."i35

The creation of the Twelfth Air Force prompted a disagreement between
Spaatz and Eisenhower. On September 8, the two discussed the problems caused
to the AAF, ETO, by having to raise the Twelfth while the Eighth simultane-
ously flew operational missions. Eisenhower solved the problem very simply.
He ordered Spaatz to cease all combat air operations by the Eighth at once. 136
The next day Eisenhower cabled Marshall his proposals on how to conceal the
halt.137

From Spaatz's point of view, Eisenhower's decision was the worst possible.
It delayed the entire AAF bomber offensive for an indeterminate period. If it
provided an opportunity to justify the diversion of yet more AAF strength to
subsidiary theaters, it might prove fatal to AAF hopes and deleterious to the
morale of the Eighth's service and combat personnel. Spaatz apparently wasted
no time in appealing to Arnold. On September 10, Arnold cabled Eisenhower,
"You and Spaatz are urged to continue intensive air operations until the last pos-
sible moment as the Eighth Air Force is now accomplishing the mission for
which it was intended: (a) draw the GAF [German Air Force] from other fronts,
(b) attract the attention of German fighters, (c) reduce German war effort by
bombing important targets."i38

On the same day, Spaatz gave Eisenhower a draft cable he wished to send to

109

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Arnold in which he forcefully expressed his disagreement with Eisenhower's
order to halt operations. Spaatz was certain that missions from North Africa
would not be as effective against the Luftwaffe and German war strength as
those from Britain. He argued that "new operations jeopardize acquisition of air
supremacy over Germany and may have serious effect on successful outcome of
war"i39 and warned that air operations would be delayed for at least two months.

Eisenhower persuaded Spaatz not to send the cable. Instead, he modified his
position, cabling Marshall: "Ground elements of U.S. Air Squadrons in U.K.
that are set up for service in the expeditionary force are compelled to begin
packing of equipment immediately. Nevertheless, provision is being made to
carry on at least two bombing missions a week."l40 Apparently, Spaatz was able
to convince Eisenhower that the Eighth could devote maximum attention to
organizing the Twelfth while continuing to bomb Europe. As long as Spaatz
realized that Torch had overriding priority, Eisenhower was willing to allow
him to salvage the bomber offensive. In the end, harsh northern European
weather limited the Eighth's bombers to four raids in September, three in
October, and eight in November. Although the rate of operations was only half
of that authorized by Eisenhower and far less than that hoped for by Spaatz and
Arnold, it at least gave the crews and commanders experience and probably kept
some German attention focused on northwestern Europe.

While the Eighth continued to aid Junior, Spaatz pursued two courses of
action with equal vigor. He provided unstinting cooperation in all phases of the
Twelfth's growth while doing everything possible to maintain the Eighth as a
viable fighting force capable of sustaining a strategic offensive against Germany.
He failed in the latter but not through lack of effort. In a series of letters to
Arnold, whose views were identical to his own, Spaatz attempted to further his
fight for the AAF bomber offensive. Noting unanimous British praise of the
Eighth's bombing accuracy, he began, "I am more confident than ever before
that the war can be won in this theater if we are permitted to carry out the poli-
cies which were built up under your command." Daylight precision bombing
would be decisive, provided the Eighth received an adequate force in time. "For
God's sake," Spaatz exclaimed, "keep our Air Force concentrated here so we
can polish off die Germans and get on with the war."l4i Three days later, he
wrote;

In so far as my advice is requested, and often when it is not requested, I have
reiterated the folly of attempting to fight the war all over the world. In my opin-
ion unless the powers that be come to a full realization of the necessity for con-
centration of the Air Forces in this theater, we stand an excellent chance of
losing the war."^

The three raids the Eighth had flown so far had convinced him that accurate,

high-altitude bombing could be performed by unescorted bombers penetrating
into the heart of Germany. Because Torch was turning the ETO into "a 100%

110

The Eighth Air Force

air theater of operation" until the mounting of a cross-channel invasion, Spaatz
wrote that, in conjunction with the RAF, he needed only 20 heavy-bomber
groups (960 planes), 10 medium-bomber groups (570 planes), 10 fighter groups
(800 planes), 10 photo reconnaissance/weather squadrons, and 2 transport
groups (supply carriers) to attain "complete aerial supremacy" over Germany
within a year.

Spaatz's and Arnold's advocacy of a continued air buildup in England did
not stem from a desire to prove their air power beliefs at the expense of the
remaining U.S. war effort. As their correspondence shows, they both genuinely
feared a complete German victory over the Soviet Union or a stalemate on the
Eastern Front that would allow the Luftwaffe to recuperate and redeploy to the
west in the winter of 1942-1943.143 Although convinced that unescorted deep-
penetration bombing was feasible, they did not believe that it could then succeed
against the entire Luftwaffe or even against serious German counterbombing
over Britain. They also had justifiable concerns about the German summer
offensive in the Soviet Union which had, by late August, progressed through
Sevastapol, Voronezh, and Rostov; penetrated far into the Caucasus; and
reached the Volga River a few miles above Stalingrad.

Roosevelt's August 24 request for production requirements necessary "for
complete air ascendancy over the enemy" 144 gave Arnold a chance to open a sec-
ond front of his own in the war to mount the European bomber offensive. Arnold
assembled a team of air planning experts to produce a new document for the allo-
cation of the nation's economic assets toward aircraft production, called Air War
Plans Division plan for 1942 (AWPD/42). When he received the President's
request, Arnold sent a priority cable to Spaatz ordering him to detail Brig. Gen.
Haywood S. Hansell, one of the authors of the AAF's prewar planning blueprint,
AWPD/1, to Washington for an important conference. Hansell woke Spaatz at
midnight, August 26, to inform him of the message's contents, and Spaatz and his
staff worked until six in the morning to gather background material. 145

Spaatz and Eaker enthusiastically supported Arnold's attempt to refocus U.S.
strategic thinking. Spaatz, deciding to send Eaker along with Hansell because he
recognized the "vital importance of the forthcoming decision," wrote to Arnold:

Hansell is thoroughly familiar with my ideas, and Baker's ideas as of opera-
tions, etc., exactly parallel mine. I hope the idea can be put across that the war
must be won against Germany or it is lost. The defeat of Japan, as soul-satisfy-
ing as it may be, leaves us no better off than we were on Dec. 7. The war can be
lost very easily if there is a continuation of our dispersion. It can be won and
very expeditiously if our effort is massed here and combines its strength with
theRAF."^

Although Arnold could not get Eaker in to see the President, he did order
him to make presentations to the Chief of Staff and the Secretary of War. Arnold
remarked to Spaatz, "Our major program is more or less bogged down due to the

111

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

diversity of interest. It has been dispersion, dispersion, and more dispersion in
our unity of thought for the main effort."l4V Arnold told Harry Hopkins that the
frittering away of air units and resources had sapped AWPD/1. Arnold pleaded
for a revival of AWPD/1 because "it represents the only way in which we can
vitally affect the No. 1 enemy at once. Given twenty heavy groups of bombers —
700 bombers — operating from U.K. bases this fall and winter, I believe that we
can prevent the rehabilitation of the German Air Force this winter."

Arnold further promised to dislocate or depreciate the German submarine
effort by destroying the five U-boat bases in southwestern France. '48 Failure to
deliver on those promises would cost him in a coinage he could ill afford — cred-
ibility. Arnold's pressure on subordinates to perform — as well as his penchant
for counting raw numbers of aircraft in a theater instead of only those opera-
tionally ready — stemmed directly from the practice of painting himself into cor-
ners with promises.

AWPD/42, issued September 9, was the AAF's official response to Torch
and to the Navy's demands in the Pacific. In its strategic intent AWPD/42
closely resembled AWPD/1, arguing that conducting simultaneous effective air
offensives against both Germany and Japan was impossible with the resources
available. Because the vital industrial areas of Japan were currently out of range
of U.S. aircraft, Europe had to be the target for the one offensive that could be
launched.

The projected offensive would destroy the German war economy by com-
bining a U.S. force of 2,225 operational bombers, based in Britain and deployed
by January 1944, with RAF Bomber Command. The AAF would concentrate on
the "systematic destruction of vital elements of the German military and indus-
trial machine through precision bombing in daylight," whereas the RAF would
specialize in "mass air attacks of industrial areas at night to break down
morale."l49 in addition, AWPD/42 called for priority production of large num-
bers of akcraft, which clashed head on with the Navy's projected shipbuilding
programs and the Army's anticipated heavy-equipment requirements. i^o

When the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff met to discuss the availability of the fif-
teen groups (two of them heavy-bomber groups) promised by Marshall to King
in mid-July 1942 and destined for the Pacific, Arnold used AWPD/42 as the
basis for his argument in favor of delay. The Navy objected and the battle was
joined, finally to be decided by the President. Roosevelt, in typical fashion, gave
each side half a loaf; the Navy got the groups for the Solomons campaign, but
AWPD/42 's basic assumptions and all but 8,000 of its production requirement
of 139,000 planes in 1943 were approved. By the end of the year, production
realities reduced the aircraft goal in 1943 to 107,000.151

In conjunction with AWPD/42, Arnold asked Spaatz to enlist the aid of key
commanders in the ETO for the AAF position 152 Spaatz complied, producing
messages from Patton, Clark, and Eisenhower. Eisenhower's message to

112

The Eighth Air Force

Marshall on September 5 shows Spaatz's handiwork: "We are becoming con-
vinced that high altitude daylight precision bombing is not only feasible but
highly successful and that by increasing the scale of attack, effective results can
be obtained."l53 Eisenhower's request for the 20 heavy-bombers, 10 medium-
bombers, and ten fighter groups that Spaatz had already determined would be
needed so pleased Arnold that he told Marshall, "I believe that this cable is of
such great and immediate importance as to warrant the presentation of its con-
tents to the President and to the Joint Chiefs of Staff." Arnold asked Marshall to
make the presentations to enhance its effect. 154 Apparently he did.

Torch siphoned off the Eighth's operational groups and changed its bomb-
ing priorities. Transatlantic shipping, which formed the centerpiece for the oper-
ation's logistical plaiming, had become the objective of both the German and
Allied navies in the Battle of the Atlantic, the outcome of which was still in
doubt between September and November 1942 as German submarines continued
to sink Allied shipping as fast as it could be produced. Thus, the Eighth
embarked on a campaign against German submarine bases in France, particu-
larly those at Brest, St. Nazaire, L'Orient, Bordeaux, and La Pallice. Their sup-
pression would ease the pressure on the Allied navies and increase the chances
of safe passage for the Torch convoys as they sailed for North Africa.

After preliminary discussions begiiming at least as early as September 25,
Eisenhower, on October 13, ordered Spaatz to make the submarine pens and bases
his top-priority targets and to estimate the size of the campaign to be mounted and
the extent of British cooperation. 155

The next afternoon, Spaatz met with Air Marshals Harris and Portal to dis-
cuss Eisenhower's order. They agreed that RAF Bomber Command lacked the
equipment to precision-bomb the submarine bases during the day and that night
bombing would be ineffective. Therefore, the RAF would bomb submarine-
manufacturing installations in Germany while the Eighth hit the submarine
pens.156 At the time, this latter task seemed perfectly suited to the limited reach
and punch of U.S. bomber forces. Spaatz, Eaker, and Arnold apparently
expressed no objection to the new priority. The Luftwaffe would certainly defend
its submarine bases, start the battle of attrition in earnest, and realize the AAF's
desire to draw it into combat and destroy it. Only later did the AAF's lack of
proper ordnance (it had no bombs heavy enough to penetrate the massive con-
crete roofs of the submarine pens) and its concentrating on a limited and pre-
dictable set of targets, become painfully obvious.

In a letter to Spaatz dated September 3, Arnold first voiced a theme that he
would sound well into 1943. As with so much else. Torch was its inspiration.
"Please understand," he wrote, "that the decision for undertaking the special
operation is now completely out of my hands and it is upon that basis that I have
insisted that it and the United Kingdom operations are complementary." Because
Torch could not be averted, perhaps it could be deflected or at least be made to
serve other AAF goals. Torch should go forward with all possible support;

113

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

therefore any units that helped to ensure its success, such as the Eighth, should
be as strong as possible, too. 157

Arnold soon concluded that coordinating the efforts of the Eighth and
Twelfth would best be accomplished by a single USAAF commander super-
vising operations in both Britain and Africa. That officer would be directly
subordinate to the overall U.S. commander, Eisenhower. Arnold also con-
cluded, pari passu, that only one man had the proper qualifications for the
post — Spaatz. As Maj. Gen. George E. Stratemeyer, Chief of the AAF Staff,
noted, Arnold had expressed a desire for Spaatz to remain at Eisenhower's
side and provide him with AAF advice. Stratemeyer told Spaatz, "You really
should be designated as the Commanding General, American Air Forces in
Europe," not just of the ETO. Such "a request to place you in that position
should come from Eisenhower, and I am sure that it would be approved
here."l58 Spaatz discussed the suggestion with Eisenhower, but then rejected it
on the ground that the already thin ranks of experienced staff officers would
be diluted if yet another headquarters were created.l59 This was not an idle
objection; throughout the war, the Achilles heel of the AAF was its shortage of
adequately trained staff officers. 160

Although Eisenhower had initially agreed with Spaatz that an overall
USAAF commander was not needed, he gradually came to side with Arnold, but
for his own reasons. He accepted the AAF's contention that a bombing offensive
should be waged from Britain but thought it should come after the conclusion of
Torch. He wanted to strengthen the Eighth immediately to use it as a reinforce-
ment pool for North Africa,i6i believing that once bases were set up along the
African Mediterranean littoral, Africa and Britain would form a "single air the-
ater" in which air power could be' concentrated at any point to take advantage of
weather conditions or strategic opportunity. 162

On October 29, Eisenhower requested Spaatz' s support for his own plan of a
unified AAF command "from Iceland to Iraq." He had apparently obtained clari-
fication on the War Department's view of a unified command. A single theater
would help keep resources from the Pacific, an appeal that two separate the-
aters — ^Europe (Britain) and North Africa — competing against each other would
lack. If Torch succeeded so that a unified command was possible, Eisenhower
intended to place Spaatz in the position of "Supreme Coimnander of all U.S.
Army Air Forces which came under his command, and to advocate the inclusion
of U.S. Army Air Forces in the Middle East also in that same command." 163 He
instructed Spaatz to prepare a plan for implementation of his proposal within
thirty days. 164

By the eve of the invasion, which started on November 8, 1942, Spaatz
seems to have resigned himself to being Eisenhower's chief air officer in North
Africa, although he would far rather have stayed in Britain to direct the Eighth
Air Force. In a series of mid-November letters, Arnold and Stratemeyer urged
Spaatz' s appointment. On November 13, Stratemeyer wrote Spaatz, "You

114

The Eighth Air Force

should get yourself appointed as overall commander of his Air Force."l65 j^o
days later, Arnold wrote in a letter to Spaatz,

With all due respect to everybody concerned, you are sidetracked. In my opin-
ion, this whole problem of air operations in Europe must be controlled by one
man. Are you in a position in England to give the best advice to Eisenhower in
Gibraltar on such matters? It appears to me that if something is not done we
will find the air being used more as a support for the ground arms than it should
be, particularly so, when if there ever was a time to use it strategically that time
is now [emphasis added]. It may be that you should take a trip down to see
Eisenhower and talk this matter out."''*

The same day Arnold wrote to Eisenhower, "Sticking my neck out consider-
ably, I suggest that you have Tooey join you at your present headquarters."l6''
Finally, Stratemeyer put it most succinctly, "You should be in Ike's pocket."168
All these communications illustrate Arnold's perception of Eisenhower as the
most important and influential American officer in Europe. (Eisenhower's
European Theater of Operations command already included all U.S. Army and
AAF units assigned to Iceland, Britain, and North Africa.) Arnold's and the
AAF's best interests lay in providing him with the best possible advice on air
matters. Naturally, in Arnold's opinion, only Spaatz could give that advice.

Stratemeyer' s last exhortation proved unnecessary. By the time Spaatz
received it, he had already flown to North Africa to inspect the Twelfth and
from there on to Gibraltar, where he met with Eisenhower and accepted the job
as Theater Air Commander. Eaker moved up to command the Eighth Air Force.

At a meeting at Headquarters, Eighth Air Force, on November 23, Spaatz
explained to his staff the general function of the new theater air command. He
saw its chief duty as strategic control, not operational or administrative control.
It would be organized as follows:

Eighth Air Force (in command of all U.S. air forces in Britain)
Twelfth Air Force (in conomand of all U.S. air forces in North Africa)
Iceland air forces.

The theater air forces commander would exercise technical supervision and
control of units attached to ground forces. General directives would be issued on
strategic bombing, on allocation of units between the Eighth and Twelfth Air
Forces, and on the readiness of heavy- and medium-bombers in each air force to
support operations throughout the theater.l™

The questions of the final operational objectives and strength of the Eighth
and Twelfth Air Forces and the organization of a combined Allied air command
would be settled only after successful initial landings in North Africa. But at the
end of November 1942, it probably appeared to Spaatz that he had guaranteed
the attainment of the strategic goals of AWPD/1. He had gained a position from
which, subject to Eisenhower, he could direct the strategic bombardment of

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

German-occupied Europe from any point between London and Baghdad. He
could also concentrate his forces to operate in those areas most favored by the
weather, wherever they may be in his vast command.
Disillusiotmient would soon come in muddy Tunisia.

116

Part Two

Tempering the Blade

The North African Campaign
November 8, 1942-May 14, 1943

Part Two

Tempering the Blade

tempeA'tem per\vfe\: to make stronger and more resilient through hardship: to
put in tune with something.'

Current and long-standing USAF tactical air power doctrine defines five
combat functions for tactical air power: counterair or air superiority, close air
support, air interdiction, tactical air reconnaissance, and tactical airlift opera-
tions. USAF doctrine adds that the governing principle for determining the pri-
ority given to each function is the neutralization of "the enemy threat having the
most profound and continuing influence on the total mission of the area [theater]
command." Air Force Manual 2-1 further notes that "all five combat functions
are performed concurrently because they are mutually supporting."^ Although
the next three chapters touch on all the combat functions of tactical air power,
they concentrate on three: counterair-air superiority, close air support, and air
interdiction. They also give not only an in-depth analysis of the tactical air
power experience of another major air service, the Royal Air Force (RAF), but
trace the influence of thought within the RAF on the emergence of AAF doc-
trine.

During the campaign in North Africa (see Map 3, Operation Torch Area),
the U.S. Army Air Forces in Europe and their commanding general, Carl A.
Spaatz, met and overcame fundamental problems in the employment of air
power. At the campaign's opening, Spaatz left his task — that of introducing the
strategic U.S. Eighth Air Force to limited combat operations from a secure and
logistically sophisticated base area in Britain — to assume entirely different
duties in North Africa. There he directed combined Anglo-American strategic,
tactical, and coastal air forces in the midst of sustained combat at the end of an
attenuated supply line. As the leader of tactical forces, Spaatz met and mastered
three primary tasks of air in the support of ground operations:

1. The achievement of air superiority throughout the theater of operations
and above the battlefield;

2. The provision of close air support to the ground forces; and

3. The interdiction of enemy suppUes and reinforcements to prevent their
utilization at the front.

If superiority had rested simply in numbers of machines, the Allies would
have had it throughout the campaign. Mere numbers, however, were decisive
only if all other factors— training, logistics, organization, doctrine, weapons and
geographic position, as well as the morale, combat experience, and condition of
available manpower — were equal. These variables had to be factored into any

119

meaningful calculation of Allied versus Axis air strength throughout the cam-
paign. When initial Axis advantages are considered, the inability of the more
numerous Alhed air forces to achieve their goals becomes clear.

The delivery of close air support proved one of the most nettlesome prob-
lems because it depended on the resolution of other shortcomings and on the
personal relationships between the air and ground commanders. Close air sup-
port was the application of aerial firepower in coordination with the movement
and fire of friendly ground formations against hostile targets near ground com-
bat operations. Successful close air support required attainment of air superiority
over the field of ground combat operations. It also required the maintenance of a
mutual spirit of cooperation between the ground elements and the air forces pro-
viding support. During the early phases of the North African campaign, the
Allied air and ground forces could achieve neither air superiority nor satisfac-
tory teamwork. Consequently, from November 1942 through mid-February
1943, Allied close air support was ineffective.

Interdiction proved far easier to solve. The complete dependence of the Axis
powers on supplies transported to Africa from Italy, the few ports available to
receive those supphes, the shortage of suitable shipping, the limited number and
constricted nature of shipping lanes, and the paucity of protected air transport
fields made the Axis extremely vulnerable to any logistical disruption. Allied
breaking of Axis codes, which enabled precise tracking of supply convoys and
routes, added immeasurably to the ease with which Allied air power could locate
and attack the many weaknesses in the Axis logistical network. Any problem
stemmed chiefly from the difficulty of obtaining sufficient striking power.

By using his managerial, organizational, and, above all, operational skills,
Spaatz played a vital role in Allied tactical air power's reversing the variables
that prevented Allied attainment of air superiority. In the later stages of the cam-
paign, Spaatz improved the team work between Allied air and ground elements,
which had been noticeably lacking in both the American and British components
of Operation Torch's invasion force. As for interdiction, Spaatz was instrumen-
tal in keeping the heavy bombers on interdiction tasks and in disrupting the Axis
air transport system. Spaatz's treatment of air superiority, close air support, and
air interdiction is explored within the next three chapters.

121

Chapter 4

The Race for T\inisia
(November 1942-January 1943)

Perhaps the most glaring error in the higher planning was
the decision not to have a unified Air Command. The sepa-
ration of the Air Forces into two separate commands with
two distinct areas of responsibility was a stab in the back
from which they never recovered until they were re-orga-
nized under Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder.

—AHB Narrative, ca. 1950

Initial Invasion Operations

On November 8, 1942, three Anglo-American task forces landed in French
North Africa. After overcoming half-hearted French resistance, they occupied
their initial objectives — Casablanca, Oran, and Algiers. Fortunately, Admiral
Jean Francois Darlan, Commander in Chief of the Vichy French armed forces
and second in command to Marshal Petain himself in the Vichy regime, hap-
pened to be in Algiers in the midst of an inspection trip of France's colonial pos-
sessions in Africa. Darlan ordered all French forces to cease fighting on
November 10. The Nazi invasion of unoccupied France, part of the German
response to the North African invasion, led Darlan to agree to place French mili-
tary forces under Eisenhower's command and to order the French civil adminis-
tration to cooperate with the Allies. This agreement, signed on November 13,
secured Morocco and Algeria for the Allies and allowed them to turn their ener-
gies toward the liberation of Tunisia, much of which the Axis had taken over
from the Vichy French at the start of the invasion. The Axis powers, aided by
the confusion and inaction of the Vichy French government in Tunisia, rushed to
forestall the Allies by hurrying troops and equipment across the narrow stretch
of the Mediterranean separating Sicily and Cape Bon, Tunisia.

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

The stresses engendered by the race to acquire Tunisia revealed weaknesses
in Allied logistics, organization, and doctrine, particularly in the area of air-
power. AAF personnel had played a minor role in preinvasion planning. Chief
U.S. Army and Navy planners had limited the role of AAF personnel to provid-
ing air details concerning tactical support to the invasion task forces rather than
to employing air power in the Mediterranean at large. Ten days before the opera-
tion started, Spaatz confessed to Doolittle that he had never understood the
"what, when, and where" of the Twelfth Air Force's assigned mission and func-
tion.2 AAF planners did, however, convince Eisenhower on one point — that the
British and American air forces should be commanded directly by Eisenhower
rather than by a subordinate air conmiander in chief .3

The original invasion plan had called for an overall air commander, but
Eisenhower said, "I accepted representations made to me, principally by American
airmen in whom I had the greatest confidence, that the projected use of the
American and British air forces involved such a wide geographical dispersion
that unified command would be impracticable."^ This advice, consistent with his
thinking, probably came directly from Spaatz. The abortive air plan for the
autumn invasion of France that Spaatz prepared and presented to the Combined
American and British Chiefs of Staff (CCS) during the King- Marshall-Hopkins
mission of July 1942 provided for an organization exactly like the one Eisen-
hower adopted for Torch. The July plan explicitly admonished that "there must
be no subordination of U.S. Air Units, and no attachment to R.A.F. units."
Instead, the plan specified, "there will be unity of command through the Task
Force Commander. He will use his two air forces, British and American, as a
Corps Commander would use two division commanders, without subordinating
one to the other."5 Even when the two air forces operated in the same area, let
alone widely separated ones, the AAF would not subordinate itself to the RAF.
This failure to set up a combined air command before the invasion hamstrung
the efficient application of Allied air power during the first crucial month of the
campaign.

Spaatz erred in his resistance to possible RAF domination. Although under-
standable, his loyalty to the AAF weakened his military judgment. Of course,
the example of General John J. Pershing, Commander of the American Expedi-
tionary Forces to Europe for World War 1, influenced the U.S. Army leaders of
World War II who had served their apprenticeships in the ranks of his forces.
(Except for a few cases of extreme emergency, Pershing had adamantly refused
to place his forces under the command of his French or British allies.) In other
preinvasion planning for Torch, only the U.S. Navy consented to a combined
command with its British counterpart. The U.S. Army and the AAF, for what-
ever reasons, did not.6

For the landing phase of the invasion, the inexperienced Twelfth Air Force,
designated the Western Air Command, assumed responsibility for supporting the
Casablanca and Oran task forces, both composed entirely of U.S. forces. Plans

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The Race for Tunisia

called for the Twelfth to attain an eventual strength of 1,244 aircraft, including
282 in reserve. The combat-experienced RAF supplied the Eastern Air Command
(EAC) to assist the chiefly British Algiers task force. The EAC had a planned
force only one-third the size of the Twelfth's — 454 planes of all types, many of
them short-ranged Hurricane and Spitfire fighters. The EAC also had responsi-
bility for air operations to the east of Oran, including Tunisia. Once French
North Africa capitulated and Fascist Spain appeared quiescent — a situation that
released the Allied forces assigned to watch those areas — the Twelfth had no
strategic role other than to support the drive on Bizerte.^

Inexperience hampered the AAF's effectiveness. Twenty-nine years later
Doolittle admitted, "I was a brand new Air Force commander, and I had never
commanded anything bigger than about a flight prior to that time, so there were
a great many things I had to leam, and I endeavored to learn them very rapidly.
For one, I had to leam my job, and I worked hard at learning it. "8

Doolittle, the short, stocky, forty-five-year-old son of a carpenter, had a
devil-may-care image that masked a man of surprising substance. In the 1920s
and 1930s, he won several international airplane speed races, including the
Schneider Trophy for seaplanes in 1925 and the first Bendix Trophy for transcon-
tinental speed in 1931; in taking the Thompson Trophy in 1932, he also set a new
speed record. As one of the most famous pilots of his day, he had the same aura
of mystery and death-defying courage that clings to modem-day astronauts.
Doolittle had, on occasion, shown bad judgment. On a trip through South
America in 1926, when he was under the influence of alcohol during a stopover
in Santiago, Chile, he fell from a second-story window ledge and broke both
ankles. Yet he finished the journey, including air shows and stunts, by flying in
leg casts. On other occasions Doolittle engaged in wingwalking or sat on a
biplane's wheel spreader or axle while it landed.

Unlike many AAF leaders, Doolittle was not a career officer or a West
Pointer. He had joined the Army in April 1917, transferred to the Aviation
Section, and served there for thirteen years, until early 1930, before resigning to
join Shell Oil. While in the Air Corps he earned a doctorate in aeronautical engi-
neering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. At Shell, Doolittle
worked to develop 100-octane aviation fuel, a prerequisite for the advanced and
more powerful piston-driven engines that would equip U.S. aircraft in World
War n. Recalled to duty as a major on July 1, 1940, he acted as a troubleshooter
at various aircraft plants. In late January 1942, Arnold assigned Doolittle, by
then a lieutenant colonel, to command Special Project No. 1, a combined Army-
Navy effort to strike Tokyo with Army bombers flying from a Navy aircraft
carrier.

"Doolittle's Tokyo Raid," sixteen B-25s launched from the USS Hornet on
April 18, 1943, once more catapulted Doolittle into national prominence. He

again demonstrated his great physical courage by leading the flight and taking
off with the shortest run. When a Japanese picket boat spotted the Navy task

125

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Brig. Gen. James H.
Doolittle, Commanding
General, Twelfth Air
Force, 1942.

force before the planned launch time, he displayed the ability to take a calcu-
lated risk and demonstrated the moral courage needed for high command by
ordering the flight to leave early, lengthening the journey by 250 miles.
Rewards followed. The AAF and the nation, saddened by the surrender of U.S.
and Filipino forces in Bataan in early April, rejoiced over a genuine hero. By
May 5, the day before the surrender of Corregidor in Manila Bay, Doolittle
was jumped to brigadier general. On May 19, President Roosevelt pinned a
Congressional Medal of Honor to his chest. Arnold assigned him the command
of the Eighth Air Force's 4th Bombardment Wing, a medium-bomber wing
being formed. When the British and the Americans agreed on the North
African invasion, Arnold reassigned him to command the Twelfth Air Force,
which in the initial planning had not been large but which grew substantially
with the invasion. Doolittle was definitely a man of parts, most of them excel-
lent.9

For all his abilities, however, Doolittle was slow to gain Eisenhower's confi-
dence. Eisenhower wrote in his postwar memoirs, "It took him [Doolittle] some
time to reconcile himself to shouldering his responsibilities as the senior United
States air commander to the exclusion of . . . going out to fly a fighter plane
against the enemy. "lO The first meeting between Doolittle and Eisenhower
sometime shortly after Doolittle's arrival in Britain on August 6 proved disas-
trous, for Doolittle had managed to convince Eisenhower only of his brashness
and his ignorance of the job. ' l

Although the AAF official history implies Eisenhower's acceptance of

126

The Race for Tunisia

Doolittle as the American air commander for Torch prior to August 6, any such
agreement must have been tenuous. 12 On September 13, Eisenhower wired
Marshall that he personally preferred and strongly recommended Eaker for the
command of the Twelfth. He suggested Doolittle for the XII Bomber Command
or command of the air supporting the Casablanca invasion force. The next day
Eisenhower suggested to Marshall that Maj. Gen. Walter H. Frank, Command-
ing General, VIII Air Service Command, was equally acceptable. Both Frank
and Eaker had already gained invaluable experience establishing and preparing
an air force for a major operation.

Eisenhower's second message crossed with Marshall's reply to the first.
Marshall gave Doolittle an exceptional recommendation: "Arnold and I both feel
very strongly that Doolittle is a much more effective organizer and leader for the
U.S. air force and Casablanca. He is a leader par excellence and both highly
intelligent and strongly persistent in work of preparation." Marshall had just fin-
ished taking Doolittle on a trip to the West Coast and noted as a resuh that with
"his combination of industry, intensity, technical knowledge and level headed
bearing he greatly impressed me as probably the outstanding combat leader type
in our Air Corps. "1^ Marshall added that, despite what he had just said, the deci-
sion was of course Eisenhower's to make. A few days later Marshall, in a hand-
delivered note to Eisenhower, expressed his full confidence and approval of all
but two actions — the appointment of Frank instead of Doolittle, which he termed
a "tragic error" and the selection of Maj. Gen. Russell P. Hartle to command the
Center (Oran) Task Force for Torch, Marshall offered to send any of eight other
generals. 15 Eisenhower selected Maj. Gen. Lloyd R. Fredendall and retained
Doolittle. On September 23, Doolittle officially assumed command of the Twelfth.

It took Doolittle months of hard work to change Eisenhower's opinion. The
Twelfth's top remaining leaders had little or no more combat and administrative
experience than their commander.

North Africa, in the winter of 1942-1943, proved an unforgiving locale
for the conduct of air operations. The division of the Twelfth into two parts,
each directly subordinated to its invasion task force commander (Maj. Gen.
George S. Patton in Casablanca and Maj. Gen. Lloyd R. Fredendall in Oran),
put the two sections of the air force 365 miles apart by air. The route trav-
eled by the ground echelons from Casablanca and Oran to the front would,
naturally, be more arduous and less direct. Furthermore, the task force com-
manders' reluctance to give up command of their air assets prevented the
Twelfth from gathering its full force. Part of the Twelfth remained tied to the
U.S. Fifth Army in Morocco to watch the Spanish. Although portions of the
AAF would eventually travel the entire 1,065 miles from Casablanca to
Tunis, the Luftwaffe and the Reggia Aeronautica (Italian Royal Air Force)
were more favored by geography. They had major depots in Sicily, which
was 160 miles from Tunis, and Naples, 375 miles from Tunis. The Axis
powers also seized the only four all-weather, hard-surface airfields in the

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Tunisian plain,* which gave them a considerable advantage over the Allies,
who operated from unimproved dirt fields in the eastern Algerian highlands.
When the rainy season began in December 1942, these fields immediately
turned into mud puddles. The Allies had only one hard-surface field east of
Algiers, at B6ne, 115 miles from the front. (See Map 4, Allied and Axis
Airfields on the Northern Tunisian Front.) To add to the confusion in the initial
phases of the campaign, RAF and AAF units operated from the same airfields.
All supplies for the forward imits of the Twelfth would have to move along the
feeble colonial road network and one overworked, single-track rail line from
Algiers.

In addition, the Twelfth lacked mobility. Aircraft might travel far and

swiftly, but they remained tethered to their ground echelons. The ground eche-
lons required considerable motor or rail transport to keep pace with the rapidly
changing front lines characteristic of modem warfare. Already hampered by
frangible French railways, the AAF in North Africa had to prevail over a chronic
shortage of motor transport. The Twelfth started the Tunisian campaign under-
strength in trucks because invasion planners, facing the usual premium on ship-
ping space confronting any large-scale amphibious invasion and envisaging a
static role for the AAF, had pared the Twelfth's motorized components to a min-
imum. The Oran task force carried no two-and-one-half ton trucks, and only 50
percent of all types of organizational vehicles. The Casablanca task force sailed
with 100 percent of its men but only 50 percent of its materiel.i^ U.S. ground
units moving to support the advance of Lt. Gen. Kenneth A. N. Anderson's 1st
British Army into Tunisia aggravated the transportation shortage by stripping
away much of the Twelfth's shrunken allocation of motor transport.

The Eastern Air Command suffered the same hardships. It had requested
shipping for enough motor transport to make its ground echelons 100 percent
mobile, but was allocated only half of its request. 17 Many vehicles immediately
fell into different hands. One air observer reported that new units' "Senior
Officers and others were in the habit of commandeering vehicles as soon as they
were unloaded in ALGIERS, without regard to whether they were consigned to
their unit or not. When no longer needed, these vehicles were abandoned by the
wayside."i8

The original strategic plans placing the Twelfth Air Force in a static role, far
to the west of the combat area, added to the organizational chaos. Doolittle had
difficulty regaining command of his widely separated forces from the task force
commanders. Each of the task force commanders (ground force generals who
were the equivalent of corps commanders) for the Casablanca and Oran inva-
sions had received control of approximately one-half of the Twelfth Air Force to

* One, El Aouina, was only 20 miles ftom the front lines, and another, Sidi Ahmed, was 25
miles away.

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

provide support for their invasion assault. After the assault, the task force com-
manders only reluctantly released their attached air forces. The confusion com-
pounded when new air and ground elements landed in Algiers, in order to enter
the fighting in Tunisia immediately, while their rear echelons landed half a con-
tinent away in Casablanca. The Twelfth had other units still in Britain or the United
States, or on convoys in the middle of the Atlantic.

Communications and intelligence problems also plagued the Twelfth at the
start of the campaign. The French telephone system, at best primitive and ineffi-
cient, soon failed under the demands placed on it. Atmospheric conditions
unique to North Africa hindered radio transmission, as did lack of modern
equipment and half -trained signals personnel. 19 In many instances motorcycle
couriers had to carry the load.20 Moreover, the Twelfth had no military intelli-
gence. All its operational information came from the British; there were thus
delays in planning and consequent delays in missions.

U.S. Air Support Doctrine Before Operation Torch

U.S. ground and air forces started the North African campaign with an
untested air support doctrine. Because of the AAF's position as a combat arm
subordinate to the Army rather than as a service independent from the Army like
the RAF, the ground forces, rather than air, had the decisive voice in determin-
ing official doctrine. In 1926 this dominance was reflected in War Department
Training Regulation 440-15 (TR 440-15), which stated categorically, "The mis-
sion of the Air Service is to assist the ground forces to gain strategical and tacti-
cal successes by destroying enemy aviation, attacking enemy ground forces and
other enemy objectives on land or sea, and in conjunction with other agencies to
protect ground forces from hostile aerial observation and attack." TR 440-15
also stated that the "Air Service is an essential arm in all major operations. The
organization and training of all air units is based on the fundamental doctrine
that their mission is to aid the ground forces to gain decisive success."2i TR
440-15 authorized strategic bombardment operations under favorable conditions
and after the defeat or neutralization of a hostile air force if it was "based on the
broad plan of operations of the military forces."22

The advent of General Headquarters Air Force (GHQ AF) in 1935 led to the
revision of TR 440-15. This revision placed GHQ AF under the commander in
chief in the field in wartime, and under the Chief of Staff of the Army in peace-
time. The revision gave the GHQ AF three functions:

1. Operations beyond the sphere of influence of the ground forces;

2. Operations in support of the ground forces; and

3. Coastal frontier defense.

Operations beyond the groimd forces' sphere of influence were still required

130

The Race for Tunisia

to conform to the Army strategic plan, prepared by a section of the War
Department General Staff dominated by ground officers. In addition, the GHQ
Air Force Commander could be directed by the commander-in-chief in the field
to "support designated operations of an army with all or with a specified part of
GHQ Air Force in accordance with the instructions of such army comman-
ders."23 Yet the 1935 version of TR 440-15 represented a significant step for-
ward in the eyes of air officers, in that it recognized a role for strategic bombard-
ment equal to that of ground support.

It is important to remember that strategic bombing offered the airmen an
institutional advantage not offered by tactical operations. Strategic operations
were independent of the Army and could be used to justify an independent air
arm. Tactical operations, in contrast, would always be in cooperation with
ground forces and difficult to separate from them — hence the airmen's constant
attempts to advance strategic air and their lack of interest in tactical air.

Adolf Hitler's aggressive, revanchist foreign policy of 1936-1939 and the
outbreak of war in Europe led to the reexamination of U.S. Army air doctrine.
On April 15, 1940, War Department Field Manual 1-5 (FM 1-5) superseded TR
440-15 of October 15, 1935. The authors of FM 1-5 intended it to be the com-
prehensive rubric for the employment of all types of U.S. military aviation. As
such, it defined the basic doctrines for strategic bombardment, antiaircraft
defense, support of ground and naval forces, and air operations in lieu of naval
forces. This manual was based on the recommendations of a War Department
Air Board, appointed by Secretary of War Harry H. Woodring on March 23, 1939.
Woodring designated Arnold president of the board, and its membership
included Maj. Gen. Frank M. Andrews (recently appointed by Marshall to head
G-3, Operations of the General Staff) and Brig. Gen. George V. Strong (head of
the War Plans Division). After polling the components of the Army and the Air
Corps, including GHQ Air Force, and the Air Corps Tactical School the board
submitted its findings to the Chief of Staff on September 1, 1939. With only
minor changes these findings became FM 1-5.24

Although the manual emphasized the role of air power in the defense of the
United States and its possessions, it provided for a strategic air offensive to
"decisively defeat important elements of the enemy armed forces" or to "deprive
the enemy of essential war material."25 In its discussion of air operations in sup-
port of ground forces it laid down the following instructions:

The hostile rear area is the nomial zone of action of support aviation, since
operations in this area permit the full utilization of striking power against con-
centrated targets with the minimum of losses and the maximum of results.
Support aviation is not employed against objectives which can be effectively
engaged by available ground weapons within the time required.

FM 1-5 also observed that "aviation is poorly suited for direct attacks against
small detachments or troops which are well entrenched or disposed."

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

The manual addressed the control of tactical air as well, stating that, in gen-
eral, centralized control at the theater level maximized effectiveness, but noted:

When decentralization becomes necessary in situations requiring immediate
tactical support of specified units, the superior commander may attach to or
place in support of specified large units a part or all of his support aviation.
Support aviation may thus act with greater promptoess and better understanding
in meeting the requirements of the supported unit. When combat aviation is
employed for immediate tactical support of surface forces, the requirements of
the supported force will be of paramount importance in the selection of objec-
tives for air operations.^

In theory, the manual should have supplied a reasonable compromise solu-
tion to the ground forces' desire for control of support aviation in a battle situa-
tion and the desire of elements of the Air Corps to centralize the control of all
tactical air under an airman. In practice, all would depend on the attitude of the
theater commander, who would almost certainly be a ground officer. In that
case, Air Corps officers feared that he would routinely attach air support units
directly to his field armies or corps and ignore the strictures on centrahzation of
air command. Army and corps commanders, whose attention would be focused
solely on the attainment of their own immediate objectives, would be slow to
release the attached air units and would invariably be unable to cooperate effec-
tively with each other in a timely enough manner to take advantage of air's abil-
ity to concentrate all of its forces over a single objective. FM 1-5, however,
reflected the increased influence of the Army Air Corps within the structure of
the Army and the development of an aircraft capable of strategic bombardment,
the B-17. No longer, as in 1926, could the ground forces impose doctrine by fiat.

A series of important prewar Army maneuvers in Louisiana and North
Carolina in 1941 showed the extent of the rift between the ground forces and the
air forces. As the Army groimd forces sought to adapt to the German method of
blitzkrieg warfare, they clashed with the Army Air Forces, which had a different
set of priorities. The ground forces, looking at the war in Europe and seeing the
successes of the German army acting in close concert with the Luftwaffe, a force
designed for ground support, formed armored divisions and an armored corps to
fight the new war. To work effectively, these new corps required large-scale
close air support to form a combined-arms team capable of fighting the Germans
on equal terms. Thus they needed modem planes for training and an air support
communications network and support team to function at full capacity. The AAF
had difQculty supplying those items.

The AAF, studying the war in Europe, realized it would need an air defense
network and a strategic bombing campaign to weaken the Germans before
attempting an invasion of the Continent, if that proved necessary. The needs of
the ground forces took lower priority. The Western Allies were buying hundreds
of modem warplanes and the AAF's own training programs were consuming

132

The Race for Tunisia

most remaining aircraft production, leaving few aircraft for air support training.
Given these conflicts, prewar maneuvers had proved unsatisfactory.

Ten days before the attack on Pearl Harbor, Arnold noted the poor coordina-
tion between ground and air during the North Carolina and Louisiana maneuvers
that he and Marshall blamed on the "lack of knowledge of fundamentals on the
part of both the Air and Ground elements."27 Air and ground officers did not
know air communications techniques and procedures, proper employment of
their own forces for air operations, and the characteristics and limitations of air
itself. Arnold informed Spaatz that Marshall wished to hold a series of command
post exercises at Fort Benning in Georgia for all major combat commanders of
flie Army. "The first one should be started off," recommended Arnold, "with a
general discussion by all present as to exactly what Air Support means and how
it is to be carried out, so that the fundamentals may be discussed frankly and all
present get some ideas of what can and should be expected.''^?

U.S. entry into the war increased the intensity of the dispute between air and
ground. The Army reorganization of March 9, 1942, institutionalized the dispute
by giving air and ground the same degree of power and prestige. In that reorga-
nization the AAF and the Army Ground Forces (AGF) became separate and
equal organizations imder the Army General Staff and the War Department. If,
as in 1926, one arm or the other could have imposed its will, at least one of them
would have been content. Or if a virtually unlimited number of planes had been
available, both sides could have had adequate air resources for strategic bc«nb-
ing and ground support, as was the case in 1944—1945.

On April 9, 1942, the War Department promulgated a manual on air support
based on the lessons of the prewar exercises. War Department Field Manual 31-
35 (FM 31-35), "Aviation in Support of Ground Forces." Air historians have
charged that it created many of the AAF's ground support woes early in the war.
The AAF official history said of FM 31-35, "The outstanding characteristic of
the manual lay in its subordination of the air force to ground force needs and to
the purely local situation."29 Yet the AAF itself had issued the manual. The
Army Air Support Staff Section had drafted the manual. Its successor in the
March 1942 reorganization, the Directorate of Ground Support, had produced
the finished copy.

In fact, the manual attempted to reconcile irreconcilable air and ground posi-
tions. It was not intended to speak to any aspect of air power other than air sup-
port. The manual devoted more than half of its text to a detailed exposition of the
air-ground communications network rather than to doctrines of employment. It
placed an air support command — along with fighter, bomber, and base com-
mands — within a theater air force, all under the control of an airman. The manual
offset this arrangement by noting that the air support command would be habitu-
ally attached to or designated to support a particular field army. Within the air
support command, all control was centralized in the hands of its commander, an
airman, who would assign missions as the needs of the ground units developed.

133

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

If required, however, an aviation unit could be "specifically allocated" to the
support of subordinate ground units.^O In such a case, the aviation unit would
receive its orders from an air support control unit commanded by an airman and
co-located at the conmiand post of the supported unit. The overall air support
conmiander retained the right to assign other air support missions to the "specifi-
cally allocated" unit. The manual went on to state:

Designation of an aviation unit for support of a subordinate ground unit does
not imply subordination of that aviation unit to the supported ground unit, nor
does it remove the combat aviation unit from the control of the air support com-
mander. It does permit, however, direct cooperation and association between
the supporting aviation unit and the supported ground unit and enables combat
aviation to act with greater promptness in meeting the requirements of a rapidly
changing situation. Aviation units may be attached [emphasis in original] to
subordinate ground units. This is exceptional and should be resorted to only
when circumstances are such that the air support commander cannot effectively
control the combat aviation assigned to the air support command.^'

The manual assumed that in most instances ak control would be centralized at
the theater level.

FM 31-35 began its consideration of the method of employing air support
aviation with the following obvious, but often ignored, homily: "The basis of
effective air support of ground forces is teamwork. The air and ground tinits in
such operations form a team. Each member of the team must have the technical
skill and training to enable it to perform its part in the operation and a willing-
ness to cooperate thoroughly."32 The first factor affecting employment was the
establishment of local air superiority to ensure air support without excessive
losses. Next came economy of force, defined as hitting the right target at the
right time rather than using a few aircraft to hit widely scattered targets. Other
factors included attention to time and space factors (distance from air bases,
speed of communications, readiness status of aircraft, etc.), the inherent flexibil-
ity of air power to concentrate on short notice, and the necessity of the air sup-
port command to cooperate with other air elements in the same area.

The manual's procedures for selecting targets raised the ire of pro air power
critics, who focused on one paragraph: "The most important target at a particular
time will usually be that target which constitutes the most serious threat to the
operations of the supported ground force. The final decision as to priority of tar-
gets rests with the commander of the supported unit. "33 This lifting of one para-
graph from its context distorted the balanced intent of the entire manual, which
was not an encomium for the doctrinal positions held by the ground forces.
Ground force officers objected to the centralized control of air support aviation
inherent in the air support command; they favored the direct attachment of air
units to the units they supported.34 FM 31-35 satisfied neither the ground forces
nor the air forces, which was perhaps the true measure of its attempt at objectiv-

134

The Race for Tunisia

ity. If it proved wanting on the battlefield, it was because most of the American
air and ground commanders in North Africa were inexperienced in combat and
half-trained in the air support procedures laid down by FM 31-35 or ignorant of
its provisions.

The issuance of FM 31-35 did little to solve the U.S. Army's and AAF's ground
support training deficiencies. In front of War Department, Navy, and British
army observers the AAF botched its share of a corps-level demonstration at Fort
Benning on June 13, 1942.^5 This demonstration, conducted under the command
of Maj. Gen. Lloyd R. Fredendall, included units of the 1st Infantry Division.
Both the division and Fredendall would play large roles in North Africa. In July
1942, Maj. Gen. Jacob L. Devers, the Commander of the U.S. Armored Force,
the chief armored training unit of the Army, complained to Marshall that the
armored forces did not have a single combat plane working with them. When
informed of the complaint, Arnold tartly replied that the armored forces had the
best the AAF could supply and that he hoped to have sufficient quantities of
light bombers and observation planes to meet ground force requests in full by
the end of the year.36

In September Devers complained directly to Arnold of "lots of talk but no
real action because there is a great shortage of equipment." He pointed out spe-
cific shortcomings in bombardment, observation, and communications units
attached for training. "I stick to my opinion," said Devers bluntly, "that there is
no air-ground support training. We are simply puttering. Cannot something be
done about it?" Arnold replied that he had no modern heavy-bombardment,
medium-bombardment, or fighter units available because all such units and their
replacements were committed to active battle fronts. He had already allocated
his only uncommitted light-bombardment group to one of the Armored Forces'
major training establishments, the Desert Training Center. He attempted to reas-
sure Devers by observing: "When our ground forces are committed to an active
combat theater, I believe fhat they may look upon practically the entire Air
Force in that theater as support aviation, as it is in North Africa today."* Arnold
concluded by saying that he would continue to push for modern aircraft for
training as soon as they became available.37

If the state of air-ground training of the armored forces, which had the
highest priority, needed bolstering as late as September 1942, one can only
imagine the status of the Army's remaining divisions and of the forces assigned
to the North African invasion. Lt. Gen. Leslie J. McNair, Commander of the
Army Ground Forces, admitted on December 30, 1942, "So far as I know, there
is no U.S. ground unit overseas which had air-groimd training before leaving the
U.S., other than the superficial occasions incident to large maneuvers."38 Clearly

* Arnold's mention of North Africa referred to Egypt where the British Western Desert Air
Force (assisted by a handful of AAF units) was supporting Lt. Gen. Bernard L. Montgomery's
British 8th Army against German Field Marshal Irwin Rommel's German-Italian Panzer Army.

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

the invasion ground and air forces were woefully untrained for the task ahead of
them.

Despite the benefit of Britain's more than three years at war, the British 1st
Army, Eisenhower's chief British ground formation, entered battle with air sup-
port doctrine and practice hardly superior to those of Eisenhower's American
troops. The British air planners for the invasion, perhaps constrained by security
considerations, which prevented direct contact, took no notice of the combat
proven air support advances made by their own forces in the Middle East.39 The
British 8th Army and the Western Desert Air Force (WDAF), thanks to the hard
lessons learned at the hands of the German Afrika Korps, had developed both an
effective air support team and a modified air support doctrine based on close air-
ground planning and communications. The British North African contingent for
Torch ignored that example and instead produced a. plan similar to that of the
advanced air striking force that had accompanied the British Expeditionary
Force to France in 1939.40 That plan had proved deficient because it did not pro-
vide close enough cooperation between the RAF and the British army. The
Torch invasion plan in general suffered from the same defect.

Nor were the British troops appreciably better trained in air-ground opera-
tions than the Americans. The British 1st Army, under Lt. Gen. Kenneth A. N.
Anderson, was a hastily assembled force that had never operated together as a
whole. Nor were its troops of the highest quality; the British had skimmed their
home country units (units stationed in metropolitan Britain) of their best man-
power and starved them of modem equipment in order to maintain the British
8th Army in the desert war against Rommel. In particular, the home forces had
been forced to divest themselves of almost all their organic light antiaircraft
artillery to augment that of the desert forces. This deficiency was not corrected
before British units embarked for the invasion.^l The shortage of antiaircraft
weapons left the British 1st Army vulnerable to even light air attacks unless it
received adequate protection from friendly fighter forces.

The Eastern Air Command, the RAF force responsible for the 1st Army's air
support, had also been created for the Torch invasion. It had not worked or
trained with the 1st Army. Its staff had come together at the last moment, with
no opportunity to form a team. Its squadrons had worked together, but its admin-
istrative and service troops were a hastily amalgamated hodge-podge of men
with no training for field service or field conditions. They suffered severely in
the North African countryside, where virtually no supplies could be obtained
locally. The EAC had responsibilities beyond its means. It not only had to give
air support to the 1st Army, it also had to provide for the air defense of all ports
east of and including Algiers, escort and protect reinforcement convoys and
shipping, and support the operations of the Allied fleet. Until it gained experi-
ence, the EAC's own manpower and organizational deficiencies, not to mention
the unfavorable airfield situation and totally inadequate supply lines, would hin-
der its performance.42

136

The Race for Tunisia

Lt. Gen. Kenneth A. N.
Anderson, General Officer
Commanding, Britisii 1st
Army, 1942-1!M3.

In the long run, these shortcomings merely slowed the eventual victory of
the Allies. The Axis powers could only delay the inevitable, given the decisive
Anglo-American advantages in men and matfiriel — advantages, in turn, aug-
mented by the priceless information supplied by the British signal intelligence
organization, which decoded German Air Force, Navy, and Army as well as
Italian air force and navy ciphers at both the strategic and the tactical levels. The
British breaking of Axis codes, known as Ultra, may have contributed more
decisively to the North African campaign than to any other in the European
Theater.

Operations in November-December 1942

The Allies had originally planned to capture airfields at B6ne, Bizerte, and
Tunis with airborne and commando troops, but uncertainty about the reaction of
the French forces in Tunisia led to the cancellation of those ambitious plans.
(See Map 5, Eastern Algeria and Northern Tunisia.) On November 10, a fast
convoy left Algiers to occupy the port of Bougie, a little less than 100 miles
away but still beyond the practical escort range of the EAC's Spitfires flying
from Algiers. This convoy and a slow reinforcement convoy initially had air
cover from the British carrier Argus. In the meantime, high surf foiled an
attempt to land aviation fuel at the airfield at Djidjelli, on the coast a few miles

137

MEDITERRANEAN
SEA

The Race for Tunisia

east of Bougie, grounding a squadron of just-arrived Spitfires. An attempt to
supply fuel by truck from Bougie, a distance of 60 miles by road, misfired when
the British 36th Infantry Brigade commandeered the designated trucks for recon-
naissance purposes.43 As a result, when the Argus withdrew in the afternoon,
according to schedule, the unloading ships at Bougie had no air protection. The
Luftwaffe promptly took advantage of this situation to sink three transports.

On November 12, a small British landing force seized the port of B6ne, 125
miles east of Bougie and 185 miles by road from Bizerte. Bone had the eastern-
most hard-surface all-weather airfield available to the Allies for the bulk of the
campaign. It served as the forward air base for the RAF Eastern Air Command.
It also had unloading facilities for twenty-two ships — an important consideration
when the relative ease of sea transport was compared with the difficulties
encountered on the only two roads eastward from Algiers and the single-track
railroad. It took trains four to six days to reach the advanced railhead at Souk el
Arba (taken on November 16 by British paratroopers) from Algiers, and the line
could sustain only six military trains a day with a daily capacity of only 2,000
tons.44 The rail line underwent a change in gauge just east of Constantine, which
added the delay of transshipment and the threat of another bottleneck in the line
of supply .45

General Anderson, despite the grandiose title of his command, had only the
understrength British 78th Division to send overland from Algiers. Its main
body started its advance from Algiers on November 14. Its spearheads reached
Djebel Abiod, about 25 miles from Bizerte, on November 17. At that point the
British ran into tough German paratroops advancing from Bizerte and halted to
organize for a general attack.

U.S. Twelfth Air Force units began to arrive at British forward fields by the
third week of November. They placed themselves at the disposal of Air Marshal
William L. Welsh, but not under his command. He could not order U.S. squadrons
to specific objectives, and "the targets were decided on a day in advance after
exhaustive discussion. "46 A week later, reinforced by units from the U.S. 1st
Armored Division, the British resumed their advance. Overcoming counterattacks
supported by tanks and dive-bombers, the Allies advanced to the outskirts of
Djedeida, twelve miles from Tunis, on November 28. Concentrated German dive-
bombing attacks and newly arrived antitank guns halted them there. The next day
the heaviest air attacks to date hit exposed Allied tanks and infantry, while the
Germans organized their defense.

By November 27, the 1st Army had one squadron of Twelfth Air Force P-38s
(25 planes) at Youks-les-Bains, two squadrons of RAF Spitfires (36 planes) at
Souk el Arba, and two squadrons of RAF Spitfires and one of Hurricane fighter-
bombers (54 planes) at Bone available for both air superiority and close air sup-
port operations. These planes had a serviceability rate of only 50 percent and
Spitfires had no bombing capability. The aircraft at B6ne provided air defense
for the port and arriving convoys and were not always available. In fact the

139

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

British did not use fighter bombing to support their front-line troops in the cam-
paign until December 15.47

The Luftwaffe countered those planes with a force of approximately 81
fighters and 28 dive-bombers based in Tunisia. In the entire Mediterranean the
Germans possessed 1,220 aircraft, of which more than 512 were operating
against Torch by November 12 and some 850 by December 12. At the same
time they raised the number of their transport aircraft from 205 to 673.48

Anderson naturally found the air situation unsatisfactory. He called off his
attack on November 29 partly because "the strain of persistent dive-bombing
was beginning to tell." He complained further that air attacks on Bone had seri-
ously disrupted his supply lines and said, "This week was notable for the heavy
scale of enemy air attack, particularly by dive-bombers, to which the leading
troops were subjected, and which our own air forces were at this stage unable to
prevent."49 Here, the inexperience of Anderson's troops, their light scale of anti-
aircraft armament, and their lack of ammunition proved nearly disastrous. The
slow-flying dive-bomber was a terrifying weapon, especially against untried
troops who lacked the firepower to keep it at a respectful altitude.

In the first phase of the campaign, the Allies did not provide adequate close
air support because they could not obtain air superiority and because no air-
ground team existed. The EAC's Commander, Air Marshal Welsh, had appointed
Air Commodore G. M. Lawson to operate the forward squadrons. Upon arrival at
1st Army Headquarters and later at 78th Division Headquarters, Lawson found
communications chaotic. "Quite candidly," he acknowledged, "I am astonished at
every point I have visited [by] the lack of knowledge of the operational setup and
of the urgency of the drive in getting proper communications established. "50
Without communications, air-ground coordination ceased. Anderson complicated
matters further by insisting on repeated attacks on Tunis, Bizerte, and Axis air-
fields elsewhere, as well as defensive patrols, known as "air umbrellas," over his
own troops. These demands stretched the EAC far beyond its limited ability.
Welsh did not help the situation by establishing his headquarters six miles outside
Algiers, isolated not only from Anderson and Doolittle but also from Eisenhower
and his headquarters, known as Allied Force Headquarters (AFHQ).5i

On November 13, the day before Anderson began his advance toward
Tunisia, Eisenhower telegraphed Spaatz: "I continue to look to you not only for
control of the United States air in the United Kingdom but as my most trusted
air advisor. ... It may be best for us to confer immediately in light of what has
so far transpired."52 Eisenhower referred to the Axis powers' prompt and vigor-
ous decision to establish a bridgehead in Tunisia, surprising the Allies, since
invasion planners had discounted any possibility of such action. The Allied com-
mand had expected a cakewalk into Tunis once they had overcome the Vichy
French.53 Four days later, on November 17, Spaatz's B-17 touched down at
Gibraltar, the site of Eisenhower's headquarters for the initial phase of the cam-
paign. Doohttle met Spaatz, who had come to the Rock at Eisenhower's request.

140

The Race for Tunisia

Air Commodore G. M.
Lawson, Air Officer
Commanding, No. 242
Group, RAF, 1942-1943.

By the time of their meeting, Eisenhower had already received from Bletchley
Park, the location of the British Government Code and Cypher School, signal
intelligence revealing an unexpectedly heavy Axis response. British cryptolo-
gists had cracked the particular Enigma machine key setting (Locust) employed
by the German Supreme Commander in the Mediterranean, Luftwaffe Field
Marshal Albert Kesselring, and could read the intercepted traffic without
delay."54 As the daily intercepts arrived, confirming increased totals of Axis
men, aircraft, and tanks, Eisenhower redoubled the pressure on his subordinates
to secure Tunisia.

Thus Spaatz, who had arrived expecting to discuss the plan for a single the-
ater air force (see previous chapter), instead found himself enmeshed in
Eisenhower's anxious attempts to hurry the Twelfth to the east and to interdict
the flow of Axis reinforcements. The confused state of Doolittle's command
took priority over all other air concerns. At the meeting, Spaatz and his com-
manding officer "decided to postpone the discussion of the organization of the
Air Force until I [Spaatz] could complete a brief visit to the principal establish-
ments in the North African Theater. "55

As Spaatz emerged from the Gibraltar meeting, he learned that his chief of
staff, Brig. Gen. Asa N. Duncan, had ditched his B-17 into the Atlantic. Subse-
quent air search unearthed no trace of his plane, its crew, or passengers. The
AAF had lost a valuable, experienced officer, and Spaatz had lost a friend.

The tour itself was hardly a case of veni, vidi, vici for Spaatz. On his tour of

141

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

the theater he found much to correct while obtaining few concrete results. He
and Doolittle left Gibraltar for Africa on the morning of November 18. At Oran,
Spaatz noted its excellent repair facilities and "great numbers of [AAF] men
who knew what they were doing and who were going about it in a fast and
orderly fashion." He gathered a somewhat different impression at Algiers, par-
ticularly of its major air facility, Maison Blanche, which he found overcrowded
as well as unsuitable for deployment of B-17s. Its location put the heavy-
bombers too close to the front, leaving them too exposed to enemy counter-
strikes. Typically, Spaatz observed that "the place lacked organization." After a
quick stop at Gibraltar to inform his superior of his findings, he flew to Casablanca
on November 20. There he conferred with Brig. Gen. John K. Cannon, Commander
of the Twelfth Air Support Command (Xn ASC). "Uncle Joe" Cannon, although
not one of the top AAF decision makers, was only a step below the Amold, Spaatz,
Eaker, and Andrews echelon. Cannon had taken flight training in 1921, had gradu-
ated from the Air Corps Tactical School and the Command and General Staff
School in the 1930s, and had led the First Air Force's Interceptor Command in
1941. His specialties, pursuit aviation and training, neatly complemented the
responsibilities he faced in North Africa. Spaatz reported to Arnold that "my
impressions at Casablanca were very favorable"; he noted excellent shop facilities,
but added that Casablanca's turf-covered main aerodrome was muddy.56

That evening Spaatz returned to Gibraltar once again and spent the next day
conferring with Eisenhower and his staff. These conversations resulted in an
agreement on the single theater air force that Spaatz and Amold had championed
for months. Eisenhower informed both airmen that he "was going to put in a
firm recommendation to that effect but would await, for the moment, the "out-
come of the Tunisian fight. "5^ This caveat proved the undoing of the unified air
plan. The fight in North Africa dragged on so long and absorbed so many re-
sources that it required the creation of a new theater of operations, which made
permanent the split in AAF European resources. The most concrete result of the
November 21 meetings was Spaatz's transfer from England to North Africa as
Eisenhower's chief air adviser.

Spaatz returned to England on November 23. He designated Eaker to com-
mand the Eighth Air Force, and shortly thereafter he informed Arnold that
"plans are underway for a Theater Air Force Headquarters and integration of the
Eighth and Twelfth under its command. . . . With a very small staff I rejoin
Eisenhower. "58 Arnold approved these moves and Spaatz flew back to Gibraltar
on December 1 . The same day the Germans, strongly supported by tanks and air,
attacked — driving back the advance elements of the 1st Army. By December 3,
the Germans had defeated the 78th Division and substantial portions of the U.S.
1st Armored Division operating under British control. The air superiority the
Germans had established over the battlefield proved a decisive factor in their
victory.

142

The Race for Tunisia

Also on December 3, Eisenhower appointed Spaatz Acting Deputy Com-
mander in Chief for Air of the Allied forces in North Africa. Spaatz's appoint-
ment marked Eisenhower's first attempt to improve the effectiveness of the
Allied air forces in his command. Spaatz would coordinate air operations rather
than command them, because his new position had only advisory functions.
Eisenhower noted, "This arrangement is to meet an emergency."59 Spaatz wrote
to Stratemeyer, the Chief of the AAF Staff, "This is a temporary solution to a
situation which will eventually require further clarification."60

Temporary or not, Spaatz immediately made his presence felt. On December
2, he had met Doolittle, Brig. Gen. Howard A. Craig, and Vandenberg, who enu-
merated the difficulties facing them. The Twelfth's leaders especially objected
to Eisenhower's directive to both the Twelfth and the EAC to give General
Anderson and his 1st Army "everything he asked for. "61 In effect Eisenhower
gave complete control of air operations to Anderson, which, as the assembled
airmen all agreed, "resulted in misuse of air power."62 Anderson's daily de-
mands for maximum effort in the defense of his front-line troops meant the dedi-
cation of all missions to air defense and groimd support operations — an ineffec-
tive practice resulting in terrific wear and tear on crews, aircraft, and mainte-
nance personnel. Anderson, in the airmen's opinion, also failed to allot them
necessary road and rail transport for their forward fields. Eisenhower's directive
chafed the U.S. airmen because its restrictions placed them under the command
of a ground force general whose ideas of air power seemed, at best, hazy. Spaatz
agreed to broach these problems to Eisenhower as soon as possible.63

On December 3, Spaatz established his headquarters. Craig had responsibil-
ity for liaison between the Twelfth and Eisenhower's headquarters, AFHQ,
while Air Vice-Marshal James M. Robb would handle liaison duties between the
EAC and AFHQ. Spaatz also decided to assign deep bombing missions (in cur-
rent USAF terminology, "deep interdiction" missions) against enemy supply
lines to the Twelfth and support of ground operations to the EAC. The light- and
medium-bomber units of the Twelfth would be attached to the EAC when the
congested supply situation in the forward fields eased.64

Spaatz's decision to divide his forces, with one force devoted exclusively to
bombing missions behind the enemy's lines and the other devoted solely to the
support of ground operations, departed from the then current AAF doctrine of a
composite air force, a self-sustaining unit capable of all types of combat and
support missions. Of course, the composition of the forces at hand made his
decision almost mandatory. The EAC was equipped largely with fighter and
other light aircraft, whereas the Twelfth had the only heavy bombers dedicated
entirely to the theater. This functional division of December 1942 cleared the
way for the AAF to concentrate on daylight precision bombing while giving to
the RAF the responsibility of ground support for the 1st Army. It also helped to
relieve the increasing congestion of aircraft in the forward airfields. Doolittie
and the Twelfth Air Force had Hterally marched to the sound of the guns, flying

143

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

groups into the fields before their ground echelons arrived and crowding the
EAC. To remedy the situation, the Allied airmen decided to withdraw four
squadrons of fighters (out of twelve) from the front to Constantine and to recom-
mit them when the land offensive started.^?

At Spaatz's insistence, the flow of Ultra intelligence to the AAF in North
Africa greatly increased. Spaatz arranged to have Ultra and other intelligence
reports delivered to him each day by eleven o'clock. Then he and his staff would
discuss and analyze the information before he made his daily call to Eisenhower.
Spaatz brought the Eighth Air Force Chief of Intelligence, Col. George C.
McDonald, from Britain to organize the U.S. intelligence setup. Spaatz had
worked closely with McDonald, then Assistant U.S. Military Attach6 for Air,
during the Battle of Britain and during their stint with the Eighth. McDonald had
twenty years' experience in intelligence with a specialty in photographic recon-
naissance, to which he had added several months' experience in operations, and
a familiarity with Ultra.66

On December 3, Eisenhower, Anderson, Spaatz, and Doolittle met to discuss
current operations and future plans. The shortcomings of Allied air power, high-
lighted during the successful German counterattack of December 1, ranked high
on the agenda. Eisenhower reported to the Combined Chiefs of Staff that "the
scale of possible air support is not sufficient to keep down the hostile strafing
and dive bombing that is largely responsible for breaking up all attempted
advances by ground forces."6'7 Anderson expressed his attitude in 1st Army's
situation report for December 3:

Unusually heavy dive bombing in the morning. The attempt will definitely be
made tomorrow to operate fighters from Medjez el Bab aerodrome in the hope
of alleviating the burden this continued dive bombing places on very tired
troops whom I cannot relieve for at least three days. Until this air threat can be
properly dealt with, there seems no possibility of lessening the effort which I
must demand from the R.A.F. and U.S. Squadrons now supporting me.'*

Spaatz and the other air commanders argued for a partial pause in the air effort
in order to arrange for the completion of advanced airfields, the arrival of addi-
tional air maintenance troops in the forward area, the positioning of spare parts
and supplies in the advanced airfields, and the provision of radar warning and
antiaircraft defenses for the forward area.69

The current scale of operations could not continue, the airmen contended, if
the ground forces wished to have any planes left to support them for the next
attack. The EAC, for instance, reported on December 2 almost 100 percent
wastage of its Spitfire squadrons. Eisenhower agreed to wait while his air forces
improved their logistics and to accept reduced air operations. The bombers, as
Spaatz had promised his AAF colleagues, switched to the ports. The fighters
would mount a counterair campaign against German airfields. This pause would
last until December 9, when the offensive would renew.

144

The Race for Tunisia

Unfortunately, this delay proved the first of many. The rainy season arrived
with a vengeance, turning the North African terrain — roads and airfields in par-
ticular — into viscous mud that quickly sapped the Allies' desire to advance. As
early as November 29, one of the Twelfth's main airfields, Tafaraoui, located a
short distance from Oran, had a hard-surface runway but no hard-surface dispersal
areas. It reported 285 planes mired in the mud,70 giving rise to a ditty about
"Tafaraoui where the mud is deep and gooey."

In the three weeks from the December 3 meeting to Christmas Eve, Spaatz
drove himself and his staff to prepare for a renewal of the Allied offensive. He
called the theater's four aviation engineer battalions from Oran and set them to
work east of Algiers. Despite the loss of two battalions' worth of equipment in
ships that did not reach North Africa and despite confused unloading at the over-
crowded North African ports, the engineers performed well. By December 12,
the 809th Aviation Engineer Battalion had finished a single well-drained airstrip
at Telergma, the start of a medium-bomber airfield complex. Spaatz sent the
heavy bombers to Biskra at the end of a spur of the French rail system, on the
fringes of the Sahara desert. There an engineer company completed a field in
four days.'^l Spaatz ordered every available air transport to ferry bombs, ammu-
nition, fuel, and supplies of all sorts to the front in order to keep his forward
fields supplied. As usual, he traveled, visiting Maison Blanche on December 15
(where he noted little improvement since his November 18 inspection), to
Anderson's headquarters on December 20 (where Anderson expressed concern
that Welsh would not properly support Lawson), and to Biskra on December 21
to check bomb supplies. To increase the effectiveness of planning he prodded
his chief of intelligence to get photo reconnaissance in order, especially in front
of the 1st Army, so that both the army and air forces could determine bombing
targets. Next, he ordered daily early-morning flights over the front line to give
air planners some idea of the weather. He did his best not only to improve com-
munications between his headquarters and forward airfields but also to establish
links that would enable a unified air command for the theater. All this attention
to detail had little immediate effect. Spaatz did not command "general weather."72
On December 24, after three days of rain had rendered all forward airfields unser-
viceable,73 Eisenhower postponed any major offensive for six weeks.

By the end of December, Allied air had not gained air superiority or estab-
lished effective air support arrangements. Air attempts to cut down the flow of
supplies across the Mediterranean to the Axis bridgehead also had encountered
difficulties. From November to December, Axis seaborne supply tonnage
received in Tunisia increased by 60 percent from 12,627 tons to 21,437; airborne
supply tonnage grew sixfold, from 581 tons to 3,503. But because a portion of
this increase represented a partial diversion of shipping from Libyan ports over-
run by the British, whose supply tonnage dropped by 19,0(X) tons in December,
the total amount of supplies received by the Axis forces in Africa actually
decreased by 8,000 tons or almost 25 percent.''^

145

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Despite the increase in Axis tonnage to Tunisia, Allied interdiction of Axis
shipping to Tunisia improved, too-=4"om no Axis supplies shipped to Tunisia
lost in November to 23 percent lost in December J5 Throughout the Mediterranean
the Allies sank 17 ships of over 500 tons deadweight in November (12 by air)
and increased that total to 32 (14 by air) in December76 Apparently most of the
shipping losses to air occurred on runs to the Libyan ports. American heavy and
medium bombers concentrated their attacks on Tunisian ports, causing disrup-
tion, delays, and some damage. Because Tunisian dock workers refused to
unload under the constant bombing,^'^ debarking troops had to spend a day at the
docks unloading supplies before marching to the front — an irritating but not
damaging loss of time. Allied air power had a measurable, but not an immedi-
ately decisive, effect on Axis supplies.

As the forward movement, but not the fightmg, stopped m the Tunisian hills,
Eisenhower struggled to set up an effective air organization.78 in doing so he
turned not only to Spaatz, but also to Air Chief Marshal Arthur Tedder, the Air
Officer Commanding, Middle East, and one of the premier airmen of the RAF.

In May 1941, at the age of fifty-one, Tedder became Air Officer Command-
ing in Chief, Middle East. He found himself in the midst of crises on several of
the fronts he oversaw. Rommel swept all before him in the Western Desert; the
Italians still held out in Abyssinia; dissident Arabs attacked RAF airfields in
Iraq; daily air raids struck Malta; and the final stage of the Commonwealth evac-
uation from Greece had begun. The disastrous battie of Crete and stem fighting
in the Western Desert lay ahead. By December 1942, Tedder had already served
more than two years fighting the Axis in the Mediterranean. He had leamed the
bitter lessons of Crete and Tobruk and supplied lessons of his own at El Alamein
and during the Axis retreat to Tripoli. No American air commander at that stage
of the war matched Tedder's combat experience and practical knowledge of con-
ducting air operations in the face of the German and Italian air forces. Under his
and his subordinates', particularly Air Vice-Marshal Arthur Coningham's, lead-
ership, the RAF in the Middle East had become the Allies' most effective
ground support air force. Tedder placed himself at Eisenhower's disposal — a dis-
play of inter- Allied cooperation much appreciated by the American commander.79

Before joining the British army in 1914, Tedder had taken a degree in his-
tory from Cambridge and won the Prince Consort Prize for an essay on the
Royal Navy during the 1660s. In 1916, he transferred to the Royal Flying Corps.
After the war, he served as an instructor at the RAF Staff College; in 1934, he
served on the Air Staff as Director of Training in charge of the Armaments
Branch; and in 1936, he commanded the Far Eastern Air Force in Singapore
where he observed firsthand the interservice disputes that presaged the misman-
aged defense of Malaya in 1941-1942.

In 1938, he became Director General of Research and Development and vir-
tually deputy to Air Marshal Wilfred Freeman, in charge of all RAF aircraft pro-
duction until 1940. Upon leaving the Ministry of Aircraft Production, Tedder

146

The Race for Tunisia

joined Air Marshal Arthur Longmore as Deputy Air Officer Commanding in
Chief, Middle East. For the next five months he assisted in the operations and
administration throughout the vast theater under Longmore's purview. From
December 1940 through January 1941, Tedder had direct command of the air
forces assisting Lt. Gen. Richard O'Conner's Western Desert Force in its
destruction of the Italian Tenth Army and the conquest of Libya. When Churchill
and Portal lost patience with Longmore's inability to do the impossible, they
relieved him and appointed Tedder.^o

Unlike Harris or Spaatz, Tedder was not identified with a particular type of
aviation. Instead, during his wartime service in the Mediterranean, he had spent
more than two years in the pit of joint army-navy-air action. He had learned how
to balance the conflicting demands of the services while maintaining his own
and his service's integrity. He became, out of self-defense, an expert in unified
command, acquiring a deep-seated belief in the necessity of joint service opera-
tional planning and unity of command for air power under air leaders. After the
war he said simply.

Each of us — Land, Sea, and Air Commanders — had our [sic} own special war
to fight, each of us had his own separate problems; but those separate problems
were closely interlocked, and each of us had responsibilities one to the other.
Given mutual understanding of that, you get mutual faith; and only with mutual
faith will you get the three arms working together as one great war machine."

Tedder had definite opinions on the North African command situation. A
visit to Algiers in late November left him deeply disturbed. Eisenhower and his
American staff had taken up quarters in a large hotel. The British had taken resi-
dence in the naval commander's flagship because of its excellent communica-
tions facilities. The two air forces had occupied headquarters miles from each
other and from Eisenhower's AFHQ. On November 27, Tedder, after having
observed that Doolittle refused to cooperate on a mission requested by the EAC,
objected to the "almost crazy" existing air organization. The two separate air
forces needed a single commander, preferably an American with a "first class"
British deputy. Tedder obviously realized that the Americans, who furnished the
majority of the aircraft, would not consent to an overall British air commander.
He hoped to bolster the American head with a proven British backup.82

In late 1942, Tedder rendered more than advice to the Americans. When he
retumed to Cairo from North Africa on December 17, he took Brig. Gen. Howard
A. Craig with him "for the purpose of furthering his education."83 In Cau-o, Craig
visited the Combined War Room and the Joint Operations Staff, where Royal
Navy, Army, and Air Force, staffs worked hand-in-hand on operations, intelli-
gence, and planning. When engine trouble delayed Craig's retum flight, Tedder
urged him to visit Air Vice-Marshal Arthur Coningham, Air Officer Conunanding,
Western Desert Air Force (WDAF), at Marble Arch, Tripolitania. The WDAF
provided close air support to General Bemard Montgomery's British 8th Army .84

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Spaatz and the Am War in Europe

Coningham, a New Zealander who had fought in the Australian-New
Zealand Army Corps in World War I, had earned the nickname "Maori," which
was soon corrupted by pronunciation to "Mary." A large man with a surprisingly
high voice, he impressed most observers with his physical presence and his fer-
vent championship of newly developed British air support doctrine, which he
claimed as his own. Before his posting at Tedder's request to the Western
Desert, in July 1941, he had commanded No. 4 Group in Great Britain and had
been exposed to the machinery of air support being studied and developed by
officers of the RAF Army Co-operation Command. 85

Although many airmen consider Coningham the father of air support doc-
trine — and he did serve as a conduit of that doctrine to the AAF — the method
and technique of air-ground cooperation he used in the desert did not originate
with him. As two modem British military historians have pointed out, the growth
of cooperation necessary to form and successfully operate a combined-arms
team of any sort — be it artillery-infantry, tanks-infantry, or air forces-army —
was slow and delicate, requiring time, copious amounts of goodwill, constant
human contact, and careful training. Combined-arms cooperation did not
become fully functional instantly or merely by decree.86

In their excellent history of British military theory, Shelford Bidwell and
Dominick Graham present a thorough history of the development of British air
support. They begin by noting that the RAF had begun the war with the inten-

148

The Race for Tunisia

tion of intervening on the battlefield only in ground emergency. The dividing
line between ground and air operations would be the range limit of army
artillery .87 When this plan proved unworkable during the campaign in France, it
was discarded in favor of closer air force-army cooperation, which the RAF
fostered by forming the Army Co-operation Command. Its commander, Air
Marshal Arthur Barrett, and his two chief subordinates. Army Lt. Col. J.
Woodall and Group Captain A. Wann, produced an outstanding solution to the
problem based on an army-air control system created entirely by Woodall as a
result of logical analysis.**

Woodall's system had four chief components:

1. The requirement for a properly equipped air formation reserved for the
direct support of the field army but under RAF control. This formation would
have two tasks: to shield the army from air attack by offensive action against
enemy air and to apply airfoome firepower on the battlefield itself, coordinating
closely with ground operations.

2. A specially trained army staff (Air Liaison Officers — ^ALOs) able to
explain air methods and limitations to soldiers and army methods of operation,
planning and situation to pilots assigned to the missions.

3. A joint command post or control center, the Army Air Control Center
(AACC), staffed by army and air force officers.

4. A communications netwoik of two links, one fixjm the joint air-army head-
quarters directly to brigade or lower-level subordinate fighting formations in the

Air Vice-Marshal Arthur
Coningham, Air Officer
Commanding, Western
Desert Air Forces, RAF,
1941-1943.

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

field, which bypassed intermediate headquarters, and another link direct from the
joint command post to the airfields, where the ALOs had access to it. This linking
of ground units to the air formations supporting them through only one intervening
element greatly speeded up the delivery of air support to the forces needing it. In
addition, each headquarters in an army had a signals section, called a "tentacle"
(because of its appearance on an organization chart of the communications net-
work), with a signals officer and a staff officer trained in air support."?

When Coningham arrived in the desert, he found the WDAF and the British
8th Army smarting from the rough handling they had received in a costly, failed
attempt to reUeve the Axis siege of Tobruk (Operation Battleaxe). Both ser-
vices saw the need to integrate their efforts. Into the breach stepped "Mary," who
added the newly created air-ground method to ongoing joint exercises. In
September the British army and the RAF published "Middle East Training
Pamphlet No. 3: Direct Air Support." The communications network envisaged by
this pamphlet mirrored the network proposed by Woodall and even called the
jointly staffed Air Support Control Headquarters (ASCs) established at each
corps and armored division headquarters "tentacles." Coningham had apparently
gone Woodall one better by providing joint RAF-army staffing for the forward
links in the system. The ASCs accompanied the 8th Army for Operation
Crusader, which relieved Tobruk in late November 1941.90

In May 1942, the RAF joined the rest of the British forces in the retreat to El
Alamein. Once there, the new system proved its worth during early September,
in the defense of Alam Haifa, Montgomery's first battle as commander of the
8th Army. Before the battle, Montgomery, a firm believer in army-air coopera-
tion, and Air Vice-Marshal Coningham had moved their headquarters to a com-
mon site, which allowed the AACC to remain in close touch with both army and
air staffs. By October 1942, the British 8th Army had virtually perfected the sys-
tem and used it with decisive effect in the Battle of El Alamein and the pursuit
of Rommel's defeated forces.^'

By the end of the campaign in the desert, Coningham had modified
Woodall's system, which had been originally designed to insulate the RAF from
army command while providing the army with air support. In the desert the most
difficult problem was not preventing the army's command of RAF units but,
rather, coordinating the operations of the RAF units themselves. The control of
the air and of aircraft in the air revolved around the fighter. As Coningham said,
"The fighter governs the front. "^2 xhe fighter gained air superiority over the
enemy's fighters, defended against the enemy's strikes, and escorted friendly
bombers. As a result, Coningham created a fighter group with a headquarters
and an air control center and placed it at a command level directly below the
adjacent 8th Army/Western Desert Air Force Headquarters. The fighter group
relieved Coningham's headquarters of the burden of detailed operational control,
leaving WDAF Headquarters free to concentrate on planning and overall direc-
tion of operations.

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The Race for Tunisia

The fighter group control center contained an army gun operations room,*
an air controller, a duty signals intelligence officer ("Y"), an operations officer,
and two forward bomber control officers. They plotted aircraft tracks on their
operations table and had the radio equipment for controlling aircraft. All bomber,
fighter-bomber, and tactical reconnaissance missions were coordinated through
the control center. The fighter group headquarters and control center were
located as close as possible to the majority of the airfields, which enabled rapid
communications by secure ground lines. 93 This modification curtailed the role
of the AACC and the tentacles, reducmg them to the status of a specialized com-
munications network divorced from command.

Coningham's cardinal principle was that the enemy air force had to be driven
from the sky before any other air operations could succeed; hence maximum
force must be focused on an initial counterair campaign. He deplored the em-
ployment of air assets in scattered groups and small numbers, called "penny
packets," tied closely to ground troops and conducting purely defensive func-
tions. Penny packets prevented the concentration of force necessary to win the
crucial counterair battle. The achievement of air superiority by aggressive offen-
sive action against enemy aircraft and airfields freed friendly air forces to exer-
cise their flexibility and capacity for rapid concentration at the decisive point.
When conditions did not require concentration, an air force which possessed air
superiority could roam over and behind the battlefield at leisure, harassing or
destroying enemy ground formations and supply lines. As a corollary, Coningham
believed in the centralized control of air operations by an airman working
closely with, but not directly under supervision of, the ground commander.

Although Coningham put his air headquarters in a tent adjacent to Mont-
gomery's own, he maintained that air officers had trained for their task and ought
to be allowed to do it without kibitzing from soldiers with little idea of, or sympa-
thy with, air problems. The RAF's independence from the army greatly assisted
Coningham in the realization of his ideas.94 Coningham lost no time inculcating his
strictures to Craig, who proved a willing convert. Criag's initial report gave Spaatz,
and through him the AAF hierarchy, additional insight into British methods.

Unfortunately, Coningham's and Montgomery's newfound skills made little
difference in the early stages of the North African campaign. The Americans had
yet to put their doctrine into practice, and the British had not yet fully assimi-
lated the lessons of the Western Desert. Not until February 1943, did the hard-
leamed experience of the Western Desert Air Force begin to influence all the
Allied forces in Africa.

* The army gun operations room coordinated RAF activities with army artillery to prevent guns
and aircraft from interfering with each other's missions and from attempting fire missions better
suited to either air or ground capabilities. For instance, aircraft could not safely fly into an area
already under artillery fire, but could fly sorties beyond artillery range. There was no need to send
aircraft to attack a target imdergoing the more accurate fire of artillery.

151

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Within a few days after Christmas 1942, Eisenhower concluded that the lull
in intensive air activity provided the opportunity to jettison the temporary com-
mand arrangements of early December. This decision resulted in a short lived,
but significant, reorganization, which increased Spaatz 's authority and revealed
the complexities of inter-Allied politics as they concerned high-level personnel
assignments. Eisenhower informed Marshall after careful study and discussions
with Tedder, Spaatz, and Coningham, "I have come to the conclusion that a sin-
gle air commander is necessary."95 Eisenhower at first wanted Tedder for the
position, but upon further consideration chose Spaatz. Eisenhower noted of
Spaatz: "He is a sound organizer and has gained, through operating as my
deputy commander for air, a very fine picture of our problem here, as well as its
relationship with the Mideast and with Great Britain. He is a fine officer and
will do a good job."96

If Marshall approved of the proposal, Eisenhower intended to present it to
the U.S.-British Combined Chiefs of Staff (CCS). Eisenhower did not expect the
British to object to the naming of an American to the position because they
knew Spaatz and because the Americans would supply the bulk of the bombers
and a considerable portion of the fighters to the new command.^'' Two days
later, writing to Marshall, Eisenhower explained that he considered it essential
for his air commander to retain control of the U.S. heavy bombers in Britain.98
As long as Spaatz remained the Commanding General, AAF, in the European
Theater of Operations, he could call down reinforcements from Britain, whereas
a British commander, because of the need to ensure the protection of his home-
land, would have a more difficult time doing this. Eisenhower wanted to guaran-
tee his ability to obtain timely air reinforcements.

Churchill and Portal did not care for the appointment of a man with little
field experience in the command and administration of a mixed air force to the
command of all Allied air forces in North Africa.^^ After some grousing, how-
ever, they consented on condition that Spaatz appoint a British officer as his
deputy and that his staff contain a British officer experienced in maintenance
and supply. 100 Their acquiescence also hinged on their perception that the
proper air command arrangements in North Africa would soon be reconsidered
at the meeting of President Roosevelt, Prime Minister Churchill, and their
Combined Chiefs of Staff at Casablanca in raid- January. lOl

Eisenhower found the British stipulations acceptable. On January 5, 1943,
he appointed Spaatz Commander of the Allied Air Force and Air Vice-Marshal
James M. Robb as deputy. Eisenhower attempted to follow British suggestions
on the internal structure of the Allied Air Force. The British recommended that
all their own and U.S. aircraft, irrespective of nationality, be grouped according
to their functions, logistic possibilities, and tactical requirements. Because both
British and U.S. statutes tied military promotions, discipline, and other functions
to the existing Twelfth Air Force and EAC, Eisenhower did not wish to dispense
with those organizations. Consequently, he gave the EAC control of general

152

The Race for Tunisia

reconnaissance, a striking force to hit enemy shipping, and an air support force
to cooperate with the British 1st Army. The Twelfth was assigned the tasks of
conducting strategic heavy-bombing missions and providing close air support to
the U.S. n Corps in Tunisia. The two existing organizations had by now solved
many of the tough administrative and logistical problems facing them in North
Africa and their dissolution might reopen Pandora's box.

These new arrangements, which lasted until mid-February 1943, did not
ease the Twelfth's basic logistics problem. Spaatz reported to Eisenhower on
January 1 that lack of transport prevented any air buildup to support a ground
offensive. Two days later, Spaatz repeated to Eisenhower that stockpiles of sup-
plies and preparations were needed at the front. He also asked for a higher prior-
ity in allocation of supplies sent forward. The day before his departure for
Casablanca on January 19, Spaatz instructed his forces to take advantage of the
lull in fighting to strengthen the buildup of repair and maintenance capability
and to get replacement aircraft to the front as rapidly as possible. On January 20,
he inspected Marrakech, the African terminus of the AAF South Atlantic air
ferry route, to clarify the responsibilities of the rear area services of supply and
training. All these actions helped to ensure maximum effort in the task of untan-
gling the knotted logistics situation. 102

The Germans halted the Allied drive on Tunis twenty-five miles short of its
goal, a margin of Allied defeat so narrow that a slight change in any of several
factors might have brought a different outcome. The men on the spot could not
hold back the rainy season, or overcome an overloaded transport system, or
build hard-surface airfields in an instant, or correct badly loaded ships. For both
air and ground forces, the first phase of the Tunisian campaign was a logistical
nightmare. By the end of November, the forward airfields were so overloaded
that Eisenhower's Assistant Chief of Staff for Air, Air Vice-Marshal A.P.M.
Sanders, reported that it was "imperative that no more U.S. air squadrons should
be brought to the East from the Oran and Casablanca areas until the situation
regarding airfields and supplies to them can be improved." Sanders added
sternly, "It is useless to send operational air units to them [forward airfields]
until transportation and communications to keep them effectively supplied and
controlled can be established" [emphasis in original]. 103

In December 1942, Spaatz made solid, if unspectacular, progress toward
solving logistical problems, but because of those problems he made less head-
way in the gaining of air superiority, the provision of close air support, and the
interdiction of enemy supply. Successful tactical air operations required superi-
ority in aircraft at the front — and superiority could be achieved only by having
an overwhelming number of aircraft at all points or by concentrating the planes
available at key points. Both necessitated better logistics. More planes needed
more fields and supplies. Concentration at key points needed better command
and control of available aircraft.

The Allied Air Force was created to clarify lines of command and thereby

153

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

ease the ability to concentrate both air forces on one objective. Control of air-
craft in the air, which would greatly increase the offensive and defensive power
of Allied fighters, awaited the delivery and installation of adequate radio and
radar equipment, another function of the logistics system.

In the next phase of the campaign Spaatz directly addressed the problem of
tactical air.

154

Chapter 5

Failure and Reorganization
(January-March 1943)

I have mentioned the need for mutual understanding and
mutual faith. This, in the ultimate, comes down to personali-
ties. One thing I have learnt in this late war is that the per-
sonality of the few men at the top — commanders and
staff — matters far more than conceived.'

—Sir Arthur Tedder, January 9, 1946

The Casablanca Conference

From January 14 to 24, Winston Churchill, Franklin Roosevelt, and their
Combined Chiefs of Staff met at Casablanca, in French Morocco, to settle the
Western Alliance's war strategy for 1943. They decided, after putting aside
American alternative suggestions, to continue the main effort against the Axis
powers in the Mediterranean and to postpone the major invasion across the
English Channel into France until 1944. This decision affected both the forces
then fighting the Axis in North Africa and the buildup of forces in Britain.

The conference divided Allied forces fighting the European Axis powers
into two separate theaters. North Africa and England. Thereupon, the Americans,
for their own administrative piuposes, formed a separate North African Theater
of Operations (NATO) to support the campaign in Tunisia and subsequent oper-
ations in the Mediterranean, while maintaining the previously established
European Theater of Operations (ETO) to support the strategic bomber offensive
against Germany and to prepare for the cross-channel invasion. An AAF officer,
Lt. Gen. Frank M. Andrews, replaced Eisenhower as Commanding General,
U.S. Army, ETO, and Eisenhower became Commanding General, U.S. Army,
NATO. Eisenhower also retained his position as overall Allied Commander in
North Africa. Andrews's responsibilities included the prosecution of the U.S.
portion of the U.S.-British Combined Bomber Offensive. This offensive.

155

Spaatz and the Am War in Europe

Lt Gen. Frank M.
Andrews, Commanding
General, European
Theater of Operations,
1943.

directed against Germany and occupied Europe, received the endorsement of the
conferees, who called for "the heaviest possible bomber offensive against the
German war effort,"2 with the ultimate goal of "the progressive destruction and
dislocation of the German military, industrial and economic system, and the
undermining of the morale of the German people to a point where their capacity
for armed resistance is fatally weakened."^

The selection of Andrews to fill this post disappointed Spaatz. He wanted to
direct the Combined Bomber Offensive himself and had even asked Arnold at
Casablanca whether he could return to the Eighth to do so. Arnold told him no,
because the new assignments had already been planned at the "very highest lev-
els."'* Spaatz did not allow this setback to weaken his efforts in North Africa.

The Casablanca Conference spawned yet another reorganization of Allied
air power in North Africa, this one along the lines suggested by the British in
their earlier proposals. Air Chief Marshal Arthur Tedder became Air Comman-
der in Chief, Mediterranean, in charge of Allied air forces in both the North
African and the British Middle East theaters of war. He had two principal sub-
ordinates — an air commander for the Middle East (Air Commander in Chief,
Middle East, Air Chief Marshal Sholto Douglas) and an air commander for
Northwest Africa (Spaatz). Spaatz 's combat elements, the U.S. Twelfth Air
Force and the British Eastern Air Command (EAC) plus the Western Desert Air
Force (WDAF) (including the U.S. Ninth Air Force), which had not yet arrived

156

Failure and Reorganization

from Tripolitania, would split to form three functional commands. Doolittle,
recently promoted to major general, would oversee the Northwest African
Strategic Air Force (NASAF), composed of heavy and medium bombers and
their escorting fighters. This force would bomb Axis ports in Italy and Tunisia,
attack Axis shipping in transit, and assist the other two air forces if necessary.
Air Marshal Arthur Coningham would head up the Northwest African Tactical
Air Force (NATAF), composed of Allied fighter-bombers, light and ground-
attack bombers, and a force of fighters. This force would provide ground support
for the newly formed 18 Army Group, which would take command of all Allied
ground forces in Tunisia. Air Marshal Hugh P. Lloyd would command the
Northwest African Coastal Air Force (NACAF), composed of fighters, long-
range reconnaissance aircraft, and antisubmarine planes. This force would pro-
tect Allied shipping and ports.5

At the Casablanca Conference Arnold had an opportunity to propound the
AAF's strategic views before Roosevelt, Churchill, and their combined military
staffs. The AAF also had to stave off a last British attempt to shunt the U.S.
bomber force from daylight bombing to night operations. This proposal had the
support of the Prime Minister, who became Arnold's major target in a campaign
to preserve daylight precision bombing.

The AAF's inability to mount a single bombing raid on the German home-
land in the thirteen months since the United States had entered the war had stim-
ulated the Prime Minister's doubts. As late as mid-September 1942, Churchill
expressed unreserved support of Spaatz and U.S. daylight heavy bombing. In a
personal message to Roosevelt he asked for more B-17s, observing,

A few hundred fortresses this autumn and winter, while substantial German Air
Forces are still held in Russia, may weU be worth many more in a year's time
when the enemy may be able greatly to reinforce his Westem Air Defences. I
am sure we should be missing great opportunities if we did not concentrate
every available fortress and long range escort fighter as quickly as possible for
the attack on our primary enemy.'

Within a month, however, the Prime Minister began to take the opposite
tack. Opinion within the Air Ministry split. Portal expressed skepticism at the
claims of fighters downed by the B-17s and the chances of successful bombing
of Germany. "It is rash to prophesy," he told Churchill, "but my own view is
that only very large numbers (say 400 to 500) going out at one time will enable
the Americans to bomb the Ruhr by daylight with less than 10% casualties and I
doubt even then the bombing will be very accurate. "7 Portal indicated a willing-
ness to delay tackling the problem with the Americans until the end of the year,
after the U.S. elections and after the AAF had had a chance to ride out a press
uproar over the inferior quality of its fighter aircraft.8

The Assistant Chief of the Air Staff (PoUcy), Air Vice-Marshal John Slessor,
the RAF senior officer with perhaps the clearest understanding of U.S. determi-

157

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

nation to carry through with daylight precision bombing, and the civilian head of
the RAF, Secretary of State for Air Archibald S. M. Sinclair, warned of the dan-
gers of appearing to thwart U.S. designs. While admitting that Spaatz and his
other American friends were "a bit unwarrantably cockahoop" over the success
of their early raids, Slessor spoke of their professionalism and resolve to suc-
ceed, concluding, "I have a feeling they will do it."9

On October 16, Churchill sent a message to Harry Hopkins that the achieve-
ment to date by the B-17s' shallow penetrations, under mainly RAF escort,
"does not give our experts the same confidence as yours in the power of the day
bomber to operate far into Germany." Churchill asked Hopkins to look into the
matter "while time remains and before large mass production is finally fixed."10
The Prime Minister expressed himself more bluntly within his own government.
In a note on air policy he predicted a disaster for the Americans as soon as they
ventured out from under British escort. Churchill suggested diverting the Ameri-
cans to antisubmarine patrols and night bombing. As for U.S. aircraft produc-
tion, Churchill urged that the Americans take up night-bomber production on a
large scale, n

Sinclair immediately took up the challenge. The Americans had come to a
critical point in their allocation of air priorities, he said, and if the Prime Mini-
ster pressed for conversion to night bombing, setting himself "against their cher-
ished policy of daylight penetration," he would confound the very groups in the
U.S. military that wished to build up big bomber forces in England during 1943
and 1944:

It would be a tragedy if we were to frustrate them on the eve of this great
experiment. To ally ourselves with the American Navy against General Spaatz
and General Eaker and the United States Air Force in this country, and to force
them into diverting their highly trained crews to scaring U-Boats instead of
bombing Germany would be disastrous. It would weaken and alienate the very
forces in the United States on which we depend for support in a European as
opposed to a Pacific strategy and for the production of heavy bombers as dis-
tinct from the types which it is so much more easy to produce in quantity.'^

The Prime Minister replied that Sinclair's impassioned plea had not convinced
him of the "merits" of daylight bombing or of the tactics to pursue toward the
Americans.l3

A few days later, Sinclair, speaking for himself and Portal, reiterated his
arguments:

We feel bound to wam you most seriously against decrying the American plan

for daylight attack of GERMANY. We are convinced that it would be fatal to
suggest to them at this of all times that the great bomber force they are planning
to build up is no good except for coastal work and perhaps ultimately night
bombing.

Sinclair pointed out the difficulties Spaatz had encountered in training and keep-

158

Failxjre and Reorganization

Archibald Sinclair,
British Secretary of State
for Air, 1940-1945.

ing an adequate force and spoke of his determination not to fly over Germany
with inadequate numbers and half-trained gunners,

In November Portal advised the Prime Minister against premature scuttling
of the U.S. effort: "I do not think we can decide what to do until we have bal-
anced the probability of success, which may not be very high but is not negligi-
ble, against the results of success, if achieved." Success would have tremendous
consequences in wastage for the Luftwaffe fighter forces and destruction of
German industry: "It is solely because of the great prizes that would be gained
by success that I am so keen to give the Americans every possible chance to
achieve it."

Portal suggested that the Americans also be encouraged to press on with
night adaptations and alternative day methods in case daylight precision bomb-
ing failed. He, too, repeated the fear that premature opposition to daylight
bombing would lead to the commitment of U.S. resources to other theaters.l5 On
November 21, Portal took the additional step of asking the RAF Delegation in
Washington to press Arnold for an attack on Germany "at the earliest possible
moment without waiting for the build-up of a very large force." The inability of
the AAF to bomb the Reich weakened Portal's defense of not only the shipping
priorities for the aviation fuel, persoimel, and supply requirements of the Eighth
Air Force but U.S. bombing policy as well.16

Churchill remained unconvinced. In mid-December he noted that the effect

159

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

of the U.S. bombing effort judged by the numbers of sorties, bombs dropped,
and results obtained against the enormous quantities of men and material
involved "has been very small indeed." During the previous two months he had
"become increasingly doubtful of the daylight bombing of Germany by the
American method." If his ally's plan failed, "the consequences will be grievous."
The collapse of daylight bombing would stun U.S. public opinion, disrupt an
industrial effort increasingly committed to production of bombers unsuitable for
night work, and render useless the tens of thousands of American air personnel
and their airfields in Britain. 17 Perhaps for domestic political reasons (a certain
percentage of the British population objected to the ubiquitous presence of their
Allies*), the large, seemingly useless mass of AAF persoimel in Britain (which
would eventually be dwarfed by the million Americans in Britain before the
Normandy invasion) particularly raised the Prime Minister's ire. He returned to
it time and again in the course of the debate. Nonetheless, Churchill had fixed
his policy:

We should, of course, continue to give the Americans every encouragement
and help in the experiment which they ardently and obstinately wish to make,
but we ought to try to persuade them to give as much aid as possible (a) to sea
work and (b) to night bombing, and to revise their production, including instru-
ments and training for the sake of these objects.'*

Churchill's persistence in recommending antisubmarine work reflected the
uncertain status of the Battle of the Atlantic in late 1942. The British were losing
merchant shipping faster than they could replace it. British import tonnage, the
life's blood of an economy not blessed with overwhelming native supplies of
raw materials and agricultural resources, had fallen from a prewar annual aver-
age of 50 million tons to 23 million tons in 1942. Even the most stringent ship-
ping measures could not close the gap between imports and domestic require-
ments, which forced the British to consume internal stocks, reducing them to the
minimum needed to support the British war effort. In early November, the
British came hat in hand to Washington to plead for an additional 7 million tons
of U.S.-built shipping, a request Roosevelt granted without even consulting mili-
tary leaders.!^ But it would take months for American yards to deliver the ships.
In the meantime, Churchill felt that a diversion of the U.S. bombing effort to sea
work would pay greater dividends in saved shipping, while a reduction in U.S.
forces stationed in Britain would conserve tonnage.

* The British reduced this resentment to a single phrase: The Yanks were "overpaid, oversexed
and over here!" At the end of August 1942, Eighth Air Force personnel in Britain numbered approxi-
mately 30,000. By the end of November 1942, transfers to the Twelfth Air Force left only 23,000
AAF personnel in England. The January 1943 rolls carried 36,000 personnel. See Craven and Cate,
Torch to Pointblank, pp. 599-600. American forces as a whole dropped ftom 228,000 in October to
135,000 at the end of the year, and to 105,000 by the end of February 1943. See Leighton and
Coakley, Global Logistics, p. 487.

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Failure and Reorganization

Sinclair continued to resist what he considered a doubtful policy. He admit-
ted that the RAF might be wrong in its perception that the Americans would
pick up their toys and go to the Pacific if threatened, but his officers were con-
vinced that "any attempt to divert the American Air Forces from the function for
which they have been trained to a subsidiary role over the sea or in secondary
theaters would be fiercely resented and vigorously resisted." If daylight bomb-
ing proved unsuccessful, the Americans themselves would abandon it and turn
to night action. "They will not turn aside from day bombing," estimated Sinclair,
"till they are convinced it has failed; they will not be convinced except by their
own experience. "20 Writing just a few days before the Casablanca Conference,
Sinclair counseled patience, advising that at the present stage it would be wrong
to discourage the Americans from what might still be a successful experiment.2i

All this drew an exasperated retort from Churchill. The Americans had not
even begun their experiment and when they did, it could take four or five months
to convince them one way or the other:

Meanwhile I have never suggested that they should be "discouraged" by us,
that is to say we should argue against their poUcy, but only that they should not
be encouraged to persist obstinately and also that they should be actively urged
to become capable of night bombing. What I am going to discourage actively,
is the sending over of large quantities of these daylight bombers and their enor-
mous ground staffs until the matter is settled one way or the other.^^

Churchill had not decided against daylight precision bombing, but the time
was obviously fast approaching when daylight precision bombing must begin to
justify itself by deed rather than potential. Without results the Prime Minister
could no longer accept the expenditure of resources devoted to the project. But
his threat to halt the buildup of U.S. heavy-bomber groups could, in the end,
jeopardize the entire experiment. The precision bombing concept, whatever its
emphasis on bombing accuracy, included a large measure of attrition, for both
friend and foe, in its formula for success. Without sufficient logistical backup,
including large numbers of air crews and bombers, the U.S. effort could not suc-
ceed.

The Americans probably first learned officially of Churchill's attitude in an
exchange of memorandums between the American and British Chiefs of Staff in
late December and early January. Within these memos, which served as the
basis of initial discussion at Casablanca, each staff expressed its view on the
most advantageous strategy for the Allies to follow in 1943. The Americans
wished to hold the North African and Pacific theaters to minimum commitments
while mounting a large-scale invasion from England into France. The British
favored a continued offensive in the Mediterranean and a more gradual buildup
of ground forces in Britain.23 The clash between the Allies' positions consti-
tuted the major story of the conference. The British, who had the majority of
troops imder arms, aircraft, and shipping, won the dispute, much to the chagrin

161

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

of Marshall and the Americans. Overall, U.S. air power in 1943 played a minor
role in the struggle between U.S. advocacy of the direct strategy versus British
support of the indirect approach.

In their initial policy memos, both countries called for air offensives against
Germany and Italy. The Americans urged "an integrated air offensive on the
largest practicable scale against German production and resources, designed to
achieve a progressive deterioration of her war effort."24 The British Chiefs
echoed that call and recommended a combined U.S.-British heavy- and medium-
bomber force of 3,000 planes in Britain by the end of 1943. Although the British
fully endorsed night bombing, they questioned the efficacy of day bombing:

In spite of the progress made during recent months by the United States
Bomber Command in the bombing of targets in occupied territory, it is still an
open question whether regular penetration of the defenses of Germany by day-
light will be practicable without prohibitive losses. While every effort should
continue to be made to achieve success by day, it is important to arrange that, if
the daylight bombing of Germany proves impracticable, it will be possible to
convert the United States Bomber Command from a primarily day to a primar-
ily night force with the least possible delay and loss of efficiency."

If he had not earlier received warnings from friends on the RAF staff, Arnold
must have quickly learned from them after receiving the memo that it reflected
the Prime Minister's opinions.

The abandonment of day bombing, the rock on which all AAF hopes stood,
was unthinkable. No matter how reasonable the British suggestion at least to
consider and prepare for the possible failure of the experiment may have
appeared, it could not be accepted lest it in any way undermine the concept.
Once Arnold learned of Churchill's determination to question U.S. bombing, he
marshaled some of his biggest guns — Spaatz, Andrews, and Eaker — to help per-
suade "Big Boy" (Churchill's code name in the preconference planning) to
change his mind. The night before the conference opened, January 13, Eaker
was ordered to Casablanca. There he worked frantically to prepare a brief to pre-
sent to the Prime Minister, who had consented to see him.26 On January 20,
Spaatz, Andrews, and Eaker all met Churchill.

Eaker proved by far the most convincing. Writing his memoirs eight years
after the event, Churchill admitted his frustration with U.S. bombing: "It was
certainly a terrible thing that in the whole of the last six months of 1942 nothmg
had come of this immense deployment and effort, absolutely nothing, not a sin-
gle bomb had been dropped on Germany." The intensity of Baker's defense,
which included a promise to attack Germany proper with 100 bombers a mini-
mum of two or three times before February 1 and frequently thereafter,27 and the
telling point he made concerning the advantages of round-the-clock bombing of
Germany, changed the Prime Minister's mind. "Considering how much had
been staked on this venture by the United States and all they felt about it," stated

162

Failure and Reorganization

Churchill, "1 decided to back Eaker and his theme, and I turned around com-
pletely and withdrew all my opposition to the daylight bombing by the
Fortresses. "28 Eaker recalled that Churchill merely agreed to allow the AAF
more time to prove its case. 29

Baker's recollection seems more probable. As Churchill had said ten days
before the conference, he was not opposed to daylight bombing; he simply
wished to encourage nighttime bombing as a reasonable alternative. What
Spaatz, Andrews, and Eaker accomplished was to confirm the advice the Prime
Minister had already obtained from the RAF Staff and the Secretary of State for
Air. The Americans would not abandon daylight bombing until they were con-
vinced it had failed — and they were willing to devote vast amounts of human
and material resources to ensure success. And an attack on daylight bombing
could not help alienating the AAF, jeopardizing British aircraft allocations, and
slowing the bomber buildup in Britain. The Americans had bet enormous stakes
on daylight bombing and the Prime Minister, who always felt that night bomb-
ing would offer a quicker payoff, realized that they could not be asked to hedge
their bet at this particular time. Having won the main point of the conference by
keeping the Mediterranean front open (discomforting the U.S. Army and its
Chief of Staff in the process), the British knew it would be folly to risk the good
will of the AAF and create hard feelings over a matter that would prove itself
one way or the other in a few months.

On January 27, Eaker partially fulfilled his promise to the Prime Minister.
He dispatched ninety-one heavy bombers against the Emden U-boat yards. Four
more raids into Germany, none of which was carried out by more than ninety-
three planes, followed in February.30

Ehiring his twenty-four-hour stay at Casablanca, Spaatz talked to both heads
of government. He apparently left his meeting with Churchill and went directly to
Roosevelt, with whom he met from 10:00 a.m. to 1 1:30 a.m. No official record of
the meeting exists, and Spaatz did not refer to it in his records. Only Elliott
Roosevelt, one of the President's sons, left an account. According to the younger
Roosevelt, Spaatz explained the operational difficulties encountered in Tunisia,
such as the lack of replacement planes and hard-surface runways, and spoke of
the problems of combined command and the difficulty of serving under Tedder.31
The reference to Tedder does not ring true. In fact, as of January 20, 1943, Spaatz
had yet to come under that officer's command. What Spaatz may have explained
was the difficulty of coordinating the operations of the EAC and the Twelfth Air
Force around inadequate signal organizations and different staff procedures. It
seems likely that Spaatz also spoke of daylight bombing, given (1) the British
threat to it, (2) his famiharity with the AAF's troubled efforts in Europe, and (3)
Roosevelt's, Churchill's, and Portal's questioning of Arnold during the confer-
ence on the Eighth Air Force's failure to bomb Gennany.32 If Churchill contin-
ued to press for conversion to night bombing, Roosevelt would have to be per-
suaded to resist. Churchill's reversal, however, eliminated the need for special
and immediate support from the President.

163

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

While at Casablanca, Spaatz also discussed operations and organization with
Marshall, Portal, and Arnold. 33 Arnold, no less frustrated than Churchill over
the Eighth Air Force's inability to bomb Germany, had hard questions. Spaatz
did his best to lance his chief's frustration before it came to a head. Years later
Spaatz recalled, "I remember having a heart to heart talk with Hap, walking
along the beach. We talked very, very frankly about daylight bombing and whether
it should be carried out or not."34 Spaatz went on to predict that, in time, British
night losses would exceed American daylight casualties. Arnold did not find
Spaatz's or Eaker's arguments completely convincing. A month later he com-
plained to Stratemeyer that both "gave the usual and expected reasons for not oper-
ating against Germany. Their reasons for not operating more frequently, however,
seemed very weak."35

On January 21, the Combined Chiefs of Staff issued their first directive on
the bomber offensive from Britain. They ordered British and U.S. bomber com-
manders to "take every opportunity to attack Germany by day, to destroy objec-
tives that are unsuitable for night attack, to sustain continuous pressure on
German morale, to impose heavy losses on the German day-fighter force, and to
contain German fighter strength away from the Russian and Mediterranean the-

Lt. Gen. Henry H. Arnold, Commanding General, U.S. Army Air Forces, and Air
Chief Marshal Charles A. Portal, Chief of tlie Air Staff, RAF, at the Casablanca
Conference, January 1943.

164

Failure and Reorganization

aters of war." The directive specified five targets in priority order: the Germans'
submarine construction yards, aircraft industry, transportation, oil plants, and
other targets in the German war economy. The directive also authorized attacks
on Berlin, "which should be attacked when conditions are suitable for the attain-
ment of especially valuable results unfavorable to the morale of the enemy or
favorable to that of Russia." Finally, the directive ordered the Allied bomber
commanders to support the Allied armies when it came time for the cross-chan-
nel invasion.36

Eaker had gained his chance to conduct the daylight bombing experiment.
Unfortunately for him, the calls of other theaters for shipping and planes effec-
tively reduced the Eighth Air Force to the lowest priority, starving him of res-
ources and hamstringing him throughout his tenure in England.

Operations, Personalities, and Teamwork

The postponement of the Allied offensive in late December because of bad
weather, exhaustion of front-line troops and aircraft, and the need to bring up
reinforcements, most of them American, led to the formation of an overall U.S.
ground command in Tunisia, the U.S. II Corps, which would occupy central
Tunisia, taking a position to the right of the Allied line. The British 1st Army
occupied the Allied left, while the under-equipped French XIX Corps occupied
defensive positions in the relatively impassable center of the Allied lines. If all
went well, Eisenhower hoped to have II Corps drive to the coast, separating the
Germans in Tunisia from Rommel's forces retreating from Libya. Eisenhower
exercised direct operational control over the U.S., British, and French national
contingents. At the front no unified ground command existed. (For a view of the
terrain in Tunisia, see Map 6.)

The air organization paralleled the ground forces' division into national con-
tingents. Spaatz ordered the EAC to support the British 1st Army and the
Twelfth Air Force to support U.S. II Corps and all U.S. land forces in North
Africa.37 The French had a small air force but depended on their Allies for air
support. Neither the EAC's No. 242 Group nor the Twelfth's XII Air Support
Command, the subordinate organizations charged with cooperating with the land
forces, was assigned directly to the land forces they assisted.38 In fact, at no time
during the campaign were AAF combat units, as opposed to observation and
reconnaissance units, ever directly assigned or attached to U.S. Army units.

When the Allies began to contemplate moving a large U.S. ground forma-
tion into the front line, they may have considered creating an American army
rather than an American corps to control the U.S. ground forces in Tunisia.39 On
December 30, Spaatz and Lt. Gen. Mark Clark, the Commanding General of the
American Fifth Army, then forming and training in the western Torch area,
toured the battle area. Political considerations probably scotched the move. An
American army would have competed for prestige with Anderson's 1st Army

165

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Maj. Gen. Lloyd R. Fredendall, Com-
manding General, U.S. n Corps, North
Africa, January-Marcli 1943.

and if defeated would have lost a commensurate amount for the inexperienced
Americans. Furthermore, the size of the contemplated U.S. force, little more
than a reinforced division to start with, hardly justified an army headquarters.
Therefore, Eisenhower decided to assign a corps to the area. He then faced the
problem of selecting an officer to head the largest American unit to fight the
European Axis to date.

Eisenhower quickly narrowed the choice to two men close at hand, the com-
manders of the U.S. invasion task forces — Maj. Gen. George S. Patton in
Casablanca and Maj. Gen. Lloyd R. Fredendall in Oran. Bofli had some experi-
ence in corps commands and in actual combat against the Germans. Patton,
fifty-six years of age, had served in the cavalry after graduating from West
Point. After his service in World War I, he had transferred to the armored forces.
He played a large part in the great prewar (1941) Carolina and Louisiana
maneuvers and, at the time of his selection for Torch, commanded the
I Armored Corps at the Desert Training Center. It was during Patton's tenure
there that Devers and others had become dissatisfied with the AAF support
given to training.

Patton, scion of one of the wealthiest families in California and a thoughtful,
extremely well-read student of his profession, was a man of extraordinary
strengths and failings. Perhaps the finest American combat groimd conmiander of

167

Failure and Reorganization

World War II, he was also an egomaniac and a mystic. Subject to violent emo-
tions, he was a great actor who was not above throwing tantrums or kisses to get
his way. At this stage of the war his eccentricities, such as rabid Anglophobia,
seemed to outweigh his potential, so Eisenhower picked Fredendall instead.'^O

Maj. Gen. Lloyd R. Fredendall, at age fifty-eight, had done well in the
Army, despite his failure to complete West Point. His specialty was training, and
he had previously commanded the II Corps before it went overseas. It was dur-
ing his command of II Corps in May 1942 that the AAF had botched a large-
scale air-ground exercise at Fort Benning. Marshall had recommended him for
Torch and Eisenhower had asked for him. He, like Patton, was senior to
Eisenhower in service, but seniority never seemed to have been a serious prob-
lem. The short, stocky Fredendall projected a gruff image every bit as rough as
Patton's. He was outspoken and did not hesitate to criticize either his superiors
or his subordinates. He formed judgments rapidly, often with insufficient or
inaccurate information, but was impatient with the recommendations of his sub-
ordinates. He had a habit of issuing bombastic, colorful, but imprecise messages.
At a key point in the Kasserine engagements, for example, he told a subordinate,
"I want you to go to Kasserine right away and pull a Stonewall Jackson. Take
over up there." Although he did not lack personal courage, Fredendall, for rea-
sons that are still obscure, ensconced himself in an elaborate dug-in headquarters
established far behind the front, which he seldom left. The complex amazed and
disgusted almost all outside observers.4l Soon after taking over on January 1, he
developed extremely bad relations with Maj. Gen. Orlando P. Ward, the com-
mander of his principal combat unit, the 1st Armored Division. He soon began
to ignore Ward to deal directly with one of Ward's subordinates. Brig. Gen. Paul
M. Robinett. Nor did Fredendall have any affection for the French or the British;
he particularly disliked General Anderson.42 (See Chart 1, Allied Chain of
Command, January 6, 1943.)

Fredendall certainly appears to have been misjudged by Eisenhower given
his failure in battle seven weeks later and his replacement by Patton. On
December 10, Eisenhower rated Fredendall behind Patton, remarking, "Patton I
think comes closest to meeting every requirement made on a commander. Just
after him 1 would rate Fredendall, although I do not believe the latter has the
imagination in foreseeing and preparing for possible jobs of the future that
Patton possesses."43 On February 4, Eisenhower recommended promotions to
lieutenant general for both Patton and Fredendall, after assuring Marshall that he
had "now eliminated from my mind all doubts I had as to Fredendall. "44 Yet,
also in a February 4 message, Eisenhower critized Fredendall 's complaints
about the British, his command's lack of road discipline which caused extensive
traffic jams and offered tempting targets to Axis aircraft, and the "habit of some
of our generals in staying too close to their command posts."45 The letter indi-
cated that Eisenhower may not have rid himself of doubts after all.

Fredendall, surprisingly, had no problems getting along with the successive

168

Chart 1
Allied Chain of Command
January 5, 1943

AFHQ

LtGen
D. D. Eisenhower

Allied Air Force

Maj Gen
C.A. Spaatz

British 1st Army

LtGen
K.A.N. Anderson

U.S. II Corps

Maj Gen
L.R. Fredendall

French XiX Corps

LtGen
A. Juin

Twelfth
Air Force

Brig Gen
J. H. Doolittle

Eastern
Air Command

Air Marshal
W. Welsh

CiNC Naval Forces

Adm A. Cunningham

Failure and Reorganization

commanding officers of the XII Air Support Command (XII ASC), the Twelfth
Air Force unit charged with II Corps air support. Because he did not move his
headquarters, the commanders of the XII ASC, who had co-located their head-
quarters with Fredendall's, had no problem maintaining contact with him or set-
ting up semipermanent communications facilities with their subordinate air
units. And despite his refusal to help the French, Fredendall did not interfere
unduly with the operations of the XII ASC. Col. Paul L. Williams, who led the
XII ASC from late January to the end of the campaign, noted in an official
report, "General FREDENDALL and General PATTON both stated in sub-
stance, 'Don't wait for us to order air missions, you know what the situation is,
just keep pounding them."46

The lack of air-ground teamwork between II Corps and XII ASC was more
the fault of XII ASC than of II Corps. Frequent changes of command, assign-
ments, and stations robbed the XII ASC of the continuity of training and cooper-
ation with familiar ground units necessary for ground support work. Doolittle
had hastily formed the XII Air Support Command, under the command of Brig.
Gen. John K. Cannon, even later than the rest of the Twelfth Air Force when the
Casablanca invasion was added to Torch. Once ashore in Casablanca, more
than 1,000 miles from Tunis, the XII Air Support Command trained with Clark's
Fifth Army. When H Corps entered Tunisia, XII ASC split in two, part going
with II Corps and a small part, XII ASC Detachment, staying with Clark.
Carmon took over XII Bomber Command, and Brig. Gen. Howard A. Craig left
Spaatz's headquarters to take over XII ASC. This would seem to have been an
inspired choice, because Craig had just received the tablets containing the com-
mandments governing the application of close air support from the hands of
Coningham, but Craig failed to gain Doolittle's confidence. In the midst of the
German counterattack of January 18-25 (described later), Doolittle wrote to
Spaatz that although Craig was a brilliant staff officer and one of the AAF's
exceptional planners and organizers, his current job did not suit his capabilities.
Doolittle suggested that Craig move to the XII ASC Detachment with Clark and
that Col. Paul L. Williams replace him. Of Williams, Doolittle said, "Williams is
better suited as a result of experience and temperament to command and lead
combat units in support of ground troops in an extremely active forward area. "47
The next day, January 21, Spaatz sent Williams to the XU ASC, noting that
Craig would become Tedder's chief of staff in the coming Casablanca-dictated
air reorganization.48 The XII ASC now had its third commander in three weeks,
two of whom had had no chance to become acquainted with its personnel, its
condition, and the troops and ground commander it supported. This switch
occurred precisely when a German counterattack against the French XIX Corps
contributed to the Allies' disjointed air response.

Beyond its unfamiliar leaders the XII ASC suffered imder many operational
handicaps. The rainy season limited operations and turned the airfields to mud.
The airfields themselves were too distant from the front lines and meagerly

170

Failure and Reorganization

equipped. Insufficient logistics and lack of experience, already cited, contributed
to a very low operational ready rate, subtracting even more planes from the com-
mand's order of battle. The XII ASC had two further problems. (1) It lacked
radar coverage of its front. This cut down its warning and reaction times to
German air operations and forced it to rely on chance sweeps to catch German
aircraft aloft or on their fields. The Germans, who had complete radar coverage,
avoided these sweeps. Their dive-bombers would merely land for five minutes
or so until the Allied aircraft passed and then resume their deadly work. (2) By
mid- January the command had already fought several of its units to exhaustion.
Doolittle reported to Spaatz that the Twelfth's entire striking force consisted of
nine groups with a total of 270 planes — only 48 percent of their full strength.49
Doolittle's figures included the Twelfth's heavy bombers. The Xll ASC opera-
tions report showed only twenty-six P-40s, nineteen P-39s, and thirty-eight A-
20s operational on January 1 3 — numbers that rose to fifty-two P-40s, twenty-
three P-39s, twenty-seven A-20s, and eight DB-7s by January 26.50 Under these
circumstances the chances that II Corps and XII ASC could form an effective
air-ground team in a few weeks were nil.

The British half of Spaatz 's Allied Air Force suffered from many of the
same problems, but personalities played an even greater role in disrupting its
operations. Lt. Gen. Kenneth A. N. Anderson, because of his wartime experi-
ences, had simply never acquired an understanding of air operations. During the
fall of France, he had served as a brigade commander in the British Expeditionary
Force. Shortly before Dunkirk, he took over a decimated division and, for the
next two and one-half years, he trained troops in England. His only memories of
air were searing ones of the overwhelming ground-support effort of the
Luftwaffe and the inadequate response of the RAF. His first experiences in
North Africa confirmed these memories as his supply ships went down at
Bougie, his forward lines were dive-bombed incessantly, and the Luftwaffe
maintained air superiority over his front. Understandably, he tended to be defen-
sive-minded as far as air was concerned.

Nor did Anderson's personality facilitate cooperation. He was an unusually
reserved and reticent Scot, stubborn in his opinions and congenitally pessimistic
in his assessments of military operations.5i During the preparations for Torch,
these qualities occasionally manifested themselves. He clashed with the British
navy over use of landing craft. His American subordinate for the Algiers inva-
sion, Maj. Gen. Charles W. Ryder, was warned, upon receiving his assignment,
to get along with Anderson "no matter how difficult it may be."52 Anderson's
chief of staff, Brigadier C.V.O'N. McNabb, had all of Anderson's poor quali-
ties, in spades. He was reticent to the point of secretiveness, and few Americans
could approach him, let alone come to know him.53

Anderson's relations v^th the RAF commanders proved particularly acrimo-
nious. RAF semiofficial histories admit that Air Marshal William Welsh's and
Anderson's mutual antipathy took precedence over the conduct of their duties.54

171

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Almost immediately after the EAC and 1st Army landed in North Africa,
arrangements between the two men broke down. Anderson and Welsh were to
arrange air support together, but they soon went their separate ways. Welsh
stayed in Algiers to supervise air defense and convoy protection while Anderson
moved forward to a spartan headquarters, deficient in signal organization but
close to the front. Welsh's failure to follow disappointed Anderson. Instead, Air
Commodore G. M. Lawson, with a small RAF command post, moved forward
with Anderson and attempted to meet his air-support demands. Further forward,
EAC had a wing commander with the 78th Division and with British 5th Corps,
which took over the British front at the end of November. Both men had insuffi-
cient rank for their task of cooperating with Army counterparts who outranked
them by at least two grades. The formation of No. 242 Group, a headquarters
unit commanding all British aircraft assigned to the support of the 1st Army, its
placement under Lawson's command, and its co-location with 5 Corps improved
the system slightly. However, EAC Headquarters failed to maintain close liaison
with No. 242 Group. In addition Welsh, consumed by his other duties, made few
planes available to No. 242 Group and when Lawson ordered his fighter
squadrons out on ground strafing missions, Welsh stopped him. By January 4,
1943, Lawson had only a handful of fighter-bombers available to him.55

Neither the Americans nor the British had a fully functioning air-ground
support team. By the middle of February this lack of air-ground cohesiveness
would hamper the Allied response to the German counterattack at the Kasserine
Pass.

As II Corps came into the line during the first two weeks of January, the
Allies planned to use it for a drive to the coast to separate the Axis forces in
Tunisia from Rommel's retreating forces. Fredendall made preparations for that
attack until mid- January, when logistical difficulties and an unexpectedly rapid
approach by Rommel led Eisenhower to order him to assume a defensive stance.
From January 18 to 25, a counterattack by the Axis forces in Timisia on the cen-
ter of the Allied line gained important mountain passes and alarmed the Allies
before it was contained. Allied tactical air flew several useful missions in the
course of this assault.56 A few days later, from January 30 to February 3, the
sparring between Allied and Axis forces shifted to the south. Once again, the
Axis gained key passes from the French, especially the Faid Pass, which could
serve as a juraping-off point for attacks on II Corps' main supply depot at
Tebessa and the airfields at Thelepte. Sandy soil conditions, which promoted
excellent drainage, allowed Thelepte to operate in any weather, a crucial factor
in Tunisian air operations. Axis dive-bombing attacks harassed the Americans,
particularly during an unsuccessful U.S. attack on the village of Maknassey. One
German air attack on January 31, 1943, struck a U.S. infantry battalion aboard a
truck convoy in daylight, causing substantial casualties.57

The Allies remained on the defensive at the beginning of February as
Rommel's forces joined their comrades in Tunisia and prepared to take the

172

Failure and Reorganization

offensive before Montgomery's British 8th Army could come to the assistance
of Eisenhower's forces. The Germans began the so-called "Battle of the
Kasserine Pass" by breaking out of the Paid Pass and seizing the important
crossroad at Sidi Bou Zid. They continued forward, capturing several positions,
including Thelepte, by February 17. On February 20, under the eyes of Rommel
himself, Axis forces stormed the Kasserine Pass, badly damaging several units
of the U.S. 1st Armored Division. At that point Allied defenses stiffened. The
Axis, concerned about the approach of Montgomery and their own lack of sup-
plies, began to withdraw from the Kasserine Pass on February 22. They were
pursued only hesitantly by Allied ground forces, who reoccupied the entire pass
by February 24. This withdrawal ended the largest Axis attack of the campaign
and gave them a tactical victory but produced no strategic effect. The Allies
soon replaced their heavy losses in men and materiel.

This summary of ground operations outlines the campaign's events in the
winter of 1942-1943. The activities of Spaatz and of Allied air-ground opera-
tions during the period are the subjects of the following pages.

Before the decisions affecting air organization made at Casablanca could
take effect, the German counterattack of January 18 to 25 struck the boundary
between the British and French forces in Tunisia, forcing them to give ground
and, in the process, revealing serious deficiencies in overall coordination among
the different Allied forces. In one instance, the Xllth Air Support Command,
acting under FredendaU's orders, refused to send planes over an area for which
RAF No. 242 Group had responsibility .58

Spaatz, after inspecting facilities in Marrakech, returned to Eisenhower's
headquarters (AFHQ) in Algiers on January 21. There he participated in an
emergency conference on the German attack against the French, during which
he informed Eisenhower of the new air arrangements mandated at Casablanca.59
The conference minutes noted, "It was evident also that collaboration by air
forces was faulty to date, due particularly to the absence of an air headquarters
with executive authority as far forward as Advanced Headquarters [General
Anderson's headquarters in Constantine]."^^ Eisenhower remedied this problem
by directing Spaatz "to place at Advanced Headquarters immediately an officer
who will be in executive control [in command of] the air forces supporting
General Fredendall and General Anderson.''^! Eisenhower authorized that air
officer to secure the assistance of the Northwest African Strategic Air Force if
specifically requested, but required him to "receive his instructions for battle
from General Anderson so far as they affect all air forces allotted to the support
of the ground armies."

Eisenhower had taken a large step toward improving air support, but in mak-
ing the air commander subordinate to the ground commander he overlooked an
essential piece of the more successful British method developed under Coning-
ham — the equality of land and air. In his own mind, at least, Eisenhower
remained faithful to the strictures of FM 31-35. As late as January 15, 1943, he

173

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

could write, "We have a published doctrine that has not been proved faulty."62
On January 22, Spaatz assigned Brig. Gen. Laurence S. Kuter as Acting Chief of
the Allied Air Support Command (AASC). When Coningham arrived, he
relieved Kuter. (See Chart 2, Allied Chain of Command, January 30, 1943.)

In another action resulting from the emergency conference, Eisenhower
charged Anderson with the task of "co-ordinating" the entire front. Three days
later, on January 24, Eisenhower made Anderson responsible for the employ-
ment of U.S. forces, and that evening the French commander. General Alphonse
Juin, agreed to place his forces under Anderson. The western Tunisian front now
had one overall ground and air commander. It did not yet have an air-ground
team.

At this point, Spaatz replaced Brig. Gen. Howard A. Craig with Col. Paul L.
Williams as Commander of the XII Air Support Command. Williams, who had
specialized in attack and observation aviation before the war and had com-
manded air support formations in the prewar maneuvers, stayed with XII ASC
until the campaign's end. Spaatz had brought him to Britain and then to North
Africa precisely because of his experience in army cooperation. The Xn ASC
and No. 242 Group made up the bulk of Kuter's new command.63

In Algiers, Spaatz began a round of meetings that would take him to Cairo and
back. On January 24, he met Arnold, who had come direcfly from Casablanca.
They decided to equip all AAF fighter units in Britain only with P-47s — a deci-
sion that would free all P-38s then based in Britain for deployment to Africa. This
key decision, based in part on operational necessity and in part on logistical consid-
erations, deprived the Eighth Air Force of the long-range escort fighters it would
need to protect its deep-penetration operations over Germany. It demonstrated the
AAF's refusal to accept the need for long-range escort for strategic bombers as the
highest priority. Late on January 26, Spaatz left Algiers for Cairo and, upon arriv-
ing the next morning, joined in three days of discussions with Tedder, Arnold,
Andrews, and Maj. Gen. Louis H. Brereton, the Commanding General of the Ninth
Air Force, to settle the details of the new Allied organization in the Medi-
terranean.64 He returned to Algiers on January 31.

On February 4, in the wake of another Axis thrust, Spaatz flew to Constantine.
That evening he and Brig. Gen. John K. Cannon called on Maj. Gen. Lucian K.
Truscott, Eisenhower's representative at the front, to inform him of their inten-
tion to visit Fredendall's II Corps Headquarters the next day. During their visit,
Spaatz elaborated on his own views toward the use of aviation in conjunction
with ground operations: "It was a mistake to use up all of one's force in an inde-
cisive operation; the air force should be used to hit the soft parts of the enemy
and in return to protect the soft parts of one's own force; and only in the event of
an all-out decisive engagement was the loss of a whole force to be risked.''^^

The next day, Spaatz and his party traveled to Tebessa to meet Anderson,
who had apparently come south to discuss future operations with Fredendall.66
Once again, the conversation turned to air support. Brigadier McNabb,

174

Chart 2
Allied Chain of Command
January 30, 1943

AFHQ

UGen
D. D. Eisenhower

■

— r

Allied Air Force

British 1st Army

U.S. 11 Corps

French XIX Corps

MeijGen

LtGen

Maj Gen

LtGen

C.A. Spaatz

K.A.N. Anderson

L.R. Fredendall

A. Juin

■ ' ■

■ ■

•

Tweltth
Air Force

Brig Gen
J. H. Doolittle

Eastern
Air Command

Air Marshal
W. Welsh

Allied Air
Support
Command

Brig Gen
L.S. Kuter

CINC Naval Forces

Adm A. Cunningham

Operational Control

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Anderson's chief of staff, referring to a local Allied counterattack planned for
the next day,67 gave the 1st Army's views:

. . . General Anderson wanted the whole air effort put on the ground positions
immediately in front of our troops in the coming offensive, in as much as the
ground striking force was weak in artillery. General Anderson had stated the
day before that this should be the main effort of aU air strength available, that
this was the primary job to be done and that he was not interested in the bomb-
ing of enemy airdromes such as that at Gabes.**

Here was an airman's bSte noire. Anderson wanted to ignore counterair opera-
tions to use support aircraft as artillery pieces.

After lunch, the party proceeded to General Fredendall's dug-in command
post, where they encountered more evidence of the Allied groimd commander's
parochial view of air support. Generals Spaatz, Fredendall, Truscott, and Kuter
and Colonel Williams all participated in an informal discussion. Fredendall, no
doubt recalling the Axis dive-bombing against his troops in the recent attack on
Maknassey, wanted full air cover for the first two days of his attack in order to
protect his troops and artillery. Spaatz observed: "He wanted his men to see
some bombs dropped on the position immediately in front of them, and if possi-
ble, some dive bombers brought down in sight of his troops." Spaatz had practi-
cally used up his medium-bomber and P-40 fighter groups in air support, and the
replacement rate of both pilots and machines would not allow for continued
wastage on such an extravagant scale. He preferred that the air force hit enemy
airfields, tank parks, troop convoys, and motor transport concentrations while
protecting Allied vulnerabilities such as supply lines. If he "maintained a con-
stant 'umbrella' over one small section of the front, with only shallow penetra-
tion by [his own] bombers and fighters, then [his] available force would be dissi-
pated without any lasting effect." Spaatz insisted that the "hard core" of any
army ought to have the ability to defend itself against dive-bombing. Fredendall
granted the last point, but admonished that if he did not get forty-eight hours' air
cover from the start, the offensive would fail.69 in any case, Eisenhower canceled
the contemplated offensive, and the exact nature of air cover for the land forces
was unresolved.

This was not the first run-in between Spaatz and Fredendall. On January 17,
Spaatz had flown to Tebessa, at Doolittle's urging, to straighten out air support
matters. Doolittle had passed word that Craig, the Commander of the XII ASC,
could not "adequately" handle the situation. Spaatz discovered that Craig would
have brought the situation under control if it had not been for the interference of
Fredendall who, among other things, willfully compromised the security of the
highly secret radar on the night-fighting British Beaufighters. He had ordered
them to patrol over Axis air space — an action contrary to Anglo-American
agreements. Spaatz went on to II Corps Headquarters to try to hammer out some
modus Vivendi. He laconically noted in his diary:

176

Failure and Reorganization

Informed him that the arbitrary decisions made by him with reference to the use
of air forces by Craig at Tebessa resulted in confusion, and recited the
instances. Told him that the only logical place for the Ground Support
Commander was alongside of him to prevent him from making damn fool deci-
sions.

Fredendall agreed temporarily to abide by Craig's decisions.'^O

When Spaatz returned to Algiers the following day, he flew on the same air-
craft as Brig. Gen. Ray E. Porter, an infantry officer returning from Fredendall's
staff for reassignment as the Assistant Chief of Staff, Organization and Training
Division, G-3, in Washington, D.C. This was a key post for the approval of offi-
cial War Department doctrine, and Porter would later have a hand in incorporat-
ing the North African experiences into new air doctrine. Porter expressed views
on air support that Spaatz must have found refreshing. He noted that the vast
majority of all U.S. casualties attributable to dive-bombing resulted from the
single Axis raid near Maknassey in which an incompetent battalion commander
had brought his men forward, in daylight, in a truck convoy jammed nose to tail.
Porter "further stated that after one or two dive bomber attacks, the men could
take care of themselves and were no longer seriously affected in their morale."
Finally, Porter echoed an opinion becoming increasingly common at the front:
"He believed a defensive fear complex was being built up at 2nd Corps as evi-
denced by their elaborate bomb proofs for their Headquarters, which in its initial
location was so well concealed as to present very little chance for a bombing
attack."7i

After three months of combat operations, the top Allied ground commanders

and the top Allied air commander were still unable to agree on a satisfactory
ground-support method. Fredendall, backed by his interpretation of War
Department doctrine, and Anderson, untutored in the air-ground experiences of
the British 8th Army, wanted to use aircraft either as artillery or as an aerial
defensive garrison over key points. The airmen rejected these ideas as impracti-
cable. They wished to employ their forces to attack the enemy air force and
other vulnerable areas behind the front lines. At the point of combat, the airmen
reasoned, the ground troops had the equipment and training to fend for them-
selves; in their view, infantry, armor, and artillery did not constitute the "soft
points" of the army. The ground commanders found this stand unacceptable.
The logjam would continue until mid-February when the major German attack
at the Kasserine Pass and Coningham's arrival to command the Northwest
Afiican Tactical Air Force would offer the begiimings of a solution.

177

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Reorganization and the Kasserine Pass

Spaatz remained hard at work on the air reorganization until its implementa-
tion. He wrote to Arnold on February 8 that he hoped to have the first stage in
place in a few days. His staff had already prepared the orders and they were only
awaiting Tedder's return from London to issue them.72 To the Chief of the Air
Staff, Maj. Gen. George Stratemeyer, Spaatz confided:

The most serious difficulty which I see confronting us is the different concep-
tion which obtains in the RAF and in our own War Department as to the place
of aviation. It is difficult to have aviation treated as a co-equal with the Army
and Navy in our set up, whereas the RAF will not submit to being considered in
any other way. A number of instances have developed indicating that the
ground general considers his air support as a fundamental part of his forces,
even to the point of dictating as to how to do the job. Such employment, I am
afraid, will not be accepted by the RAF. With Coningham, a full-fledged vet-
eran of the Battle of the Mediterranean with all of his prestige behind it, at the
head of our Air Support command, it can readily be seen that something is
bound to break out in a very short period."

Tedder and Coningham returned from London on February 14, the same day
the Germans launched their greatest attack of the campaign. In the midst of this
series of engagements, which included the sanguinary American defeat at the
Kasserine Pass, the Allies instituted the command changes agreed on at
Casablanca: Fleet Adm. Andrew Cunningham became Naval Commander in
Chief, Mediterranean; General Harold L. Alexander became Deputy Commander
in Chief of the Allied Force and head of the 18 Army Group, comprising the
British 1st and 8th Armies, the French XIX Corps, and the U.S. II Corps; Tedder
became head of the Mediterranean Air Command (MAC). (See Chart 3,
Organization of Allied Air Power, February 18, 1943.)

MAC Headquarters consisted of a small policy and planning staff, "a brain
trust without executive authority or domestic responsibilities."'^'* jn the North
African Theater, MAC's operations came under AFHQ's control. There MAC
operated through its own subordinate command, the Northwest African Air
Forces (NAAF), under the command of Spaatz. NAAF began operations on
February 18, when the Allied Air Force disbanded. The U.S. Twelfth Air Force
and British Eastern Air Command, joined on February 21 by the Anglo-
American Western Desert Air Force, made up NAAF's major subelements: the
Northwest African Tactical Air Force (NATAF), the Northwest African Coastal
Ak Force (NACAF), and the Northwest African Strategic Air Force (NASAF).
Spaatz's own headquarters was transferred virtually intact from the Allied Air
Force. Spaatz set up an operational headquarters in Constantine, near Doolittle's
and Coningham's headquarters, and left an administrative section in Algiers.
Throughout the NAAF and its subordinate air forces, AAF and RAF personnel
occupied alternating command and staff positions down to, but not including.

178

Charts
Organization of Allied Power
February 18, 1943

Northwest African
Strategic Air Force
Maj Gen
J. H. DoolitUe

Mediterranean
Air Command

Air Chief Marshal
Arthur Tedder

Northwest African
Air Forces

Lt Gen Carl Spaatz
USAAF

Northvrast African
Air Service Command

Brig Gen
D.H. Dunton

Northwest African
Tactical Air Force

Air Marshal
Arthur Coningham

Malta Air Command

Air Vice Marshal
. Keith Park
(RAF)

Middle East Command

Air Chief Marshal
W. Sholto Douglas
(RAF)

Northwest African
Training Command

Brig Gen
J. K. Cannon

Northwest African
Coastal Air Force

Air Vice Marshal
Hugh P. Lloyd

RAF Mideast

Northwest African
Photographic
Reconnaissance Wing
Lt Col Elliott Roosevelt

Ninth Air Force

Maj Gen
L.H. Brereton
(U.S.)

Spaatz and the Ak War in Europe

The new Allied leadership, February 18, 1943. Bottom row, left to right: General
Dwight D. Eisenhower, Air Chief Marshal Arthur W. Tedder, General Harold R. L.
G. Alexander, and Admiral Andrew B. Cunningham; top row, left to right: Harold
Macmillan (British Minister, AFHQ), Maj. Gen. Walter Bedell Smith, Commodore
Royer M. Dick, and Air Vice-Marshal H. E. P. Wigglesworth.

the individual combat unit level. This interleaving greatly expanded the practice
of combined British and U.S. headquarters that the Allies had begun with the
establishment of AFHQ before the North African invasion.'^

The concept of dedicating entire air forces to separate, yet cooperating, tac-
tical or strategic roles became AAF standard operating procedure throughout
the European and Mediterranean Theaters of Operations. In the case of NAAF,
however, it should be noted that the designation Strategic was something of a
misnomer, in that the Northwest African Strategic Air Force did not attack
strategic industrial targets but confined itself to what could be called grand tac-
tical targets, enemy lines of supply, and logistical support.

NAAF also absorbed the British air cooperation doctrines conceived by
Woodall and employed by Coningham. Allied ground leaders would henceforth
grudgingly concede the principle that a single airman must command all the air
forces committed to the ground battle, because aircraft, unlike other combat
arms, had free rein over the combat zone and should deploy in overwhelming
force at the decisive points and not fritter away their strength in penny-packet
formations at the ground commander's whim.

180

Failure and Reorganization

The organization of a combined Allied staff to the lowest feasible level
served as a template for the organization of the Allied Expeditionary Force,
which later conducted the cross-channel invasion into France. This close associ-
ation with the RAF had an important side benefit for the AAF, which managed
to cloak itself in the RAF's independent status and thus free itself from some of
the more irksome restrictions inherent in its role as a subordinate part of the U.S.
Army. Spaatz, for example, participated in Allied command conferences as an
equal to his ground and naval opposite numbers rather than as an air adviser to
the American ground force conmiander.

The reorganization also embraced the logistical support of Allied air power in
North Africa. Brig. Gen. John Cannon became the head of the Northwest African
Training Command, and Brig. Gen. Delmar Dunton formed the Northwest
African Air Service Command from the XII Air Service Command and the main-
tenance organization of the Eastern Air Command.^6

In one of their first actions after establishing the NAAF, Spaatz and Tedder
met Eisenhower on February 17 and gained his agreement

that air support should function very much along the principles previously in
operation with 8th Army and Alexander. It was understood that this means in
general that the decision and needs of the ground army are of paramount impor-
tance, and that the element of decision as to type of operation must rest with the
Army commander.

Eisenhower, however, allowed the air conmiander to determine all matters of
technique and forces employed.77 This concession by Eisenhower gave XII ASC
more operational flexibility.

Coningham's arrival at 18 Army Group Headquarters on the same day,
February 17, allowed Allied air power to widen this initial and significant con-
cession by Eisenhower. Upon assuming command on February 23, the New
Zealander promptly put the Northwest African Tactical Air Force into operation
according to his own principles. The flying of defensive umbrellas over ground
formations was to cease at once. All future missions would be offensive and
would be conducted as aggressively as possible. Furthermore, the prime target
would be unarmored motor transport and troops; there would be no more con-
centration on "tank-busting. "78 These directions, however, did not come into
force until March 2, after the Kasserine fighting had endedJ^ The location of
Coningham's headquarters with Alexander's ended Anderson's de facto control
of tactical air.

General Alexander's assumption of the command of the 18 Army Group
also proved beneficial. Alexander, the British Army Commander in Chief,
Mediterranean, and Eisenhower's deputy in charge of land forces, had served as
Montgomery's and Coningham's commanding officer in the El Alamein cam-
paign. He, too, had absorbed the new methods of air support, and his acceptance
of them greatly eased the heretofore strained relations between the ground and

181

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Air Marshal William L. Welsh, Air Officer Commanding, Eastern Air Command,
1942-1943, inspecting an honor guard before his departure to the United States as
head of the RAF's delegation in Washington, D.C.

air forces. On February 23, Spaatz's diary noted with satisfaction: "General
Alexander supports the Air Force fully in their objection to the air umbrella
rather than air offensive operations. This is a complete reversal of the previous
attitude of the Army under Anderson and Fredendall."80

The assumption of command by Coningham, the centralization of control of
tactical air under him, and his location with Alexander solved the personality
problems of the old EAC. Anderson, with his defensive attitude, was removed
from his position in charge of allocation of tactical air. Welsh and Lawson were
replaced and sent elsewhere. Welsh spent the rest of the war exiled to the United
States as head of the RAF Delegation. When Spaatz took over the Allied Air
Force in the begirming of January he had recognized the pair's inability to cope
with Anderson. Because Spaatz controlled them and not Anderson, he had rec-
ommended their replacement then and there. Portal, who apparently assumed
that Spaatz wished to dispose of Welsh because Welsh outranked him, objected
to U.S. interference in internal RAF matters,8i reprieving Welsh and Lawson for
six weeks. By that time Tedder presumably had informed Portal about the true
state of affairs.

182

Failure and Reorganization

No matter how effective the experienced Alexander-Coningham air-ground
team would prove in the long run, it could not change the situation in a day.
Allied tactical air did not make its presence felt during the Kasserine engage-
ments until after the Germans had begun their voluntary withdrawal. On the first
day of the offensive, February 14, the XII ASC mounted 391 sorties as opposed
to 360 to 375 German sorties.82 The Germans were more effective, but the large
number of U.S. sorties gave a hint that the balance might soon tip in the Allies'
favor. By February 16, the XII ASC reported a total operational strength of sev-
enty-six Spitfires, twenty-seven P-39s, and twenty-four A-20s. The 33d Fighter
Group and its P-40s had withdrawn to refit on February 9. The Spitfires of the
31st Fighter Group and two-thirds of the 52d Fighter Group replaced it.83 Both
air forces maintained their effort through February 16, but bad weather for the
next five days hampered Allied air operations. On February 18, the enemy
advance forced the XII ASC to evacuate its forward fields at Thelepte, requiring
it to destroy thirty-four unserviceable planes and 50,000 gallons of aviation fuel.
In two days the Americans had lost forty-two planes. The clouds and rain finally
cleared on February 22, when the Xn ASC, disorganized by its retreat from
Thelepte and operating from one overcrowded field (Youks-les-Bains) with only
a single steel-plank runway, flew 304 sorties and lost only eleven planes.

On the evening of February 22 the Germans began their retreat, and for the
next few days British and U.S. aircraft punished their retiring columns with
increasing effect. Rommel later recorded, "The bad weather now ended and
from midday [February 23] onward we were subjected to hammer-blow air
attacks by the U.S. air force in the Feriana-Kasserine area, of weight and con-
centration hardly surpassed by those we had suffered at Alamein."84 During the
critical period of February 20 to 24, Coningham had also had the strategic
bombers placed at his disposal. Instead of complaining about delays imposed by
enemy air, ground leaders began to note improvement. On February 25,
Eisenhower observed, "The Air Force is now better organized, is well sorted out
and operating efficiently."85

In January and February 1943, Allied ground and air leaders sought to
answer the question of who should have ultimate control of the theater's limited
air assets. Later in the war such a question would not have arisen because the
overwhelming number of aircraft then available to the Allies made it possible to
supply simultaneously the need of the ground commanders for battle-line sup-
port and the need of the air commanders for counterair and supply-line strikes.
The Casablanca Conference imposed an air command structure on the theater
that supplied an air chain of command separate from the ground forces. This for-
ma! structure, however, would have meant little if Eisenhower had continued to
allow his ground commanders to set air priorities. He who sets priorities controls
the allocation of resources. Spaatz, alone in January, and, with Tedder's help in
February, persuaded Eisenhower to allow air commanders a greater voice in the
control of their own forces. Eisenhower probably assented in part because he

183

Spaatt; and the Air War in Exjrope

had lost confidence in his American ground force commander, Fredendall,
whom he relieved on March 6.

Once the air commanders could determine their own priorities, the Casa-
blanca reorganization became decisive because it provided an efficient means to
control available air power. Coningham's ability to call in all the Allied power
needed (an ability denied his predecessors) allowed him to contest the air over
the Kasserine Pass and to heavily attack the retreating German columns. In the
next eleven weeks, the air commanders' ability to coordinate all of their resources
on key points would prove important to Allied success.

184

Chapter 6

The Collapse of the Axis Bridgehead
(February-May 1943)

So far as I know, Spaatz and I see eye to eye on every single
thing that comes up; and we believe that we have learned
lots of things that were, before the war either not under-
stood, or not fully appreciated, either by our Ground Forces
or our Air Forces.'

— Eisenhower to Arnold, May 2, 1943

The reorganization that produced the Northwest African Air Force (NAAF)
and introduced the air support team and new procedures enhanced the efficiency
of Allied air power. It was the catalyst that enabled the disparate air elements
present in North Africa to redirect their efforts to the task at hand — defeating the
enemy. The improved logistical situation, which occurred at approximately the
same time as the reorganization, proved an equal factor in advancing Allied air
fortunes. The end of the rainy season in mid- April allowed the Allies to greatly
accelerate operations from their forward fields. At the same time, increasingly
effective Allied interdiction of Axis supplies forced the Luftwaffe in North
Africa to cut back its operations. All of the factors that had previously favored
the Axis air effort no longer weighed heavily in the scales, while Allied air
power had overcome the obstacles in its path.

Spaatz spent his energies late in the winter and spring of 1943 reinforcing
and employing the new strength derived from the final restructuring, the
exploitation of fresh doctrine, and the improvement of overall logistics. He nur-
tured the new organizational arrangements; won over recalcitrant air and ground
commanders to the new theories; and attempted to perfect the procurement,
maintenance, and transportation of his men, materiel, and facilities.

In the aftermath of Kasserine, the Allies refitted and prepared for the offen-
sive that would drive the Axis into the sea. On March 1, in addition to his post
as Commander, NAAF, Spaatz became Commanding General of the Twelfth Air

185

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Force. This new title did not add to his duties, because the Twelfth had virtually
ceased to exist except on paper, but it did regularize his position in the formal
War Department hierarchy. Spaatz also worked to increase the proficiency of the
NAAF.

Signal intelligence revealed that more than 80 percent of the Axis supplies
(49,600 tons) dispatched to North Africa in February had arrived safely .2 The
NAAF was thus compelled to improve its antishipping effort, which depended
on the Northwest African Strategic Air Force (NASAF). On March 1, Spaatz,
Tedder, and Doolittle inspected the Telergma area airfields assigned to the
NASAF. Spaatz wanted the flow of "all intelligence data" and results of all
photo reconnaissance, including Malta flights, promptly sent to Doolittle's com-
mand. Evidently, he wanted to ensure that Doolittle received a full and timely
share of Ultra intercepts, some of which revealed the movement of Axis ship-
ping between Italy and North Africa. To track this movement, the Allies rou-
tinely used aerial reconnaissance. Aerial reconnaissance was the perfect cover. It
verified the intercepts and kept their source a secret. Spaatz also wanted the lateral
communication links with the Northwest Afiican Tactical Air Force (NATAF)
and the Northwest African Coastal Air Force (NACAF) strengthened, as well as
a radio intercept station at NASAF HQ to intercept spotting reports from Malta
and Coastal Air Force recoimaissance aircraft.3

From the NASAF fields around Telergma, Spaatz moved forward to the
NATAF airfields around Bone in the north and Youks-les-Bains in the south.
These visits played up the importance of one of the technological components of
the new air-support doctrine — the need for radar coverage of the battlefield and
beyond. Radar coverage allowed the air-support commander to form a quick and
accurate picture of the position of his own and of the enemy's frontal aviation.
Complete coverage enabled the air commander to divert or abort tactical bomber
and reconnaissance flights from enemy fighters and, at the same time, made it
possible for him to use fiiendly fighters either defensively to break up incoming
enemy air attacks or offensively to strike enemy aircraft on or over their air-
fields. This made the centralization of control of air-support forces not only nec-
essary but easier and more effective.

During the initial rush from Algiers to Tunisia, the Allies sent forward as
many aircraft as they could. They neglected, however, to send forward their
ground-based early warning radar. Spaatz, who had seen its effectiveness in the
Battle of Britain, moved at once to get ground control intercept (GCI) and early
warning radar sets deployed as rapidly and as far forward as possible. In his
diary he emphasized the importance and urgency of radar coverage at the front
in obtaining effective use of fighters on both the defensive and the offensive:

The nearer the RDF [radio direction finding or radar] coverage can read tfre
enemy airdrome areas and check them up on take off, the more effective our
operations will be. This makes the location of sites for RDF stadons of almost

186

Collapse of the Axis Bridgehead

as great importance as the terrain for airdromes as an objective for the ground
forces. This necessity has been lost on our buildup of units, and must be
emphasized in order that our Air Forces can be properly balanced."*

Spaatz reiterated the point in a letter to Arnold, dated March 7:

The ability of the enemy to attack our troops with dive bombers indicates that
the enemy has control of the air or our forces are improperly controlled or that
essential equipment is lacking. The solution lies in an acceptance of the princi-
ple that the first prerequisite to the support of the ground army or armies is the
estabUshment of a fighter defense and offense, including RDF, GCI and other
types of Radar equipment essential for the detection of enemy aircraft.'

The arrival of the radar-equipped U.S. 3d Air Defense Wing and additional
British radar for XII ASC and No. 242 Group allowed the NAAF to establish a
radar net covering the front by April.^

Continuing his inspection of tactical fields, Spaatz lunched with Colonel
Williams and General Fredendall at Le Kouif, a field northeast of Youks-les-
Bains, on March 3. He found the attitude of the soon-to-be-relieved Fredendall
concerning air altered: "General Fredendall, in contradiction to the last visit . . .
has considerably broadened in his viewpoint of air importance. He realizes the
necessity of seizing and holding airdrome areas and high or dominating ground
necessary for proper RDF coverage. "7 Fredendall had learned, too late, the role
of tactical air. In his after-action report he wrote:

Ground forces should have it explained to them that it is not necessarily true that
the air should furnish them with a visible "umbrella," but that air is being fur-
nished in the average operation even when our planes are not visible from the
ground. Also that this air support includes not only cover and reconnaissance over
them, but also bombardment of enemy troops and airdromes.*

From Williams, Spaatz received a testimonial on the efficacy of air support
parties — ^AAF liaison teams with the forward elements of the ground troops,
each equipped with a VHF radio mounted on a I'/z-ton truck. These units had
supplied the higher commanders some of the quickest and most accurate infor-
mation on combat situations. AAF formations had made it a habit to pass within
range (fifteen miles) of the air support parties in order to get exact information
on conditions in the target areas. At least once, an air support party (ASP) called
down a strike on enemy forces in close contact with its own forces.9

Spaatz's front-line inspections revealed a morale problem in NASAF as
compared to NATAF. Acute shortages of replacement planes and crews
accounted for much of the problem in NASAF's medium-bomber and fighter
groups. 10 This issue had become particularly severe in February, but thanks to
increased ferrying of new aircraft from the United States and the unsnarling of
the replacement pipeline through France's African possessions, the AAF cor-
rected half of the problem by the end of March, when Spaatz could report to

187

Spaatz and the Air War m Eukope

Maj. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz, Marshal of the RAF Hugh M. Trenchard, Brig. Gen.
James H. Doolittle, and actress Vivien Leigh (far right) enjoying a light moment in
North Africa. Brig. Gen. Hoyt S. Vandenberg is seated directly behind Spaatz.

Stratemeyer, "Tell the Boss that there is a very, very noticeable improvement in
the airplane situation."! l The lack of replacement crews, unlike the airplane
shortage, did not lend itself quite so readily to a production-line solution. In fact,
the problems of war-weariness and the rotation of experienced crews continued
to haunt Spaatz and the AAF's other numbered air force commanders until the
war's end. Initial rotation policies seemed to imply that crews could go home
after fulfilling a minimum of 30 combat missions or 200 hours of combat flying.
Many crews who felt they had fulfilled their duty were dismayed when circum-
stances required additional missions. Their morale plummeted. ^2

Spaatz did what he could to improve their spirits. On several occasions he
ordered "more attention to awards and decorations." He attempted to ensure that
daily AFHQ press communiques gave the NAAF its full share of credit and did
not subordinate its activities to ongoing naval and ground actions. Spaatz even
ordered the photos of bombing results released to the crews. 13 This action
relieved the fear "that the missions were a waste of time, material, and life"l4
common among men who flew over the same target mission after mission, yet
never saw the damage they did because of the smoke of their own bombs or
because of their own evasive action to avoid enemy antiaircraft fire.

Like Union General Joseph "Fightin' Joe" Hooker, who faced a similar
morale problem in the Army of the Potomac after its defeat in the Battle of

188

Collapse of the Axis Bridgehead

Fredericksburg, Spaatz took simple, but apparently well-calculated, measures to
improve the camp life of his soldiers and to supply them with the creature com-
forts dear to American fighting men. He replaced unfamiliar and unpopular
British tents and rations in the combat units with American versions. 15 He
ensured that flying personnel had cots and he established messes and recreation
rooms. He set up separate rest camps for officers and enlisted men, improved
facilities in all camps, and requested greater Red Cross support. He also tried to
place motion picture projectors in each station, 16 made sure each unit had reli-
gious services available to it, and ordered his surgeon's section to survey the
entire area for malaria. Morale, according to his staff, took a decided upturn. 17

After completing his tour of the front, Spaatz inspected the rear echelons. He
flew to Marrakech on March 6. There he decided to keep the airfield complex
under the control of the NAAF rather than to transfer it to the Air Transport
Service. Thus, control of the terminus of the transatlantic ferry route would stay
in his hands. He also issued a standardized set of specifications for airfield con-
struction. As a result of this action, plus aviation engineer reinforcements, the
arrival of heavy construction equipment above the normal table of organization,
and a decision to retain all aviation engineers under the control of the NAAF,
the size and number of forward airfields greatly increasedis and multiphed the
force available to Coningham and Spaatz.

By March 12, Spaatz returned to Algiers, where he learned of his promotion
to lieutenant general. He appreciated the honor and the increased status it gave
him. Coningham, as an air marshal, had, until then, technically outranked him,
but as Spaatz noted in a letter on the total AAF personnel situation in North
Africa, "I have been much less concerned about promotion for myself than ade-
quate promotion for a number of officers who are doing a General's job without
the rank."l5 This remained a problem until June 1943, when Eisenhower, after
repeated requests from Spaatz, promoted foixr AAF officers.20

The Air War Against Axis Supply Lines

In the middle of March 1943, NAAF Headquarters moved from Algiers to
Constantine. The move placed it closer to the front and enabled it, in Spaatz 's
words, "to control the Strategic and Tactical Air Forces during the Tunisian
Battle."2i In Constantine, on March 17, Spaatz, Doolittle, and Allied air officers
of the Coastal Air Force met to analyze the effectiveness of the antishipping
campaign. From Ultra sources they knew the daily unloading returns from
Tunis and Bizerte.22 These confirmed that "the shipping strikes have not been
sufficient to bring down the amount of supplies into Tunisia below the danger
point to the Germans."23 Spaatz recommended singling out tanker shipping and
concentrating all forces on it. Photo reconnaissance and "other intelligence"
would show the tankers' locations.

189

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

By January, Ultra could already determine the full details of 60 percent of all
cargoes .24 Of course, it could not supply the Allies every detail necessary to their-
plans of attack. The conference hammered out responsibilities for photo reconnais-
sance (NACAF), minimum forces exclusively devoted to antishipping (two
squadrons of the NASAF), and chain of command (the NACAF would notify
NASAF Headquarters of targets and the NASAF would decide composition of
the force). The conferees also agreed to strengthen communication links
between the two air forces.

The settling of jurisdictions, better flying weather in March and April, and
the end of the crisis on the ground which had diverted the NASAF's strength to
ground-support strikes, combined to greatly increase the ship-killing opportuni-
ties for Doolittle's command. Adding to the strength and effectiveness of
Doolittle's antishipping blows were improvement in aircraft replacement rates;
reinforcement by one medium-bomber group and two heavy-bomber groups;
and the transfer, in March, from Cairo to Algiers, of an intelligence group that
specialized in the study of the enemy supply situation and the selection of ship-
ping targets.25

British aircraft flying out of Malta and night patrols by Royal Navy ships
and submarines put further pressure on the Axis which, in March, unloaded
43,125 tons of supplies, as compared with 49,600 tons in February. In the fol-
lowing month unloadings plunged to 29,233 tons.26 Postwar figures show that
in March and April, 41.5 percent of seaborne cargoes dispatched to Tunisia
failed to reach North Africa; loss of Axis shipping in March, not made good in
April, accounted for that month's lower tonnage. Only four ships exceeding
3,000-tons dead weight reached Africa in April. Furthermore, daily unloadings
steadily declined throughout the period from 1,300 to 700 tons.2'? By the end of
April, the Allied tactical air forces had joined the fray and they, too, began to
fly antishipping strikes.

Naturally, the Axis increased their resupply effort in the face of the Allies'
onslaught. They diverted as much high-priority seaborne supply as possible to
small ferries, landing craft, and naval vessels. The Axis also turned to air trans-
port. As a British official history states, "Enigma [Ultra] made it plain that his
higher rate of fuel consumption [the principal air transport cargo] and the
increasing destruction of his shipping had made the enemy critically dependent
on air supply."28

Throughout the Tunisian campaign, German air transport ferried large
numbers of personnel and amounts of supply to the Axis bridgehead in North
Africa. This transport proved an invaluable aid in November and December
1942, when the surprise Allied landings called for a rapid response. In those two
months the Luftwaffe brought in 37,000 men and 9,000 tons of materiel. After
the initial surge, traffic declined to between 50 and 20 landings a day at the end
of the year. German transport landings then began to climb until they reached
150 a day by late March 1943. In February 1943, air transport brought in 11,000

190

Collapse of the Axis Bridgehead

personnel and 4,000 tons of supplies. In all, excluding March, this airlift con-
veyed 71,000 troops and 23,000 tons of supplies to North Africa 29

No one appreciated this herculean effort of the Luftwaffe more than Spaatz.
On January 16, he instructed his staff to draw up plans "to get after" the daily
parade of Junkers Model 52 (Ju 52) traffic across the straits.* Two days later,
January 18, he "told Cannon to send out a strong fighter force occasionally to
swat the Ju 52 daily procession coming across the Straits."30

The British, too, developed plans to disrupt Axis air transport. Eastern Air
Command drew up plans for such an operation on February 5 and expanded the
plans to include the XII Bomber Command. This operation, code-named Flax,
ran afoul of the exigencies of the Kasserine crisis, which siphoned off all avail-
able air, causing the cancellation of the strike.3l In March, Spaatz returned to the
scent. At an NAAF staff meeting on March 4, he directed the NASAF to include
in its priorities attacks against Axis air transportation.32 When the NAAF drafted
a plan to ruin any attempted Axis evacuation from Tunisia, the destruction of
German air transport received first priority.33

At the beginning of April, Tedder, Spaatz, Doolittle, and Coningham met for
a "Dunkirk" conference to complete plans for action against the expected
attempt by the Axis to withdraw completely from Tunisia. Spaatz, supported by
Coningham, disagreed with Tedder about whether the chief target priority
should be air or sea transport. Spaatz said, "At the present time we are in doubt
as to whether we are justified in getting away from sea transport and hitting air
transport; but on the evacuation, unless we can believe air is the most important,
we will be continuously in doubt as to what to do. "34 As the discussion contin-
ued, it turned to implementing Flax. Tedder agreed "emphatically" with Flax
as a separate operation, but not as a general or continuing plan. He remarked that
Eisenhower would probably agree to Flax as a specific operation to take priori
ity over everything.

Tedder objected to waging an air campaign exclusively against air transport
and rejected Spaatz's suggestion that air transport be assigned first priority;
instead. Tedder "insisted" that shipping remain the prime target. Ultra intercepts
tended to confirm Tedder's judgment. They showed that shipping carried eight
to ten times more tonnage than aircraft to the bridgehead in February and
March.35 Once Tedder had driven that point home, he gave his subordinate
authority to attack "air transport when specific targets arise." That satisfied
Spaatz, who observed that in any case of sea versus air transport, the value of
the individual target would always determine its selection.36

Eisenhower apparently accepted the plan. On April 5, the NASAF conducted
the first Flax strike. A morning fighter sweep splashed eleven Ju 52s and five
escorts into the sea. Next, B-17s struck Tunisian landing fields, where the trans-
port shuttle terminated, with fragmentation bombs. Around noon more B-17s and

* The Germans used the trimotor Ju 52 as their chief transport aircraft.

191

A six-engine Messerschmitt Me 323 Gigant transport (above) and low-flying Junkers
(Ju 52) tri-motor transport (below). The ubiquitous "Tante Ju" was tlie workhorse
of Luftwaffe airlift.

Collapse of the Axis Bridgehead

B-25s finished off the affair by dropping fragmentation bombs on the Sicilian
airfields at Boccadifalco, Trapani, and Borizzo, where the second daily flight for
Tunisia usually formed up. These actions totally disrupted service, because an
afternoon P-38 sweep found the straits empty. The bomber raids caught Axis
aircraft bunched together on their fields and inflicted heavy damage. The
Luftwaffe acknowledged losses of 14 Ju 52s shot down, 11 transports destroyed
on the ground, and 67 transports damaged. The AAF claimed 201 enemy aircraft
destroyed, and admitted its loss of 3 aircraft with 6 unaccounted for. Additional
attacks on April 10 and 11 resulted in claims of 67 transports and 13 escorts
destroyed.^?

Spaatz wrote to Eaker in England describing the carefully set trap. Before

executing Flax, the Allies had observed enemy air transport activity via photo
reconnaissance and radar coverage, but had not interfered with daily flights. As
a result, the methodical Germans were lulled into establishing a regular schedule
and became more vulnerable to the initial Allied attacks. 38 Because of extremely
sensitive Ultra information, Spaatz avoided mentioning its contribution to the
success of the operation. The breaking of the code used by the Luftwaffe's
Enigma cipher machine gave details of cargoes, variation of convoy routes,
flight cancellations, and German defensive measures. RAF "Y," the RAF's tacti-
cal intercept service added more information with its readings of local Luftwaffe
and Italian Air Force (lAF) air transport radio traffic. "From the study of this
traffic the intelligence staffs derived their familiarity with points of arrival and
departure, the time taken to unload and turn around, the normal routes, and the
strength of the escorts."39 The signal security of the German air force was noto-
riously poor.

After April 17, the Western Desert Air Force (WDAF) took over the execu-
tion of Flax from the NASAF. The following day, the WDAF, operating from
newly captured airfields around Sousse, a coastal city on the Gulf of Hammamet
only 90 miles from Cape Bon (one-third of the distance from NASAF fields),
staged the "Palm Sunday Massacre." WDAF P-40s and Spitfires attacked a
homeward-bound air convoy and sent between 50 and 70 of the 100 transports
and 16 escorts spinning into the Mediterranean. The next day they added 12 out
of 20. The Axis, in desperate condition on land and sea, persevered in the face of
this pounding. They brought in air transport reinforcements and kept flying.
Even instructor crews participated in the one-sided fight.40 On April 22, the
Germans lost an entire flight of 21 Messerschmitt Model 323s (Me 323s). These
six-engine converted gliders had four times the cargo capacity of Ju 52s but little
maneuverability; they generated barely enough speed to keep themselves air-
borne, lacked armor and self-sealing gas tanks, and had no chance against the
Allied fighters which pounced on them. Three days later. Ultra revealed the
order of the Commander in Chief of the Luftwaffe, Reich Marshal Hermann
Goering, to switch all transport flights to night. This step greatiy reduced air
resupply into Tunisia and ended Flax.^i

195

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Throughout the Flax operation the NASAF had continued its raids on Axis
staging airfields. These raids completed the destruction of the German air trans-
port fleet and resulted in the loss of numerous Axis escort and antishipping air-
craft as well. Of the 263 German transports available at the beginning of April,
the Luftwaffe had lost 157 by April 27,42 not including Italian transports and
Axis bomber aircraft pressed into transport service. One estimate placed total
losses at 432 aircraft. These losses, combined with casualties suffered by the
German Air Transport Service in its attempts to supply the German Sixth Army
in the Stalingrad pocket of southern Russia, crippled German air transport for
the remainder of the war.43

Operation Flax and the equally successful strangulation of seaborne traffic
doomed the Axis land forces in Africa. Only forty tons of diesel and motor fuel
remained in the bridgehead at the time of their surrender.44 Allied intelligence
had selected its shipping targets so carefully that the only surplus remaining was
food, which the Allies had purposely not sunk in anticipation of feeding Axis
prisoners of war.45

The interdiction campaign, like the adoption of British air-support tech-
niques, provided an example of the victory of wartime improvisation over pre-
war doctrine. Neither subject had captured the imagination of the interwar Army
Air Corps theorists, yet both these aspects of the Tunisian campaign have served
as models for future AAF and USAF doctrine. Never again has U.S. air power
participated in such an effective supply interdiction effort or had so many advan-
tages over the enemy. The Allies broke aknost every major cipher used by the
enemy; they had overwhelming air and naval superiority, which they could
freely apply to the restricted area of the Cape Bon-Sicily narrows; and they
fought an overextended and, to some extent, disheartened enemy.

Spaatz contributed to the success of the operation in two ways. He insisted
that airborne as well as water transport be interdicted, thereby closing a vital
supply line that specialized in the delivery of petroleum products — a necessity
for the Axis forces in the bridgehead. Second, like other senior air officers, he
seized the opportunity to demonstrate air power's effectiveness against the Axis
forces' vulnerability to an aggressive air interdiction campaign.

Heavy-Bombardment Aviation in T\inisia

The pride of the AAF, heavy-bombardment aviation, performed well and
sometimes spectacularly well during the Tunisian campaign. From November
1942 through May 1943, the B-24s of the Ninth Air Force and the B-17s of the
Twelfth Air Force flew 7,041 combat sorties, only 900 fewer than the medium
and light bombers of the two air forces,46 and lost only 81 aircraft (1.1 percent)
to combat or accident.47 The B-17s suffered only 24 combat casualties; enemy
fighters accounted for 8 of them, flak and other causes taking the other 16.^8 In a
letter summarizing the campaign, Spaatz wrote to Arnold, "The impact of the

196

After an air raid on Castelvetrona, Sicily, April 1943. Direct hits on forty-two air-
craft, including twenty transports, were observed.

A German Siebel ferry, typical of the watercraft used to supply the Axis bridgehead,
spring 1943.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

well flown B-17 formation into the European air picture has been tremendous
and, in my opinion, will be the decisive factor, unless the Germans find some
means of opposing it better than they have now."49

After a slow start, the heavy bombers made their first raid beyond North
Africa on February 7, 1943, when they hit a major airfield in Elmas, Sardinia.
This raid, according to its planners, damaged a large percentage of the Axis anti-
shipping capability stationed at Elmas, thereby enabling an Allied convoy to
escape further losses.50 Two more raids in February struck port facilities in
Cagliari, Sardinia, and Palermo, Sicily. These missions established the pattern
for subsequent months; NASAF medium bombers (B-25s and B-26s) concen-
trated on shipping, while heavy bombers (B-17s and B-24s) attacked the loading
and unloading facilities at both ends of the Axis supply lines. Occasionally, the
B-17s went after convoys or ships in harbor.

Two raids produced dramatic results that helped enhance the AAF's faith in
the destructiveness of its preferred weapon system. On April 10, B-17s sank the
Italian heavy cruiser Trieste with 1,000-pound bombs dropped from 19,000 feet.
The same raid damaged the Goriza, one of Italy's two remaining heavy cruisers.
Dramatic before and after pictures received full circulation during the war, and
even the postwar U.S. Army and Air Force official histories selected them for
publication.51 Four days earlier, B-17s had blown up an ammunition ship in
convoy to Tunisia; that pyrotechnic display also eamed wide coverage.

As usual, Arnold pressed Spaatz and his other combat commanders to pro-
vide the public and the President with evidence of destruction by bombing.
Spaatz's and Doolittle's unprecedented permission given to the glamorous Life
magazine photojoumalist Margaret Bourke- White to fly a B-17 combat mission
over Tunisia and the resultant story failed to assuage Amold,52 nor did Time
magazine's cover story of March 22 on Spaatz.53 The AAF commander was
concerned that an unsophisticated public would not understand why "our early
units were not as well trained as units committed to combat should be," why
"we did not suddenly have a great striking force prepared to operate against
Germany," and why the AAF required "a necessary 'feeling out' period."54
Arnold needed proof of accurate and devastating bombing. On April 10, he cau-
tioned Spaatz that "many people in high places" were asking hard questions
about the exact details of damage inflicted by Spaatz's forces. "It will help us a
great deal in defending your operations," noted Arnold, "and in building up a
correct picture of the results being accomplished if you will make a special
effort to have a summary on the subject gotten back here about every two
weeks."55

Eleven days later, in response to an earlier request by Arnold for information
on Kasserine Pass and antishipping operations, Spaatz wrote that he hoped
Arnold had received his daily operations reports, the weekly intelligence sum-
maries, and "the special folders of significant heavy bomber operations. "56
Spaatz cited four special folders already sent: (1) the March 22 Palermo raid.

198

Collapse of the Axis Bridgehead

which Spaatz earlier called one of the most destructive of the war;^^ (2) the
April 6 ammunition ship strike; (3) the sinking of the Trieste; and (4) an April

13 mission against the Castelvetrano airfield in Sicily. These four special folders
should have helped Arnold greatly in his defense of precision bombing.

Spaatz did not mention a devastating raid by the 97th Bombardment Group
on airfields in the Souk el Arba area on February 22, the high point of the
German Kasserine attack. In an interview more than thirty years later. General
Kuter still remembered the incident well — the B-17s used "anti-personnel
bombs, hundreds of them all over, and killed a lot of people."58 Unfortunately,
the base belonged to the RAF; the bombers had missed their intended target by a
hundred miles. Prompt apologies and a thorough investigation by the NASAF
mollified the British, who chalked up the incident to the fortunes of war.59 it
was no wonder Spaatz did not send a special folder on this mission.

Appropriately, when Spaatz quietly chose to join a limited number of com-
bat missions, he flew on the heavies — on at least three occasions that can be ver-
ified in his diary and probably two or three more times. On March 31, he rode in
the nose of one of the 97th Bombardment Group's B-17s on a mission over
Decimonannu airfield in Sardinia. Next, he flew with the 301st Bombard-ment
Group on the April 13 Castelvetrano airfield raid. Two weeks later, on April 27,
he observed the bombing of Villacidro airfield fi-om one of the 97th Bombard-
ment Group's fortresses.60 The Castelvetrano raid lost one airplane to antiaircraft
fire. According to Eisenhower's personal naval aide, Capl. Harry Butcher, who
knew Spaatz well and often participated in his late-night poker games, Spaatz
told him, but not Eisenhower, that he had flown on a raid over Palermo on April

14 in which three planes were lost, two to fighters and one to flak. That trip
"wasn't the first by any means."6i Given the information in Spaatz 's papers and
Butcher's diary, Spaatz apparently flew no fewer than four or five missions. It
appears reasonable to conclude that he flew a strike with each of the heavy-bom-
bardment groups in his command: the 2d, 97th, 99th, and 301st.

Spaatz 's flights demonstrated bravery, but did they demonstrate another
quality essential to command — ^wisdom? If the casualty figures can be accepted,
he personally witnessed one-sixth of all B-17 combat losses for the campaign.
He did not choose milk runs. In fact, he appears to have exposed himself to great
danger and to have run real risks. If his plane had gone down and he had been
captured, the enemy might have forced the Ultra secret from him, to the signif-
icant detriment of the Allied effort. His loss in battle might also have damaged
AAF prestige and shaken faith in the possibility of daylight bombing.

But Spaatz's flights do demonstrate a cardinal principle of good conmiand —
leadership. He had a morale problem in the NASAF. What better way to help
ease it than to let his men know "the old man" shared their risks? How better
could he understand the physical, mental, and organizational problems of flying
a wartime raid? Military history abounds with examples of leaders who failed
because of plans based on absolute physical impossibilities. One need only

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

remember the apocryphal tale of the World War I British staff officer who burst
into tears on his first visit to the front when he realized the hopelessness of the
attacks he had helped to plan.

Nor did Spaatz, in this instance, take absurd chances. B-17 strikes had far
lower loss rates than antishipping or ground-support attacks. He apparently par-
ticipated as an observer only and did not interrupt normal crew procedure or put
himself in the cockpit. By confining himself to raids on coastal targets he less-
ened the danger of capture should he and his crew be forced to abandon their
plane. They could parachute from it or ease it into the water with the hope of
encountering Allied rescue parties. Moreover, recent evidence shows that the
Ultra secret had become known at levels far lower than his. Because he was
usually not the only one who knew about it on the missions that he flew,62 he
probably did not jeopardize it unduly. On balance, Spaatz's combat missions
seem to have been justified. He achieved a positive effect on his own and his
men's morale and gained invaluable insight into the day-to-day workings of his
command. As a commander he had a duty to lead by example in combat. He ful-
filled that duty without indulging in it to the extent that he compromised his
capacity to carry out higher responsibilities. Of course, if he actually had been
lost, his flights could be condemned as ill-considered and foohsh — such is fate.
Spaatz, in this instance, had at least stacked the deck in his favor.

Such experiences did not dampen his belief in precision bombing. In late
May he summed up the performance of the heavy bombers this way: "In our day
to day operations at the present time, we feel any area can be completely neu-
tralized, even blown into oblivion, by high altitude attacks, without incurring
any serious losses on our part." He went on to bemoan the loss of a year in
mounting a massive strategic campaign against Germany — an attack that would
have been decisive, in his view, had it been properly followed up.63

Ground Operations and Air Support

As the NASAF tightened its grip on Axis supply lines, Allied ground forces,
assisted by the newly formed NATAF, shattered enemy land forces in a nine-
week-long assault on the Italian-German bridgehead. Under the able leadership
of Coningham, the U.S. XII Air Support Command, the Western Desert Air
Force, and No. 242 Group soon gained air superiority. Fighter-bombers and light
bombers of the NATAF roamed the battlefield unhampered by the Luftwaffe.

Coningham's appointment to head the NATAF improved the performance of
the tactical forces but did not provide a universal nostrum to the ills of air-
ground cooperation in North Africa. Not all ground or air commanders suc-
cumbed to the New Zealander's messianic expressions of the new support
arrangements. Nor did "Mary's" combative temperament ease his path. In his
view, the Americans, with less than six months' wartime experience, had noth-
ing to teach him. In the subsequent campaign in Sicily, he made his view abun-

200

Collapse of the Axis Bridgehead

dantly clear to Spaatz in a scene that one observer described as "the first time I
saw personal Anglo-American relations go wrong at that level."64

Coningham had begun to develop an obsessive and splenetic hatred of
Montgomery, believing that he had filched from him and the air arm the lau-
rels of victory at El Alamein.65 As a result, Montgomery began to place
increasing reliance in the abilities of Air Vice-Marshal Harry Broadhurst,
Coningham 's replacement in command of the WDAF. The Montgomery-
Broadhurst collaboration proved extremely effective in supplying tactical air
support to the ground troops under Montgomery's command through North
Africa, Sicily, Italy, and Normandy — and served as proof of the importance of
personal compatibility in the air-ground equation. 66 Spaatz, while scrupu-
lously declining to interfere with Coningham's overall direction of the tactical
battle, spent a great deal of time calming the waters in Coningham's wake and
convincing American officers of the value of the new doctrine, if not of the
value of its bearer.*

Although Coningham's appointment to head the NATAF improved the per-
formance of the tactical forces, neither Spaatz nor the AAF in North Africa
accepted his system in toto. The Americans disagreed with his orders of March
17, which forbade NATAF planes from communicating with air-support parties
(as mentioned, AAF-manned liaison teams equipped with a VHF radio on a V/i-
ton truck that traveled with the forward ground elements and provided immedi-
ate contact with planes overhead). To Coningham, the practice by which U.S.
aircraft checked in with the air-support parties smacked of excessive control of
air by the ground commander and thus violated the principle of unity of air com-
mand. It also threatened to short-circuit the whole British system by providing a
direct link between pilots and individual ground units. Such a link abbreviated
the functions of the Fighter Wing Control Room, reducing control by the overall
air commander. 67

Colonel Williams, the commanding officer of the XII ASC, after discussion
with his group leaders and pilots, advised his superior that the air-support parties
did not command or control his planes, but merely provided a quick and valu-
able communications link with the ground forces at the point of combat.68
Spaatz intervened in support of Williams's position, and the air-support parties
continued to provide their useful services. 69

American use of air-support parties illustrated certain differences in Allied
air coordination practices. Although the Americans absorbed many lessons from
the British, the two organizations did not form mirror images. The Americans
regarded the air-support parties as the equivalent of British "tentacles," but they
did not follow the example of assigning an air liaison officer at each forward air-
field. Instead, the ground unit receiving support sent one of its own officers to
the airfield to brief the air commander. In the WDAF/8th Army scheme, the 8th

* See discussion of the RAF's and Coningham's air support doctrine in Chapter 4.

201

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Army processed air requests from subordinate units, decided on priorities, and at
that point presented requirements to the WDAF, which had control over all
operational aspects of the mission.

The Americans also used different communication channels. Instead of II
Corps Headquarters developing air requests from its subordinate units, XU ASC
Headquarters developed requests received directly from the air-support parties.
The air-support party's commander not only served as air-ground liaison but
doubled as a member of the ground unit's staff. After allocating its aircraft to
specific strikes, XII ASC then confirmed its decisions with II Corps G-3
(Operations). If G-3 approved, XII ASC carried out the missions according to its
own plans and force available. The Americans believed in the superiority of
their procedure since it introduced qualified air opinion at the beginning of a
request process, thereby preventing air commitment to unsuitable or impossible
tasks. Coningham had learned from the Americans through Williams that air-
craft command and control was technically reserved to XII ASC Headquarters
and not to the air-support parties, but he was, apparently, either uninformed or
uncomprehending of the essential role played by those parties in the American
scheme of ground support.^0

Coningham's original order, had it remained in effect, would have totally
disrupted American air-ground cooperation. The Americans resisted this attempt
to impose British methods from the top. In practice, however, both the British
and the American schemes worked equally well. In 1944 Spaatz took the
American procedures with him to Britain where they were applied by the U.S.
Ninth Air Force. With Spaatz's departure in 1944, the Mediterranean Theater
adopted British procedures.

Even before Coningham's arrival to command the NATAF, Spaatz had
observed to Stratemeyer that with Coningham "at the head of our Air Support
Command, it can readily be seen that something is bound to break out in a very
short time."7i Air-ground relations remained tranquil until April 1. After the
Kasserine crisis. Allied ground and air units prepared to renew attacks on the
Axis. The logistical situation improved dramatically after early December and
January. Spaatz could report that the forward fields had sufficient bombs and
gasoline for operations.72 The NAAF needed only one item to remove the prin-
cipal bottleneck remaining in its logistics — motor transport. On March 30,
Spaatz complained that II Corps still had 450 AAF trucks. Seven days later, he
asked Eisenhower for more transport to move the air force forward, even if it
had to come from II Corps.'^

After a pause to reorganize following the defeats of mid-February, II Corps
resumed the offensive. Although Coningham now held operational control of
XII ASC, he followed the earlier and logical practice of ordering each of his air
contingents to support its own land forces. In keeping with his ideas, however,
XII ASC gave first priority to counterair operations rather than to ground sup-
port for II Corps.

202

Collapse of the Axis Bridgehead

On March 17, following intensive artillery and air preparation, Patton's II
Corps took Gafsa and began to attack toward the sea coast, seventy-five miles
away. By then, XII ASC's operational strength had risen to 1 16 Spitfires, 49 P-
39s, and 4 photographic reconnaissance planesJ^ The Support Command's
medium bombers had transferred to the Tactical Bomber Force, a centralized
tactical bomber command directly under Coningham's control. Spitfires had
short endurance and could not drop bombs. The P-39s served only as fast
ground-attack planes because of their inability to compete in dogfights with
superior Axis fighters in the theater. The XII ASC had two responsibilities for
this phase of the battle: (1) to protect the forward move of II Corps and (2) to
obtain and hold air superiority over opposing air forces to free the entire WDAF
for the 8th Army attack on Rommel at the Mareth Line. The Tactical Bomber
Force, composed of both British and American medium bombers, would supply
striking power to XII ASC for hitting Axis airfields. Coningham also had the
power to require Strategic Air Force missions on enemy fields during critical
days of the offensive.'^^

Rain grounded portions of the NATAF and mired 11 Corps in mud, postpon-
ing the offensive until March 29. For the next twelve days II Corps made little
progress against heavy German resistance. A number of fruitless and costly
attacks, which gained negligible results, made the period between March 28 and
April 2 particularly frustrating for Patton. On the morning of April 1, a German
air attack killed one of his personal aides, Capt. Richard N. Jenson, and landed a
bomb within a few feet of Maj. Gen. Omar N. Bradley, deputy corps comman-
der.76 Jenson's death upset Patton greatly;^^ he manifested his grief, in part,
against Allied air support, which he felt had abandoned him.

This attitude represented a volte-face for Patton. Just before the attacks,
Spaatz, on a trip to the front, had elicited from him on March 24 and from Maj.
Gen. Terry Allen, Commander of the 1st Infantry Division (the "Big Red One")
on March 25 expressions of approval concerning their air support;78 on March
23 and 24, XII ASC had successfully bombed and strafed enemy tanks, motor
transport, and troops in the El Guettar (1st Division) sector.?^ Neither general
may have been fully aware that XII ASC's priority mission was conducting
counterair operations, not ground support.^O

By April 2, however, Patton, as on other occasions during the war, could no
longer contain his anger. He proceeded to issue a situation report ("sitrep") highly
critical of the air effort. "Forward troops," the sitrep stated, "have been continu-
ously bombed all morning. Total lack of air cover for our units has allowed
German Air Force to operate almost at will."8i Patton gave the report wide circu-
lation. Predictably, Coningham reacted by giving even wider circulation to a cho-
leric message of his own. After first noting that XII ASC had provided 260
sorties on the day in question and that, furthermore, enemy air action had resulted
in only four killed and a small number wounded, he stated: "On receipt of sitrep
it was first assumed to be seasonal first April joke." then he continued:

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

It is assumed that intention was not to stampede local American air command
into purely defensive action. It is also assumed that there was no intention to
adopt discredited practice of using air force as an ahbi for lack of success on
the ground. ... It can only be assumed that Two Corps personnel concerned are
not battleworthy in terms of present operation. . . . [Finally NATAF's comman-
der requested] that such inaccurate and exaggerated reports should cease. XII
ASC have been instructed to not allow their brilliant and conscientious support
of Two Corps to be affected by this false cry of wolf.*^

Coningham angrily complained at Tedder's headquarters that Patton's provo-
cations were "particularly intense," consisting of "a solid 48 hours of sitreps,
signals and telephone calls, three of them being to General Alexander." In the
meantime, "there were no communications to General Williams commanding
American air, nor to my headquarters, but all the other addresses of my signal
were included. They were all based on false information because General Patton
is living 40 miles away from his airmen and does not know the air position."83

Because the Patton-Coningham fracas was potentially damaging to both air-
ground and inter-Allied relations, Spaatz, Tedder, and Eisenhower reacted
sharply. Tedder, in his memoirs, claimed that he corrected the situation himself.
After receiving a copy of Coningham' s message, Tedder phoned Eisenhower
and explained that as Air Officer Commanding, Mediterranean Air Command,
he had instructed Coningham to cancel his message and to accompany him to
Gafsa to apologize to Patton in person. This meeting. Tedder claims, resolved
the situation and converted Patton to a friend. Tedder added that his prompt han-
dling of the problem prevented Eisenhower's resignation.84

Spaatz 's command diary entries, recorded at the time of the event, contradict
Tedder's account. Spaatz and, presumably. Tedder had received copies of
Patton's original message as they were leaving a joint MAC-NAAF staff meet-
ing that put the final touches on the "Dunkirk" plans. The "inaccuracy" and
"unjustness" of the sitrep and its wide distribution had provoked "great con-
cern. "85 The next morning Spaatz and Tedder, in the midst of preparing to fly to
the front, received Coningham's intemperate reply. They flew to Thelepte, met
Kuter and Williams, and investigated the lack of air support reported by Patton.
The WDAF, they found, had scheduled 160 fighter sorties for April 1, but
weather had interfered. The XII ASC had not attacked a tank concentration
because the ground forces had canceled their planned attack when artillery
moved into range of the tanks. Finally, they discovered a lack of radar coverage
to the east of Gafsa, which prevented effective employment of the fighters sta-
tioned there.86

The four then motored from Thelepte to visit Patton at his headquarters in
Gafsa. They must have been dumbfounded when he informed them of his satis-
faction with current air support. Nonetheless, they expressed their misgivings
over his having moved too far forward of Williams to communicate with him.87
The separation of Patton and Williams violated the spirit of the new doctrine.

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Collapse of the Axis Bridgehead

Lt. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz,
Lt. Gen. George S.
Patton, and Spaatz's
Chief of Intelligence, Col.
George C. McDonald,
Constantine, Algeria,
March 1943.

which required the co-location of air and ground headquarters for the proper
supervision of forces.

By a quirk of fate, two to four German aircraft suddenly interrupted conver-
sation, strafing and bombing Patton 's headquarters area and prompting one of
his guests to remark, "I always knew you were a good stage manager, but this
takes the cake." Patton replied, "If I could find those sonsabitches who flew
those planes I'd mail them each a medal. "88 In a far less celebrated incident, the
airmen had a measure of revenge on the Luftwaffe the same day, when XII ASC
fighters intercepted a Stuka (dive-bomber) formation and shot down thirteen of
sixteen planes. 89

That aftemoon Tedder and Spaatz flew on to visit the WDAF at Medinine,
behind the 8th Army's front. Spaatz saw, firsthand, that the 8th Army had much
more effective air support than the other Allied land forces in Tunisia. With
Williams and Patton's chief of staff in tow, Spaatz provided some on-the-job
training by inspecting joint WDAF/8th Army Headquarters. He noted that
Montgomery, unlike Patton, left his main headquarters adjacent to air headquar-
ters, even if he personally moved an advanced command post closer to the fight-
ing.90 The German masters of the blitzkrieg. Generals Irwin Rommel and Heinz
Guderian, employed similar methods in directing their own armored attacks.

During their visit to the front, Spaatz and Tedder talked at great length about
Coningham's reply to Patton. When they returned to Williams's headquarters on

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

April 4, Tedder wrote a reprimand to Coningham, which he sent to Spaatz, who
forwarded it to NAAF Headquarters for transmission to its recipient. Tedder
then called Eisenhower with an explanation and directed Coningham to f?ee
Patton post haste.9i Coningham met Patton at noon the same day, and the two
immediately engaged in a shouting match, both protesting their faith in their
own men. Once it stopped, the atmosphere cleared and the two officers got down
to business. Coningham, as ordered, apologized. Patton graciously accepted as if
he himself had done no wrong, and they both agreed to cancel and withdraw their
respective messages. Patton recorded in his diary, "We parted friends, and I
think we will now get better an support than ever before." As Patton well knew,
the squeaky wheel gets the grease.92 /

In a contrite letter to Tedder's deputy, Air Vice-Marshal H.E.P. Wiggles-
worth, Coningham said of Patton, "I like him very much, he is a gentleman and
a gallant warrior. But on the slightest provocation he breathes fire and battle,
and as I also like fighting I could not resist the challenge when he turned the bar-
rage on to me."93 Coningham sent out a new message, in which he expressed
regret that his original signal might have been interpreted as a slight to U.S.
forces and laid the cause to an egregious error in transmission: "Two Corps" had
been wrongly substituted for "Few corps." The new signal concluded with the
withdrawal of his offending message and an indication that he considered the
matter closed.94

Eisenhower, however, had the last word. As Spaatz's chief of staff. Col.
Edward (Ted) Curtis, recalled, the Coningham-Patton dispute angered Eisenhower
considerably.95 His steam was still up on April 5 when he wrote Marshall, "The
past week has been a very trying one and was notable for one incident that dis-
turbed me very much. This involved a very unwise and unjust criticism of II
Corps by a senior member of the British Air Force." Eisenhower concluded,
"There was really no excuse for the thing happening. "^^ Later that morning,
Spaatz and Eisenhower met in conference, where the incident became the chief
topic of conversation. Spaatz defended Coningham, arguing that Patton had ini-
tiated the affair with a sitrep so accusative that notice had to be taken of it;
Patton should restrict his "grousing" t^ proper channels. Moreover, Patton's
movement of his headquarters to a spot inaccessible to Williams's headquarters
could only have decreased the possibility of effective support. Spaatz pointed
out that, in any case, Patton had obtained 160 sorties from the WDAF. Eisen-
hower responded by suggesting a large-scale air operation in support of II Corps,
a suggestion Spaatz forwarded to Coningham.97 The squeaky wheel had gotten
the grease.

This meeting apparently changed Eisenhower's view of the affair. That
aflemoon he wrote to Patton suggesting that the matter be dropped in the interest
of "the great purpose of complete Allied teamwork" [emphasis in the original].
He chided Patton for demanding an additional "pound of flesh" and observed,
"In connection with this matter I am since informed that there was a certain

206

Collapse of the Axis Bridgehead

amount of unwise distribution of your sitrep." He warned Patton that in future
any criticism of another service or collaborating agency should be made by
means of a "confidential" report through the proper chain of command or, better
yet, with "a friendly and personal conference with the man responsible." He
concluded:

You and Spaatz, with your respective subordinates, are at the moment ceirrying
the burden of battle command for the American side of the house. In both of
you I have the most tremendous confidence and I therefore feel that you have
every right to have my opinions on these matters as accurately as I am able to
express them."

Patton noted, "Ike told me later that he could not punish Coningham because he
was a New Zealander and political reasons forbade."99 This ended the incident,
but the problem of perfecting air-ground cooperation remained.

On several occasions in April and May, Spaatz went to the front to try to
correct close air support arrangements. He was incensed by what he found on his
visit to the U.S. 34th Infantry Division on April 8. This untried division, recently
detached from II Corps and assigned to the British 9 Corps, had failed to reach
its objective, partly because of confusion over a planned air attack. The 9 Corps
canceled the air attack around midnight April 7-8 and so notified 34th Division.
At 8:00 A.M. Maj. Gen. Ryder, 34th Division Commander, realizing that his
infantry had not advanced so far or so quickly as planned, tried to reinstate the
air attack for 8:30 A.M., but no planes appeared and at 9:30 a.m. the division
called off the air attack once more. 100 jn following up the lack of support for the
34th, Spaatz discovered that air-ground communications had failed. The 34th
had not realized that it could call for air support directly to XII ASC through its
own air support party. The XII ASC, assigned to support II Corps, had just
moved seventy-five miles to the northeast (from Thelepte to LeSers), too far
from both American II and British 9 Corps Headquarters. Nor had XU ASC
been aware of its continuing responsibility for the 34th Division. To make mat-
ters worse for the pride of the 34th Division, the British assault went well and at
its end the British 9 Corps commander recommended the withdrawal of the 34th
from combat and the retraining of its jtmior officers at the rear under British
guidance. 101

Spaatz attributed the air-ground problem to the ground forces' own confu-
sion about lines of authority: XII ASC could not effectively cooperate with two
widely separated masters. Upon his retum to Constantine, Spaatz suggested the
formation of a new army headquarters to supervise both corps. This headquar-
ters, sited alongside Williams's headquarters, would allow XII ASC to do its job
effectively. "Any organization which had air forces available but could not get
their machinery in motion to apply them was faulty," Spaatz wrote in his diary.
Williams had had the forces to aid the 34th, but because of poor control could
not apply them.i02 Eisenhower rejected Spaatz's suggestion. Because a new

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

army headquarters would have had to be American, and he may not have felt
that the time was right to discuss its formation.

Meanwhile, Montgomery continued his pursuit of the retreating Italian-
German army group. His march along the Mediterranean coast, from the Mareth
Line to Enfidaville, moved the southern boundary of the bridgehead one hundred
miles north. This left the U.S. II Corps with no front to occupy. Anticipating this
"pinching out," Allied commanders had already ordered II Corps to prepare to
transfer to the far northern edge of the bridgehead, where it could advance on
Bizerte. This move, begun on April 12, placed II Corps under Anderson's 1st
Army. The shrunken size of the Axis-occupied area left room for only two air
control sectors, and because XII ASC supported II Corps, now under the opera-
tional control of the 1st Army, XII ASC joined No. 242 Group, the 1st Army's air

support formation, as a subordinate unit. WDAF had the other air control sec-
tor.103

As II Corps completed its move across the 1st Army's entire line of commu-
nication and the 8th Army's drive stalled at Enfidaville, a lull in the fighting
ensued. Spaatz, mindful of previous deficiencies in cooperation between II Corps
and XII ASC, used this breather to try to strengthen the bond between the two
organizations. He observed the air liaison officer at II Corps, foimd him unim-
pressive, and replaced him. 104

This personnel move did not halt the flow of complaints from General
Bradley, who had replaced Patton as the Commander of II Corps, or from
Anderson. The 1st Army initiated its new offensive on April 22, the same day the
Luftwaffe began a general withdrawal from its African bases. From that point on,
the Luftwaffe ceased to play a significant role in North Africa, and the Tactical
Air Force discontinued airfield attacks as a matter of policy, turning instead to
ground support. 105 Because this offensive was the major effort of the theater, 1st
Army had a great say in the allocation of air on its front and had the responsibil-
ity of joint planning with air for its attacks. Anderson proved he had learned noth-
ing new about air operations. For the final breakthrough Coningham placed the
entire NATAF and all the medium bombers the Strategic Air Force could spare
under the operational control of No. 242 Group, the air headquarters co-located at
1st Army headquarters.i06

In preparing the final plan for the defeat of the Axis forces in Tunisia, the 1 st
Army never consulted No. 242 Group — not even about zero hour. It chose dawn
but Allied tactical aircraft could not take off from their primitive airfields before
first light and, thus, could not bomb their first objective targets in time to assist
the ground assault. The bombing of second and third objectives played a great
part in the army's breakthrough. This, however, was a case of good fortune
because the target, the Medjez Valley, normally had a seasonal morning mist
from 9:00 to 10:00. For each of the four days before the attack the mist had
come and had obscured the second and third objectives. 107

208

Collapse of the Axis Bridgehead

According to No. 242 Group, Allied air made every effort to satisfy the
ground forces and even employed several nonstandard procedures. Provided the
Army limited its requests to one or two attacks a day. No. 242 Group would
attack any target, regardless of suitability. The group also placed at 1st Army's
disposal a considerable force for its use as artillery, with little result; No. 242
Group claimed that 1st Army dissipated the force made available in seventy dif-
ferent attacks against forty-four separate targets.ios

On April 29, Eisenhower visited Spaatz at his villa in Constantine to discuss
Bradley's and Anderson's dissatisfaction with their air support. Spaatz con-
cluded that the generals' complaints resulted from their inability to get exactly
what they wanted when they wanted it. He told Eisenhower that he would go
forward to straighten out the matter the next day, April 30.109 During his visits
to both headquarters, Spaatz found the conditions he expected: lack of commu-
nication, not aircraft, proved to be the problem.

Anderson needed reassurance. The appearance of newly identified Gernian
units on his front had convinced him that the air force had not done enough to
stop enemy movement. He did not realize that these German groups were actu-
ally remnants of units already broken by Montgomery in the south. Spaatz
pointed out that the chief priority of the NASAF and, more recently, of the
WDAF was the interruption of enemy reinforcements and supply. No doubt the
latest Ultra intercepts, which reflected the steep decline in unloadings,
strengthened Spaatz 's defense of the effectiveness of the air effort,

At II Corps, the NAAF's commander found dissatisfaction with photo
reconnaissance and the level of air support received. He traced both problems to
1st Army Headquarters, rather than to a lack of desire by XII ASC to provide
assistance to II Corps. Bradley's command did not get all the air missions it
requested because 1st Army, which set air priorities for all the forces it con-
trolled, did not approve all of II Corps requests. Spaatz had no authority to
change that arrangement, although he did attach XII ASC's tactical recoimais-
sance squadron directly to 11 Corps and tied II Corps G-2 (Intelligence Staff)
into reconnaissance pilot briefings.m In attaching one of his air units directly to
the ground unit it supported, Spaatz, of course, violated the doctrine of concen-
tration of air assets. Once again, he demonstrated his refusal to allow doctrine to
overcome common sense. He thought it better to bend a rule than to adhere to
theory and leave the army blind.

Spaatz could do nothing, however, about 1st Army's allocation of air mis-
sions. The 1st Army denied II Corps' requests because all available air strength
was being employed in front of the 1st Army's British troops to help them blast
through stiff German opposition. A return visit by Spaatz on May 4 revealed
improvements in the situation and greater satisfaction with air support. 112 Spaatz
checked the time elapsed from a II Corps request for air and its clearance
through army headquarters and discovered no great delay. He did find, however,
that 1st Army Headquarters had refused requests when its judgment of particular

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

needs and conditions differed from tliat of 11 Corps. 1 13

Later, Spaatz reminded Eisenhower of his previous warnings that the
arrangements for the new battle would prove unsatisfactory. Because matters
would not improve until his forces had their own independent army or corps
conunanders with their staffs located alongside XII ASC's headquarters, he rec-
ommended no change. Bradley's corps would have to continue under the current
structure. Spaatz also informed Eisenhower that the heavy sortie rate of tactical
aircraft demonstrated that 1st Army had used its available air resources to the
maximum. 114 The collapse of the bridgehead and its final surrender on May 13,
1943, ended the Tunisian campaign. This speedy finish obviated the need for
further tinkering with the air-ground relationship.

At the conclusion of the North African campaign, Tedder and Spaatz
thought it necessary to formalize NAAF and MAC command arrangements. But
the British and American staffs separately drew up complicated organizational
charts, began bickering over respective rank and seniority, and insisted on insti-
tuting procedures unique to their own service. Tedder's "back hairs began to
bristle." At his morning meeting on May 12, disagreements came to a head.
Spaatz complained that Mediterranean Air Command would usurp NAAF head-
quarters' functions by going direct to NAAF's subordinate commands. This,
Spaatz said, indicated improper organization. Tedder shot back, "If you want a
divorce, you can have one here and now, repeat now!" Only a few moments
later, reason returned, and the parties agreed to shelve their draft documents and
to get on with fighting the war. 1 15

This exchange undoubtedly influenced Spaatz's final judgment on headquar-
ters' arrangements. On May 24, 1943, he wrote to Arnold that the organization
had been made to work and had proved adequate for the job at hand, "but it is
too dependent on personalities to be sound." Nonetheless, Spaatz believed that
the Americans had leamed much from the British, particularly the handling of
administration, operations, and intelhgence.il^

Spaatz and Changes in AAF Air Support Doctrine

The AAF emerged from the campaign in North Africa with a new and clearly
defined doctrine of air support, much of which stemmed from RAF develop-
ments. Spaatz absorbed this doctrine, expounded it to Arnold and the AAF hierar-
chy, and oversaw its development in his command. In addition to the constant
stream of information he sent back in his numerous letters and reports to Arnold,
Spaatz found time, while on an mspection trip to Marrakech on March 7, to write
a long and thoughtful letter in which he described the shortcomings of current
official AAF doctrine on air support and suggested seminal changes:

I cannot believe that the situation here is of such a special nature that it requires
a peculiar form of organization, but rather that it approximates the conditions

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Collapse of the Axis Bridgehead

under which our land forces will be confronted at least during the European
phase of the war. It has become evident that what we considered the Air
Support Command and the air support forces are not adequate for the purpose
either in composition or organization, and by their very term give an erroneous
impression to the ground army.

Spaatz argued that the air support command needed access to heavy- and
medium-bombardment units when the situation required them, that the ASC
could not operate effectively, and that the army could not advance until the air
force had achieved air superiority. Because air formations could move freely in
flight, ignoring terrain, the control of air should be centralized and not divided
into small packets among armies or corps. Spaatz listed five requirements for
support of the ground army:

1 . The establishment of a fighter offense and defense, including a complete
radar network;

2. The use of the fighter force to protect the army and to gain air superiority;

3. The creation of a tactical reconnaissance force to meet the needs of the
army;

4. The creation of a fighter-bomber force to attack targets in the battle area; and

5. The employment of a bomber aircraft capable of operation at altitudes up
to 10,000 feet.

Once those five elements were achieved, they could be combined to form a
tactical air force. In fact, Spaatz suggested eliminating the term air support com-
mand altogether. In a postscript, Spaatz also mentioned the invaluable role
played by the air support parties and commented on the importance of personali-
ties in the coordination of air and ground efforts: "It must be based on the princi-
ple that the airman knows his job and the ground man knows his job, with a
mutual respect for each others' capabilities and limitations. . . . The ground or
the air commander should be eliminated who cannot get along with his opposite
number."li'7

Arnold gave wide circulation to this and other letters from Spaatz describing
operations and lessons learned.! 18 Some of the new air doctrine even reached
the American public when Time magazine in its March 22, 1943, issue quoted
Tedder:

Air war is a separate war, though linked to those on land & sea. . . . [sic]
Command of the air determines what happens on land & sea. . . . [sic] The
essential lesson leamed in the Middle East is that an air force is a separate
offensive entity, striking at the enemy in cooperation with the army.'"

Spaatz's March 7 letter to Arnold echoed many of the principles found in
War Department Field Manual (FM) 100-20, Field Service Regulations, "Com-
mand and Employment of Air Power," issued July 21, 1943. FM 100-20 institu-
tionalized many of the lessons of the North African campaign drawn by Spaatz

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

and disseminated by him to the War Department. The proximate cause of FM
100-20, however, was a note from Assistant Secretary of War for Air Robert A.
Lovett to Marshall. Lovett sent Marshall a copy of a pamphlet published by
General Montgomery. Montgomery, because of his bally hooed victories over
Rommel in the desert, had a prestige that no other Allied ground commander
could match at this stage in the war, thus his statements on the art of command
took on a particularly authoritative air.

On February 16, 1943, he and Coningham addressed an assemblage of
Allied admirals and generals in Tripoli. Montgomery distributed a pamphlet
entitled "Some Notes on High Command in War," in which he spelled out sev-
eral tenets concerning the use of air power. Air power's greatest asset was flexi-
bility, which enabled it to be concentrated for use as a striking force of prime
importance. To gain concentration, air control must be centralized, and com-
mand should flow through air force officers. Montgomery specifically forbade
the dissipation of air resources into "small packets." He suggested that each
army commander have an air headquarters with him to command all aircraft
allotted to army support. These air forces would not, however, be under the
"direct command" of the army commander. 120

Coningham added some RAF clarification to Montgomery's remarks. He
put the WDAF/8th Army experience into its simplest form saying, "The soldier
commands the land forces, the airman commands the air forces; both comman-
ders work together and operate their respective forces in accordance with a com-
bined Army-Air plan, the "whole operation being directed by the Army
Commander" [emphasis added]. The difference between "direct command" and
"direction" had been solved for a time in the Western Desert. The difference
between the two remained to be resolved between the AAF and the Army
Ground Forces (AGF). Coningham also pointed out that the air force had two
tasks: first, to gain air superiority, and afterward, to apply 80 to 90 percent of its
hitting power to the enemy ground forces.l2l Within days Spaatz sent Arnold a
copy of the pamphlet. '22

On April 18, Lovett sent a copy of the pamphlet to Marshall, claiming that
on page 2 it confirmed the principles of the War Department reorganization of
June 1941, which established the Army Air Forces as a semiautonomous entity
within the Army. Lovett then observed, "General Montgomery's statement with
respect to the use of air power contains much material which, although accepted
by the Army in principle, has not been formally embodied in our written doc-
trine, as far as 1 know. "123 Marshall apparently referred the matter to the War
Department General Staff's Organization and Training Division, G-3, asking
were the doctrines acceptable to the Army, should they be embodied formally in
Army literature, what action had been taken so far by G-3, and what did G-3
recommend?

G-3 replied that the AAF and the AGF held opposing views on Montgomery's
doctrine, none of which had been incorporated into official U.S. Army proce-

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Collapse of the Axis Bridgehead

dures. It also pointed to previous attempts by an AAF-AGF air support board
appointed on December 2, 1942, to reconcile those views and to create an
entirely new air doctrine. The board failed to agree and postponed any reconsid-
eration of FM 31-35 pending further proof gained by combat. If anything, the
board revealed a hardening of positions. The AAF insisted on change in the
direction of RAF air support doctrines as tested in the Western Desert, whereas
the AGF wished to decentralize air control to levels below division and to
emphasize close-in, on-call missions which would expand the zone of friendly
artillery fire. In view of the AAF-AGF failure to compromise, G-3 recom-
mended the revision of FM 31-35 and other appropriate War Department publi-
cations. 124

The Operations Plans Division (OPD), the Army's Washington command
post, approved but, noting G-3's concentration on the air-ground view, addressed
the larger question of overall command and employment of air units at the com-
bat theater level. The OPD told Marshall that in its opinion the theater supreme
commander should exercise his command through the senior officer of each ser-
vice and, in all cases, the "direct" [emphasis in original] command of AAF forces
must be exercised by the AAF commander. Nor should the supreme commander
attach AAF units to units of the ground forces except when ground units were
operating independently or were isolated by distance or lack of communica-
tion. '25 OPD recommended a position far closer to the AAF's than the AGF's.

The Training Division began informal work on doctrinal revision in early
May. Despite the objections of AAF officers in the General Staff, '26 elements of
the AGF were polled, and they denounced any change. Not only was FM 31-35
basically sound, but British air support methods, "particularly those of the Eighth
Army" had been fully considered and their best features adopted in FM 31-35.
Likewise, the U.S. air mission request system came from a study of the tentacle
system. The AGF, reading between the revision's lines, raised the following
objections:

1. Ground and air forces would be more widely separated.

2. There would be little or no air support without air superiority.

3. Air support, when available, would be fumished on a basis dictated by
the air commander.

4. Air units would not be attached to ground units, and

5. Air support would not be decentralized.

The AGF rejected the placement of air superiority at the highest priority,
calling the deferment of air support until its attainment an unsound practice
which "would impose a serious and at times insurmountable handicap on the
ground force commander concemed."i27

The AGF's protest had no effect on the General Staff. On May 31, a career
air officer, Lt. Gen. Joseph T. McNamey, the Deputy to the Chief of Staff, act-
ing for Marshall, instructed the Training Division to change the necessary train-

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

ing publications. McNarney specified that the U.S. Army's new doctrine con-
cerning command and employment of air power would include the following
four points:

1 . Land and air forces were co-equal and independent,

2. Gaining of air superiority was the first requirement for the success of
any major land operation, therefore air would concentrate against the
enemy's air forces until the obtmnment of air superiority,

3. Flexibility was air's greatest asset allowing concentration of the whole
weight of air power on a specific target, and

4. Control of air power must be centralized and exercised through air
channels of command; the theater commander would exercise command of the
air force through the air force commander; and the theater commander would
not attach AAF units to the ground forces unless the ground forces were operat-
ing independently or were isolated.'^'

The first section of FM 100-20, when published, consisted entirely of these
four points and repeated almost exactly the wording in McNarney 's instructions
to the Training Division.l29 By the end of Jime, McNarney and Arnold had per-
sonally approved a draft of the new manual. 130 Eight officers (including five
generals) representing the infantry (2), the field artillery (1), the coast and anti-
aircraft artillery (1), and air (4) had also carefiilly reviewed and approved the
draft.131 Three of those general officers (Stratemeyer, Kuter, and Porter) either
had acquired combat experience in North Africa or had recently visited the the-
ater. All three had had extensive discussions with Spaatz on the changes needed
in air doctrine. 132

FM 100-20 reflected several of the thoughts Spaatz had expressed in his
March 7, 1943, letter to Arnold: "In order for the Army to advance, the air battle
must be won." FM 100-20 stated, "The gaining of air superiority is the first
requirement for the success of any major land operation. "133 Spaatz had
observed, "The control of the air units must be centralized and command must
be exercised through the Air Force commander. . . ." FM 100-20 specified,
"CONTROL OF AVAILABLE AIR POWER MUST BE EXERCISED
THROUGH THE AIR FORCE C0MMANDER."134 Spaatz had suggested a
tactical air force composed of fighters, fighter-bombers, medium bombers,
reconnaissance aircraft, and radar warning and control equipment; so did FM
100-20.135 FM 100-20 also accepted almost word for word Spaatz's admonition
concerning the necessity of establishing a fighter-radar network: "The first pre-
requisite for the attainment of air supremacy is the establishment of a fighter
defense and offense, including RDF [radio direction finder], GCI [ground con-
trol interception], and other types of radar equipment essential for the detection
of enemy aircraft and control of our own."l36

FM 100-20 reversed the strictures of earlier manuals. For example, FM 31-
35 (April 9, 1942), "Aviation in Support of Ground Forces," allowed the army
commander specifically to allocate aviation units to the support of subordinate

214

Collapse of the Axis Bridgehead

ground units whenever operations required it. 137 FM 100-20 severely circum-
scribed that prerogative: "The Superior Commander will not attach Army Air
Forces to units of the Ground Forces under his command except when such
Ground Force units are operating independently or are isolated by distance or
lack of communication."l38 The new manual also followed Spaatz's injunction
that, in times of vital and decisive action, the strategic air force may join the tac-
tical air force and be assigned tactical objectives. 139 in practice FM 100-20 did
not significantly change the methods of air-ground cooperation established by
the U.S. Army in Tunisia because, thanks to Spaatz, Tedder, Coningham, and
Eisenhower, they were already being used.

So well had Spaatz educated Arnold and the War Department that, when
Kuter arrived back in the States shortly after the end of the campaign, he wrote
to Spaatz, "My fiery conviction that air support to be effective must come from
an air force co-equal and cooperating with the top ground force meets with prac-
tically no excitement." According to Kuter, the War Department's Bureau of
Public Relations had released the subject to the press "without batting an eye."l40

A month later Arnold informed Spaatz, "With particular respect to the
Tactical Air Force, the ideas you have worked up and forwarded to me are being
implemented by Kuter and happen, at present, to be going full ball [sic] through-
out the Air Forces and the War Department." He also noted that the War
Department would issue PM 100-20 in the Field Service Regulation format
which would be theoretically binding on the theater commander, rather than in
the field-manual format, which had served as a guideline only. 141

The perfection of their own version of air-ground support doctrine was not
the only item on Arnold's and the Air Staff's agenda. They also wished to
enhance the position of the AAF in the postwar fight for air force independence.
After the war Kuter, for instance, admitted that "my own writing during the
period was slanted toward the formation of a separate air force."142 He added
that because his primary focus was on independence, he had slighted the tactical
air power position. The AAF authors of the manual could not resist the opportu-
nity to integrate this agenda with the lessons of North Africa. Thus FM 100-20
became a vehicle proclaiming the independence of air power. Its entire first sec-
tion, cast completely in capital letters, was a unilateral declaration of indepen-
dence. It began by stating, "LAND POWER AND AIR POWER ARE
CO-EQUAL AND INTERDEPENDENT FORCES; NEITHER IS AN AUXIL-
IARY OF THE OTHER."143

The manual's assignment of missions to the Tactical Air Force named close
air support as the third and last priority after attainment of air superiority and the
prevention of the movement of troops and supplies into or within the theater of
operations. In its discussion of this third priority the manual noted, "In the zone
of contact [between the opposing land forces], missions against hostile units are
most difficult to control, are most expensive, and are, in general, least effective,"
and "only at critical times are contact zone missions profitable." Finally, the

215

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

manual prescribed adjacent or common headquarters for the air and ground
forces only when third and last priority targets were attacked. 144

The Army Ground Forces, as noted, did not concur in the publication of FM
100-20. '45 They feared that centralization of all air power under an air comman-
der might fatally damage the AGF's concept of a combined-arms force in which
all Army strength, including air and ground, could be massed at a decisive
point. 146 xhe AGF found it significant and almost insulting that FM 100-20
would supersede the recently published revision of the AAF's principal manual,
Army Air Forces Field Manual (FM) 1-5, "Employment of Aviation of the
Army," dated January 18, 1943. This manual, which was not widely circulated,
was certainly known to the AGF and AAF Headquarters and just as certainly
unknown to most, if not all, of the U.S. forces in North Africa. Based in large
part on information gathered by prewar observers in England, this manual autho-
rized two practices banned by FM 100-20. It stated that when early warning
facilities and communications were lacking, air defense aviation must conduct
patrols. The manual added,

In some situations, and particularly along the line of contact between opposing
ground forces, such patrols may also be employed to afford some measure of
general protection for friendly aircraft in flight. The primary purpose of such
patrols is, however, the protection of surface objectives rather than protection
of friendly aircraft in flight.''"

The manual further noted that such patrols demanded an excessive number of
planes and that issuance of antiaircraft artillery to such units was a better alterna-
tive. Nonetheless, the manual authorized the penny-packet employment favored
by the ground forces, albeit as a last resort. FM 1-5 allowed for the practice of
"control or target designation by certain units directly from an air support con-
trol, or air support officer to aircraft in flight" [emphasis added]. 148

FM 1-5 of January 1943 was the wartime culmination of the entire series of
prewar manuals. It took an evolutionary rather than a revolutionary approach.
More than the earlier manuals, it addressed the conduct of strategic air opera-
tions in a manner close to that advocated by air power enthusiasts. It spoke of a
strategic air offensive, emphasized the necessity of staying with a single strate-
gic target system and avoiding diversions, and discouraged using heavy and
medium bombardment in direct ground support. 149 FM 1-5's treatment of
ground support, as mentioned, reflected the views of the AGF. Yet, it empha-
sized the interdiction mission of tactical air power rather than that of close air
support: "The hostile rear area is the most profitable zone of action for air sup-
port aviation. . . . Support aviation is not generally employed against objectives
which can effectively be engaged by available ground weapons within the time
required."l50 The manual recognized that the aircraft was a theater-level weapon best
employed under centralized control; it allowed the direct attachment of air to
ground units only under abnormal circumstances. But at the crucial point of the

216

Collapse of the Axis Bridgehead

land battle, and only then, "would the requirements of the supported force be
paramount"l5l These provisions attempted to satisfy the ground commander's
need to employ every available asset when necessary, against the airman's
desire to conduct independent counterair and interdiction missions. The AGF
was loath to abandon FM 1-5 for FM 100-20.

Observations from North Africa must have confirmed this reluctance. The
report of AGF personnel in North Africa revealed anything but the satisfaction
Kuter and Spaatz reported back to Washington. Maj. Gen. Walton H. Walker,
Commanding General, IV Armored Corps, arrived in Algiers on April 21 and
left about May 8, a period when the Allies had almost complete control of the
air. Just when Spaatz went forward to make last-minute inspections and adjust-
ments Walker reported, "Air-ground cooperation as envisaged in training and
maneuvers of ground force units in the United States appeared to be non-existent
in the North African Theater."i52 Both Patton and Bradley informed him that air
support had been unsatisfactory, but Bradley did note recent improvement.
Particularly criticized were the quantity and frequency of air photographic
reconnaissance and the AAF's reliance on planned as opposed to on-call air
strikes — two areas of perennial ground force dissatisfaction that still defy agree-
ment between air and ground. 153

When Spaatz observed that the ground commanders seemed dissatisfied
because they could not get all the air support they wanted when they wanted it,
he had hit the nail on the head. Both Coningham's and FM 31-35's cumbersome
communication links, which required ground requests for air to go from the
ground to an air headquarters and from there to an airfield, lent themselves to
concentration and centralization of air command and control by airmen. By the
same token, this communication system did not lend itself to speedy response to
immediate ground requests for air support. Throughout the campaign, ground
combat officers complained of the lack of on-call, or immediate-response, air
strikes. Brig, Gen. Paul M. Robinett, Commander of the 1st Armored Division's
Combat Command B, which suffered heavy casualties under British command,
wrote to Marshall: "The coordination of tank attacks with infantry and air
attacks has been perfect on the German side. On our own side it has yet to be
achieved." Robinett strongly implied that placing all air and ground forces
attacking an objective under the ground commander could solve the problem. 154
At the campaign's end. Col. William B. Kern, a battalion commander of the 1st
Armored Division, remarked, "I believe that we will have to come to some sim-
ple system of requesting air support. The present system of going back through
so many channels is wrong. We haven't time for it." Maj. Gen. Charles W.
Ryder, Commander of the 34th Infantry Division, added, "The system of calling
through two or three different headquarters for air support simply will not give
the support desired at the time desired. Adequate air support can only be
obtained by direct call from the division to the air. Any other system," observed
the general, "is too slow and will result in loss of opportunities."i55

217

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Given good two-way radio communication between pilots in the air and
ground observers (a practice that Coningham forbade and that technology, at
that point, could not then guarantee) and a great many airplanes available for
ground support missions (not available until later in the war), the close air sup-
port problem could be overcome in wartime. Ehiring the campaign in northwest-
ern Europe, for instance, overwhelming numbers of fighter-bombers and
innovations such as two-way radios installed in the leading tank elements of
attacking Allied armored units allowed Allied tactical ak forces to supply mas-
sive amounts of airborne firepower to the battlefield. FM 100-20 replaced
FM 1-5, not FM 31-35. It left in place the clumsy, slow methods of air-ground
connmunications found in FM 31-35, which stayed in effect until postwar revi-
sions. In practice, however, the troops in the field appear to have ignored FM
31-35 in favor of local air-ground arrangements.

The high-level centralization of "photo recon" tended to delay the timely
dissemination of its products for use in fluid combat situations. Spaatz attempted,
but only at the end of the North African campaign, to solve this problem by
attaching XII ASC's photo reconnaissance squadron directly to II Corps.* The
AGF's nonconcurrence gave the promulgation of FM 100-20 the aura of an
AAF putsch. As Kuter remarked to Coningham, "More people were defeated in
Tunisia than Germans and Italians."l56 why Marshall agreed to sign the manual
remains a mystery. Perhaps he felt that this concession to the AAF would mute
its increasingly public agitation for independence.

Although he fully understood the new doctrine, Spaatz did not regard it as
the last word in the Army versus the AAF. In summing up their relationship he
said, "The situation is normal. If it was not for the disturbance which would
ensue, I would probably announce the urgent necessity of a separate Ak Force."
Even the most understanding contacts and intentions at the high command level
could not offset the ground-air difference, "which permeates the entire struc-
ture." In Spaatz 's opinion, the minor day-to-day problems, not the strategic or
tactical application of forces, proved the stumbling block of interservice rela-
tions. "I will emphasize," he told Arnold, "that air operating under the command
control of a ground officer will most probably be improperly used."l57 in an
interview in 1965, Spaatz restated this point in answer to a question about the
major lessons of World War II: "I think the first lesson was the one about air
being indivisible and in order to develop effectively, it must be controlled by air
people that developed it, and not under the Army or any other form of organiza-
tion other than the Air Force."l58

At the beginning of the campaign in North Africa in November 1942, the
AAF and its commander encountered three problems that hampered their efforts

* In addition to its employment difficulties, air reconnaissance presented a "political" problem
to the AAF in North Afiica because the commander of the chief photo reconnaissance unit was one
of President Roosevelt's sons, Elliott Roosevelt.

218

Collapse of the Axis Bridgehead

to defeat the Axis: faulty organization, poor logistics, and the lack of an effec-
tive air-ground team. By the time of the fall of Tunis and Bizerte in May 1943
the Allies had built an organization, the NAAF, capable of employing air power
in a flexible and coherent manner against the enemy. The functional separation
of the Northwest African Air Force into a ground support force and a long-range
bomber force necessitated by British experience in air-ground cooperation on
the one hand, and the AAF's virtual theaterwide monopoly on long-range
bombers on the other hand, proved so sensible that the practice continues in the
USAF to this day. The relatively smooth functioning of its combined staff
served as a model for later Allied organizations.

Spaatz played no small role in the success of the NAAF. Perhaps his supreme
ability as a commander was his willingness to delegate authority and responsibil-
ity. He resolutely refused to interfere with the day-to-day operations of either
Doolittle or Coningham. He trusted them to do the jobs they had trained for,
while he served as a theater-level air spokesman. With Tedder, Spaatz kept
Eisenhower aware of the needs and limitations of air power. On several occa-
sions he served as Eisenhower's air troubleshooter. When the campaign was two
weeks old, Eisenhower ordered him to North Africa to bring order to the chaotic
air situation. When the campaign had only two weeks to go, Eisenhower sent
him forward to solve Anderson's and Bradley's air support problems.

The Americans, despite claims to the contrary, did not develop an air-ground
team. Spaatz himself had to spend days at the front during the campaign's finale,
tinkering with arrangements and dealing with Army complaints. Complaints con-
tinued into the Sicilian campaign. Brig. Gen. Paul L. Williams, XII ASC's
Commander and therefore the senior officer most closely connected to the ground
forces, apparently identified with his mission of close air support rather than with
air independence. In one of his reports he made the mistake of saying: "I am thor-
oughly convinced that the organization of an Air Support Command based on the
principles of FM 31-35, is sound, workable, and 1 strongly recommend that all
such commands be organized in this manner with certain modifications as indi-
cated herein." He added, "I and my principal staff officers lived and operated with
the Corps Commanders during most of the period. This is absolutely essential."i59

Not surprisingly at the end of the campaign Williams found himself trans-
ferted from the XII ASC to a troop carrier wing where he could cooperate to his
heart's content with Army airborne troops while not being allowed to overiden-
tify with close air support. After the war an Air Staff officer who had reviewed
FM 100-20 before publication and had gained experience in North Africa
described the publication of Williams's report as "premature" and ascribed it to
a misguided chauvinistic adherence to American concepts. The officer noted
that Spaatz neither supported nor endorsed the report. '60 But in fact, Spaatz sug-
gested to Arnold that the report be "given the highest consideration"l6l and
demonstrated that, as a combat officer, he did not take so hard a line on air-
ground doctrine as the AAF staff in Washington.

219

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Perhaps the most telHng statistic on the AAF's attitude toward close air sup-
port concerned the training status of the U.S. Army's ground divisions in the
United States on January 1, 1944, six months before the invasion of France.
Thirty-three still needed aviation for joint training and initial air-ground tests,
twenty-one had not witnessed a recognition demonstration of the various types
of aircraft, and forty-eight had had no opportunity to participate in the compara-
tive air-ground firepower demonstrations required by regulations. 1^2

Although close air support still did not quite meet the mark, it had improved
from the beginning of the campaign. The interdiction and counterair phases of
tactical air power proved spectacularly successfiil once the command and con-
trol arrangements of air improved enough to allow flexibility. This flexibility
allowed (1) the concentration of all forces at the crucial time and place, as with
Flax or the close air support effort for Anderson's April offensive; (2) the
encouragement of specialized functions, such as daily antishipping strikes by the
Strategic Air Force; and (3) the day-to-day supply of close air support by the
Tactical Air Force.

For the relatively modest butcher's bill of 1,433 casualties (277 killed in
action, 406 wounded, and 750 missing, interned, or captured), and 666 air-
craft of all types lost on combat missions, 1^4 the AAF acquired a revision of air-
ground support doctrine and gained recognition of the principle of equality
between air and ground on the battlefield. More important, the AAF had gained
valuable combat experience and demonstrated its ability both to overwhelm the
Luftwaffe and to interfere with the operations of German ground forces. Carl
Spaatz was instrumental in that watershed development of U.S. air power.

220

Part Three

Mediterranean Interlude

From Pantelleria to London
May-December 1943

Part Three
Mediterranean Interlude

During the second half of 1943, Spaatz and his command fought to maintain
a significant role in determining air strategy in the Mediterranean, to assert AAF
independence from the U.S. Army and RAF, and to participate in the Combined
Bomber Offensive aimed at the German heartland. During late May and early
June, the NAAF conducted operations against Pantelleria, a small Italian-occu-
pied island in the straits between Tunisia and Sicily. The surrender of this island
on June 11, 1943, demonstrated that, in certain instances, air power alone could
force the surrender of a fortified position. Pantelleria also provided a case study
in combined operations, air-ground cooperation, and AAF-RAF relations.

The AAF and Spaatz contributed to the success of the Anglo-American
invasion of Sicily on July 10, 1943, and of Italy at Salerno on September 9,

1943, by providing air-ground support and air cover for the invasion fleets.
During the Allied drive up the Italian peninsula to the Cassino Line, American
air power in the Mediterranean continued to provide air-ground support and
began to prepare to participate in the Combined Bomber Offensive against
Germany by forming a new U.S. air force with a strategic bombardment mis-
sion — the Fifteenth.

In early December 1943, Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt met in Tehran,
Iran, where they agreed on future strategy for the conduct of the war against the
Nazis. The planned cross-channel invasion of France was scheduled for spring

1944, and Eisenhower received the top command of the invasion, code-named
Operation Overlord. Tedder became Eisenhower's deputy.

The British and American Chiefs of Staff also approved both the appoint-
ment of an American strategic bomber commander to command and coordinate
the Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces and the transfer of Spaatz to fill the post.
The move coincided with Arnold's replacement of Eaker with Doolittle as
Eighth Air Force Commander. Arnold had become increasingly disenchanted
with the Eighth's combat performance and had assigned Eaker to replace Tedder
in the Mediterranean. By January 1, 1944, Spaatz had arrived in London to
assume his new command. From there he would direct U.S. participation in the
Combined Bomber Offensive and assume de facto direction of U.S. air-ground
support of Overlord and the subsequent campaigns through to the final defeat
of Germany.

223

Chapter 7

Pantelleria and Sicily
(May-August 1943)

If the fates decree what I would love most is to have the old
gang reassemble at Rehoboth. Whatever is happetiing now
is a nightmare, with some few pleasant interludes.'

— Spaatz to a friend, June 18, 1943

General Spaatz came to see me. As usual he was dirty and
unshaved.^

— Lt. Gen. GeorgeS. Patton's diary, August 5, 1943

Pantelleria

After the Axis surrender in Tunisia on May 13, 1943, and before the Allied

invasion of Sicily, on July 10, 1943, the Northwest African Air Force (NAAF)
concentrated its force first against Pantelleria (code-named Operation
Corkscrew) and then against the German and Italian air forces in Sicily,
Sardinia, and the lower half of the Italian Peninsula. (See Map 7, Pantelleria.)
Pantelleria occupied a key position between Tunisia and Sicily, fifty-three miles
from the former and sixty-three miles from the latter. German radar on the
island, which had a range of eighty miles, could detect any large movement of
shipping or aircraft from Tunisia to southern Sicily. Pantelleria also had an air-
field capable of holding eighty fighter aircraft, as well as the capacity to serve as
a base for Axis reconnaissance aircraft and as a fuel and munitions depot for
submarines and motor torpedo boats. Allied capture of the island would not only
deny it to the enemy, but would gain a forward base for one group of short-range
P-40 or Spitfire fighters to cover the Sicilian invasion fleets and landing
beaches. Fighters based at North African fields had insufficient range to reach
Sicily, and the Malta fields could hold no more aircraft. In addition, crippled

225

MEDITERRANEAN r''^-^

SEA ?

^ 1 v#ape Don

SICILY /

Pantelleris

M^Tunls

V Linosa

^Gozo

S » Lamplone
TUNISIA

S Lampedusa

'^Malta

MEDITERRANEAN
SEA

Map 7
Pantelleria

■ • ■ ■ Motor Roads
X Pos8Jbl« Landing Areas

0 50 100
^^^^

Miles

Pantelleria and Sicily

Allied aircraft would be able to use Pantelleria's airfield if they could not return
to their own base. The neutralization of the island became even more important
when the final plans for the Sicilian invasion required an assault on the southern
beaches near Licata and Gela. The U.S. invasion forces headed for those beaches
would have to sail within easy range of Pantelleria.3

Pantelleria, a military zone forbidden to imauthorized persons by the Italian
government since 1926, presented a potentially tough nut. Its one small beach
suitable for amphibious assault had tricky offshore currents and high surf. The
island's surface of volcanic lava and ash could not support vehicular traffic and
was cut by numerous ravines. The Italians had reinforced these natural defenses
with more than a hundred concrete gun emplacements supplemented by fortified
positions and pillboxes imbedded in the cliffs. Sturdy peasant farmhouses and
hundreds of high, thick stone walls, which delineated each farmer's fields, pre-
sented further miUtary difficulties. But Pantelleria had a weak spot — its defend-
ing garrison. Before the invasion, Allied intelligence judged the morale of the gar-
rison doubtful — a surmise strengthened by the poor performance of Pantelleria's
antiaircraft batteries during the end of the Tunisian campaign.^ The island's
approximately 12,000 defenders were mostly overage and inexperienced; many
had homes and families on the island.5 In addition, the island was effectively
deprived of help from the mainland because Allied air superiority over the entire
area prevented resupply and reinforcement.

After the fall of Tunisia Operation Corkscrew became the Allies' chief pri-
ority. Allied planners in charge of the invasion of Sicily had begun to consider
an assault on Pantelleria as early as February 1943.^ On May 9, Eisenhower
started preliminary preparations. He ordered Tedder to make the full strength of
Spaatz's NAAF available for action to remove Pantelleria as a bottleneck to
Allied ambitions in the Mediterranean. He further directed Admiral Andrew
Cunningham of the Royal Navy to provide naval striking force and protection
for the movement of a division to the island.^ Finally, he set up a combined
command consisting of Spaatz, Maj. Gen. Walter E. Clutterbuck, Commander of
the British 1st Division, which would land on the island, and Rear Adm. R. R.
McGrigor of the Royal Navy, commander of the naval forces in the assault, to
oversee the operation. Eisenhower authorized his commanders to postpone the
landing, but he reserved the right to abandon the project if losses or opposition
grew too heavy.8 By virtue of his recent promotion, Spaatz outranked the British
officers heading up the other sections of the combined operation. This fact, at
least, made the air component primus inter pares.

Two days later Eisenhower informed the U.S.-British Combined Chiefs of
Staff (CCS) that he desired to take Pantelleria in order to use its airfield to sup-
port the western portion of the invasion. In the same message he noted that he
thought the Allies could "crack this place" because its . garrison consisted entirely
of Italians.9

Operations against Pantelleria presented an excellent opportunity to display

227

Maj. Gen. W. E. Clutterbuck (.right), General OfHcer Commanding, 1st British
Infantry Division, 1943.

Rear Adm. R. R. McGrigor, Royal Navy, 1943.

Pantelleria and Sicily

the prowess of air power. The island required a heavy and sustained bombard-
ment to reduce its defenses. Air had to supply this firepower because army
artillery could not reach the island and Allied naval commanders would not risk
their heavy units in the submarine- and mine-infested narrows, which remained
subject to attack by the still-respected Axis air forces. In contrast, the island lay
well within striking distance of Northwest African Strategic Air Force (NASAF)
fields in Cape Bon. On May 13, Eisenhower told Marshall,

I want to make the capture of Pantelleria a sort of laboratory to determine the
effect of concentrated heavy bombing on a defended coastline. When the time
comes we are going to concentrate everything we have to see whether damage
to material, personnel and morale cannot be made so serious as to make a land-
ing a rather simple affair.'"

Spaatz meant to pass his superior's test of air power. He committed to the
assault the entire Strategic Air Force and part of the Tactical Air Force, an
armada of four heavy-bomber groups, seven medium-bomber groups, two light-
bomber groups, and eight fighter groups, a total of slightly more than 1,000
operational aircraft, n Against this concentration the Axis had 900 operational
combat planes within range of the island, most of them committed to tasks other
than defending Pantelleria.l^

Spaatz met with his British Navy and Army colleagues on May 16 and pre-
sented the air plan of operations. It called for three days and nights of increas-
ingly violent attacks, at the end of which the Navy would approach the island to
test the remaining strength of enemy defenses. On the fourth day, the Allies
would summon the garrison to surrender. Refusal by the garrison would be fol-
lowed by a "high order" of air attack on the afternoon and night of the fourth
day and the landing of troops on the morning of the fifth day. Apparently the
Army and Navy accepted the plan, although General Clutterbuck expressed
great concern about the amount of residual resistance his troops might have to
overcome. 13 Spaatz discounted Clutterbuck 's complaints and, in the privacy of
his personal headquarters mess, began to refer facetiously to Clutterbuck as
"Clusterbottom."i4

The next day. May 17, Spaatz expressed to Eisenhower his belief that the air
component ought to control the operation, while the Army and Navy should
conform to the air commander's decisions. He also emphasized that the current
bombing of Pantelleria constituted only part of a larger Allied air effort to sup-
press the German and Italian air forces in anticipation of the battle for Sicily. 15

The preparatory bombing of Pantelleria began on May 19. Fifty medium-
bomber and fifty fighter-bomber sorties a day struck Pantelleria's airfield and
port in an effort to prevent any resupply of the island. These attacks, supple-
mented by a naval blockade, increased in tempo on May 23 and by the end of
the month had almost completely cut the island's supply lines. Additional raids
against Axis airfields in Sicily, Sardinia, and the toe of Italy helped to prevent

229

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Axis air interference with the Pantelleria operation and the all-important inva-
sion of Sicily. 16

Just before the initial bombing of the island got under way, Spaatz started an
inspection trip of the NAAF's rear echelons. He flew from Eisenhower's head-
quarters in Algeria to Casablanca on the evening of May 17. There he met Brig.
Gens. John K. Cannon and Delmar Dunton, who commanded the Northwest
African Training Command (NATC) and the Northwest African Service
Command (NASC) respectively. The next day, Spaatz inspected the air depot at
Casablanca and found it well stocked and efficient, a far cry from its state during
his initial inspection in November 1942. Later that day, the three generals flew
to Marrakech where they decided to release the facilities there from the purview
of the NAAF and place them under the Air Transport Command. On the follow-
ing day, the party flew from Marrakech east to Oujda, where they inspected the
99th Fighter Squadron (Separate).!^

The 99th was the first all-black AAF combat unit to reach an overseas com-
bat theater. Its thirty-year-old commanding officer, Lt. Col. Benjamin O. Davis,
Jr., a West Point graduate and son of Brig. Gen. Benjamin Davis, the first black
general in U.S. history, caught Spaatz's eye. Spaatz's diary recorded that
"Lieutenant Colonel Davis impressed me most favorably, both in appearance
and intelligence." Spaatz also noted that the squadron would be attached to the
33d Fighter Group for use in ground support and would receive the same treat-
ment as any similar white squadron.18

On May 20, Spaatz returned to Oujda and reviewed troops of the 82d
(Airborne) Division. He hosted a lunch followed by a meeting with Lt. Gen.
Mark W. Clark, Commander of the U.S. Fifth Army, Clark's chief of staff, Maj.
Gen. Alfred M. Gruenther, and Maj. Gen. Matthew B. Ridgway, Commander of
the 82d Division. They agreed on the advisability of employing a battahon of the
82d in the upcoming Sicilian invasion. When talk began to drift to further opera-
tions, Spaatz expressed some wildly unorthodox viewpoints on future courses of
action. To avoid slogging through Sicily, Sardinia, and Italy the Allies could, he
suggested, buy Spain off very cheaply and secure the necessary control of the air
to cross the Pyrenees. Once they crossed the Pyrenees and reached the Bay of
Biscay, they could eliminate the submarine threat, "the only chance Germany
had of still winning the War." An invasion "through Spain was the best way of
putting an Army on the continent of Europe."l9 Spaatz did not stop there. He
suggested that the Americans exclude the B'ritish from the Iberian operation and
thus more easily persuade the Spanish to cooperate.

Clark not only agreed with Spaatz but added that on an earlier occasion he
had discussed a similar idea with Marshall, who had proved sympathetic.
Marshall had told Clark that Churchill opposed the idea. The generals concluded
their session after deciding that, because the Americans were supplying the
majority of combat forces, their plan for invading Spain ought to have priority
over operations in the Mediterranean, which supported purely British national

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Pantelleria and Sicily

interests. Clark said he would present the results of this brainstorming to
Eisenhower that very aftemoon.20

If he did, they went no further. Whatever his limitations, if any, as a field
commander, Eisenhower had far too much political and diplomatic talent and
knowledge to seriously consider any such plan. It revealed an abysmal ignorance
of Spanish politics and demonstrated a cavalier disregard of the numerous logis-
tical and geographical difficulties involved. Nonetheless, it reflected the impa-
tience of some Americans in the higher mihtary echelons toward the strategic
direction of the war forced on them by the necessities of coalition warfare.

On May 22, Spaatz flew to meet Eisenhower, Cunningham, Alexander, and
Tedder. Among other matters they discussed preparations for the Pantelleria
operation. Admiral Cunningham, with certain reservations, backed Eisenhower
in approving them.2i Alexander, the top ground commander in the theater, had
his doubts.22 The consequences of failure, such as raised Italian morale, worried
him greatly. Spaatz replied that if the Allies could not accomplish the reduction
of the island, "we might as well pack up and go home. "23

Later the same day Spaatz met with Clutterbuck and McGrigor to discuss
operational specifics. At the end of the meeting, the three agreed to draw up a
final plan and present it to Eisenhower. Spaatz went over its outlines with
Eisenhower the next day and received his approval to go ahead with it.24 It fol-
lowed the original recommendation that an increasing level of air bombardment
culminate with a final intensive bombing attack on the five days prior to landing,
scheduled for June 1 1 . Apparently, Clutterbuck still had objections because
Eisenhower noted in a letter to Marshall on May 25 that some of those responsi-
ble for carrying out the invasion "are shaking their heads. "25 in fact, Clutterbuck
visited Eisenhower to tell him of his doubts about the attack and said that he
"feared that he would have a great number of his men slaughtered."26

On May 24, at his forward headquarters in La Kroub, Spaatz again met with
McGrigor and Clutterbuck to conclude their plans for convoys and lines of com-
munication. They also scheduled rehearsals for three days (D-3) and one day (D-
1) before the actual invasion. Two days later, Spaatz flew to Malta and met its
air commander. Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park, who agreed to allow NAAF
planes to use Malta as a refueling point and to cooperate fully in moimting the
operation.

On his return from Malta, Spaatz found that Professor Solly Zuckerman, a

medical doctor and research anatomist who had temporarily vacated an appoint-
ment at Oxford to conduct studies on the effects of bomb damage, had arrived at
NAAF Headquarters in Constantine. The British Chief of Combined Operations,
Lord Louis Mountbatten, had brought Zuckerman into his organization. There
the professor became Mends with the Deputy Chief of Combined Operations for
the air element. Air Vice-Marshal James Robb, who later became Deputy
Commander of the NAAF under Spaatz. Robb had introduced Zuckerman to
Spaatz in March 1943, and the two apparently hit it off. Zuckerman wrote about

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

his first dinner with Spaatz's staff that "they were men who were learning, as I
was learning, and unlike some professional military people whom I had met,
there was no assumption of superior knowledge, and no assurance that they
knew how Germany was going to be defeated. "27

Two months later, Zuckerman, then in London, received a request by tele-
gram from Robb to go to North Africa. Upon his arrival on May 22, Zuckerman
met Tedder, another old friend, who sent him to Spaatz's headquarters with
instructions to comment on the feasibility of the forthcoming Pantelleria opera-
tion. After a two-day study in which he applied the statistical and quantitative
methods he had employed in his scientific and anatomical studies, Zuckerman
replied that the forces available could silence Pantelleria's shore defenses.28
From then until he issued his final report on the island's damage in July 1943,
Zuckerman became a part of Spaatz's staff. He roomed with Brig. Gen. Lauris
Norstad,29 Assistant Chief of Staff for Operations, NAAF, and attended all plan-
ning sessions.30

Zuckerman 's first task after demonstrating the feasibility of the operation
was to help prepare a detailed bombing plan. He had constant exchanges with
Spaatz, Robb, Norstad, and McDonald, who, according to Zuckerman, made it
plain that they had every confidence in his ability to produce an effective and
precise bombing plan of a kind that had not been designed before.^i The profes-
sor repaid the airmen's confidence by producing one that (1) provided precise
aiming points; (2) called for detailed reports and analysis of each sortie; (3)
required extensive photo reconnaissance; and (4) demanded the plotting of every
bomb burst on a grid, with attention paid to the relationship of bombs identified
to total dropped, the position of burst in relation to gun positions, and any dam-
age caused. As a last proposal, Zuckerman called for an extensive ground survey
of the island after it was captured.32

Even before the professor presented his plan's final draft, Spaatz's forces
began to execute it. Photos and reports poured into the schoolroom where
Zuckerman, with a small staff and photo interpretation experts, assessed damage
and assigned new targets. The plan called for enough bombs to be dropped on
each battery to destroy only one-third to one-half of its guns; peripheral bomb
damage would inactivate the rest of the battery by damaging gun sights and
communications and storage facilities and would bury everything in rubble.
Once the analysts had determined that a battery had received sufficient explo-
sives, they redirected their effort. On each of the twelve days prior to the inva-
sion, Zuckerman submitted a report to Norstad, who forwarded it, with appropri-
ate changes of orders, to each command.33

While the professor orchestrated the bombing, Spaatz coordinated other
aspects of the invasion within the NAAF and with the Allied ground and naval
forces. On May 28, he met with Brig. Gen. Elwood R. Quesada, Deputy
Commander of the Coastal Air Force, and with a representative of Air Marshal
Arthur Coningham, Commander of the Tactical Air Force. Spaatz made it clear

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Pantelleria and Sicily

to both that the Pantelleria invasion would have priority over any other task fac-
ing their commands and that he would accept no excuses for failure. 34 When dif-
ficulties arose on June 3-4, during a preinvasion test exercise involving the
Royal Navy command ship, HMS Largs, a five-year-old, 4,500-ton vessel des-
ignated a Landing Ship Headquarters and packed with communications gear,
Spaatz flew to Sousse on the coast of northeastern Tunisia, the location of inva-
sion task force headquarters.

Clutterbuck and McGrigor reported an almost complete failure in air cooper-
ation with both army and navy elements of the invasion force. Although final
test results indicated three satisfactory communication links — between the ship
and individual planes, between the ship and NAAF headquarters, and between
the ship and task force headquarters at Sousse — the communication links
between the ship and the Tactical Air Force and the XII Air Support Command
(XII ASC) failed. Spaatz ordered the air inspector to investigate. The Xn ASC,
at Spaatz's orders, would begin flying a daily mission against Pantelleria under
the sole direction of the naval command ship and was to maintain constant com-
munication with it at all times. In addition. Coastal and Tactical Air Forces
would henceforth maintain full-time liaison officers at task force headquarters.
Spaatz returned to Constantine convinced that much of the doubt in the minds of
the British Army and Navy commanders stemmed from their own interservice
rivalry with the RAF.35 Upon returning to his headquarters Spaatz instructed
Robb to "inform Coningham that my impression was that he was a trifle too
indifferent in his arrangements for Corkscrew, particularly in connection with
exercises."36

Meanwhile, the bombardment of Pantelleria steadily increased in fury. On
June 1, the first B-17s attacked the island. Together with P-40 fighter bombers
they dropped 141 tons of high explosives; on June 4, heavy, medium, and fighter
bombers unloaded an additional 200 tons of bombs. Between May 18, when the
bombing began, and June 4, the NAAF flew 1,700 sorties flinging 900 tons of
ordnance, many of them 250- or 500-pound high-explosive bombs, on the har-
bor and airfield and 400 tons on Pantelleria's gun positions.^^ Starting with June
7, D-day minus four (D-4), the level of attack increased daily, especially when
General Doolittle, Commander of the Strategic Air Force, lowered the bombing
altitude after disappointing results. 38

On June 7, Spaatz flew back to Sousse. At 5:30 the next morning, (D-3), he
boarded Admiral McGrigor's flagship, a small Hunt Class destroyer-escort,
HMS Whaddon, for a personal look at the effects of bombing and naval gunfire
on Pantelleria. Clutterbuck and Zuckerman were also on board. In addition to the
eight destroyers of McGrigor's task force, five cruisers from the British Mediter-
ranean Fleet joined in the shelling. One of them, HMS Aurora, had Eisenhower
and Admiral Andrew Cimningham on board. They, too, wished to view the pro-
ceedings. 39

As the Whaddon approached the island around 10:00 a.m., Clutterbuck

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

became visibly upset, complaining about the spasmodic nature of naval fire and
what he considered excessive intervals between air strikes.40 When the Whaddon
joined in the bombardment, firing 36-pound shells from its twin 4-inch guns,
Spaatz muttered to Zuckerman, "What the hell kind of damage do they think
these small shells will do?"4l This sentiment was echoed by the professor, who
noted in his memoirs that photo interpretation throughout the campaign never
revealed any significant damage by naval fire."*2 A little before 11:00 a.m. the
medium bombers attacked two gun batteries. Then came the pi^ce de resistance.
Doolittle's B-17s rumbled over Pantelleria at 12,000 feet; their bomb salvos,
aimed at two of the island's batteries, completely obscured the coastline with
smoke and dust. This sight even encouraged Clutterbuck.43

Throughout the bombardment of June 8, only three Italian batteries at-
tempted to engage the ships offshore, and the garrison did not put up a heavy
barrage against the attacking aircraft. After the B-17s completed their mission,
fighter-bombers dropped surrender leaflets and the Allies declared a unilateral
six-hour cease-fire. These overtures elicited no response from the Italians, and
so the attack resumed in the afternoon. The ships returned to harbor. Eisenhower,
who had spent the day on a 6,000-ton cruiser, reported to Marshall that he and
Cuimingham "were highly pleased both with the obvious efficiency of the air
and naval bombardments, and with their coordination achieved as to timing."44

Those who had spent their day baking in the Mediterranean sun on an unsta-
ble 1,000-ton destroyer-escort returned to port in a much more irascible frame of
mind. Spaatz grumbled in his diary.

This particular show has been 95% air, and would have been difficult under any
circumstances, but has been doubly so by the reluctance of AFHQ
[Eisenhower] to place an Air Officer in complete charge of the show. It has
been only by virtue of my outranking the other officers that air has been able to
take control, but it could have been easier . . . had this authority been vested in
me, or an Air Officer.""

Spaatz also directed that the next time Eisenhower observed an air attack he
should have an air officer at his side to prevent his getting too big a dose of navy
attitude. Apparently upon disembarking, Clutterbuck immediately fired off mes-
sages to Tedder and Eisenhower, complaining that communication failures in
the test exercise and the XII ASC's "lack of interest in" the operation had jeop-
ardized the success of the invasion.46

Eisenhower and Tedder responded promptly to Clutterbuck's signals.
Eisenhower sent his chief of staff, Maj. Gen. Walter Bedell Smith, and Tedder
sent two men, his chief deputy and his chief of staff. Air Vice-Marshal H.E.P.
Wigglesworth and Brig. Gen. Patrick W. Timberlake, to invasion force head-
quarters at Sousse, apparently with instructions to investigate the operation's air-
ground cooperation arrangements. When the extra stars arrived on June 9 (D-2),
Spaatz noted tartly in his diary that "having so many fingers in the pie at the last

234

Pantelleria and Sicily

minute does not lend much help to the operation at this stage of the game."'*^

Tedder's men tested the signal arrangements, found them satisfactory, and
returned to Tedder's headquarters in Algiers with what Spaatz hoped was a
"clearer picture of the trouble which can be caused by one nervous ground force
man."48 Bedell Smith stayed to the end of the operation, partly because
Eisenhower had begun to be apprehensive regarding its ultimate conclusion — a
case of nerves caused in some measure by "a number of long faces" at his own
headquarters.49

Over and above his meetings with Bedell Smith, Timberlake, and Wiggles-
worth, Spaatz double-checked arrangements for the invasion. He talked with
AAF Brig. Gen. Aubry C. Strickland, one of the supporting aircraft pilots in the
Question Mark flight who now commanded the NAAF Air Service Command
troops scheduled to prepare the island's airfield for its new Allied occupants.
Strickland's 2690th Base Command would also tend to the occupation chores
involving Pantelleria' s civil population.50 Strickland reported that he had col-
lected his troops and, at the moment, had that no further problems. Spaatz also
instructed his supply officers to make sure that no stoppages occurred in the air
supply line. He wanted definite assurances that NAAF planes had sufficient
bombs, ammunition, and fuel to maintain maximum effort on both D-day and
the days immediately preceding and following it.5i

By 11:00 the next moming, June 10, Spaatz and his staff boarded the HMS
Largs, from which they observed the last day of air activity and the dispatch of
the invasion fleet. By 8:30 the next moming on D-day, June 11, the Largs had
sighted Pantelleria and within an hour had sailed to within ten miles of it. By
10:30 A.M. the assault boats had formed up and awaited only the signal to start
their final run to the beach, timed to coincide with the end of the naval bombard-
ment and a last B-17 strike. The Tactical Air Force completed its bombing by
10:00 A.M., and the Strategic Air Force's heavy bombers pounded the island one
last time at 11:30 A.M., an instant before the first troops hit the beaches. On
board the Largs, Clutterbuck continued to exhibit unease, even though the ship's
display boards showed that all bombing had followed schedule and that 300
additional sorties had punished the island since 10:00 a.m. Spaatz's command
diary noted scornfully, "Timidity on his part has been prevalent throughout the
entire operation."52

The landing itself proved anticlimactic. As troops hit the beach, offshore
observers noted a white flag flying over the island. During the night of June
10-11, Vice Adm. Gino Pavesi, the Italian military governor of Pantelleria, had
informed Rome that the Allied bombing was unendurable.53 On the moming of
June 1 1 , Pavesi held a staff meeting. All present agreed that the situation had
become untenable. There was no water (bombing had destroyed the water plant),
no communications, and nearly no ammunition. In addition, almost all 24,000
people on the island were exhausted. Before he sighted the invasion fleet, Pavesi
had already made the decision to surrender by 1 1 :00 a.m. on June 1 1 .

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

The already low morale of the defenders had crumbled under incessant bom-
bardment and the shortages of basic supplies. Many of the local militia, who
manned the antiaircraft batteries, had deserted in order to assist their families. ''4
From May 8 to June 1 1 , the NAAF had dropped 6,200 tons of bombs and had
flown 5,285 sorties, with the loss of fourteen aircraft destroyed or missing. AAF
planes accounted for 5,000 tons of bombs and 4,387 sorties. 55 Naturally, Spaatz
was pleased, as was Robert A. Lovett, Assistant Secretary of War for Air, who
had come to North Africa in late May and had stayed to witness the conclusion
of the operation. The two sent a telegram to Arnold briefly describing the battle
and concluded by saying, "The boys have really done a grand job."56

The Allies transferred their attention and air strikes to the Pelagies (a group
of three small islands: Lampedusa, Linosa, and Lampione also located between
Africa and Sicily), which surrendered the next day.

A day after the surrenders, Spaatz sent Zuckerman to Pantelleria to prepare a
thorough report on the exact nature and effectiveness of the bombing. This
prompt action reflected Spaatz' s concern that studies by the ground forces or
navy hostile to air might downgrade the effectiveness of the air effort.57 While
waiting for the professor's final report, which he did not receive until July 20,
Spaatz drew some immediate conclusions from the experience which led him to
recommend three improvements: (1) longer-range radar for command ships; (2)
manning of opposite ends of communications links by members of the same ser-
vice and country; and (3) coordination of all bombing, whether tactical or strate-
gic, with and through the control ship.58

In Spaatz 's mind, at least, Pantelleria had confirmed the most extreme theo-
ries of air power enthusiasts: air power alone could defeat a major power. While
still in the afterglow of the Pantelleria success, Spaatz wrote to a friend:

The application of air power available to us can reduce to the point of surrender
any first class nation now in existence within six months from the time that
pressure is applied. In applying the pressure, any or all of the air must be
directed against anything which can prevent or interrupt our air effort. Any
conception of modem Warfare which does not fully recognize the foregoing is
marking time in place.''

Two days later, Spaatz forwarded to Tedder the preliminary analysis of
damage by Zuckerman and in his cover letter expressed his conclusions a little
less boldly: "Precision bombing deserves a precise plan, and air forces properly
employed can destroy or reduce the operational effectiveness of defenses to a
point where the will to fight ceases to exist." In a bow to Zuckerman, Spaatz
acknowledged, "Air force operations must be planned to employ scientifically
forces adequate to secure the degree of material destruction necessary to reduce
the objective. A by-product of such operations will almost certainly be complete
demoralization." Again referring to Zuckerman's application of the scientific
method, Spaatz wrote, "The force necessary to destroy communications and to
isolate a given area is a matter of mathematical calculation. In this instance, the

236

Pantelleria, June 1943. Wrecked Italian Fiat and Macchi aircraft litter a field
(above) on the island of Pantelleria after an Allied raid. The entrance to an under-
ground hangar (below) indicates the protection such aircraft were afforded.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

force employed succeeded in paralyzing what can be regarded as a front of fif-
teen miles, with a reasonable factor of safety."

Spaatz had two more points: (1) an ascending and continuous scale of bom-
bardment coupled with deliberate and successive elimination of strong points
will markedly affect the defenders' morale and paralyze their repair facilities
and services; and (2) "unless topographical features exist, which allow the pre-
cise definition of targets and bombing lines, the air cannot be expected to pro-
vide a precise barrage immediately in front of ground or naval forces."60

These were the views of an air power zealot. Fortunately for himself and the
AAF, Spaatz reserved most of them for his Command Diary. The Pantelleria
operation merely confirmed his long-held opinion that ear, in order to exert its
dominant role in warfare, required equality with the army and the navy and that
equality could come only with independence for the air forces. As Spaatz
explained to Zuckerman, "There was one 'A' too many in the designation
U.S.A.A.F."^ — ^the 'A' that stood for Army — and Pantelleria would help get rid
ofit.6i

The operation also provided an opportunity for one of the pioneering efforts

in the application of scientific analysis and quantification to combat, particularly
in operations research for the AAF and the closely related field of operations
analysis. Zuckerman's methods and results predisposed airmen, such as Spaatz,
to seek more opportunities to apply them. Zuckerman's work received mention
in Eisenhower's dispatch on the fall of Pantelleria:

A less intense bombardment might, in the light of later knowledge, have subju-
gated the island, but there would have been lacking essential data for the study
of the tactical possibilities of scientifically directed eiir bombardment of strong-
point[s], and the most economical disposal of available air strength. Professor
Zuckerman's exhaustive report on the subject may prove of as much value in
the fight against the Axis as the capture of the island.^

Zuckerman's final report showed that although the batteries received bomb-
ing on a scale of 1,000 tons of bombs per square mile, the amount of firepower
lost to each battery ranged from 10 percent to 75 percent, with an average of
more than 40 percent lost for all batteries.63 Only two batteries received direct
hits and the attacks neutrahzed forty-three of the eighty guns, ten of them per-
manently.64

Not all analysts of Operation Corkscrew have agreed with Spaatz 's most
extreme conclusions. Clutterbuck pointed out the failure of the XII ASC and the
Largs command ship to establish satisfactory communications links during prac-
tices. He argued that communications between the two would have failed disas-
trously had they been needed.^5

Montgomery's recent biographer, Nigel Hamilton, condemned the effort
expended in the conquest of Pantelleria as an "unfortunate distraction" and
bemoaned the casualties "sacrificed to this auman's fantasy of how the Axis

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Pantelleria and Sicily

enemy could be defeated by air power alone."66 Hamilton implied that the effort
could have been better spent by softening up Sicily, as if the initial German
counterattack on the Sicilian beachheads could have been totally prevented by
air power. To blame many of Montgomery's problems in Sicily on inadequate
preinvasion air bombardment does air power and Montgomery no service.
Without the presence of the 33d Group's P-40s and Spitfires flying from Pan-
telleria's field, Montgomery would have had even less support.

As the AAF ofTicial history admitted, "In the final analysis the morale of the
defenders was the determining factor in the failure of Pantelleria to put up a
strong and prolonged resistance. The air assault not only hurt the enemy's ability
to resist; it broke his will."67 The AAF's conclusions were literally true, but the
extremely low morale of the garrison was not so much the product of air bom-
bardment as of other factors. The air bombardment probably provided a face-
saving excuse for an action the garrison would have taken in any case. A more
resolute defending force, despite the damage inflicted by Allied air power,
would certainly have made the landing a far bloodier affair.

Preinvasion Planning and Air Preparations for Sicily

At the Casablanca Conference in January 1943, the Anglo-American allies
decided to continue their campaign in the Mediterranean by invading the island
of Sicily after the fall of Tunisia. Planning for Husky, the code name for the
operation, began in February 1943. The Allies did not complete the main ele-
ments of the plan until May 13. Before that date they had intended to land on
two widely separated points on the island. The Americans would land on the
northwest near the key port of Palermo, and the British would land in the south-
east near the port of Syracuse. However, thanks in part to the strenuous objec-
tions of General Montgomery ,68 Commander of the British 8th Army which
would conduct the British portion of the landing, the final arrangements called
for the Americans to land on the left flank of the British at Licata, Gela, and
Scoglitti, with the immediate seizure of the large airfield complexes of Ponte
Olivo, Biscari, and Comiso as their first objective. The British would land near
the port of Syracuse and move inland. Spaatz's Northwest African Air Force
would carry the brunt of the air responsibility for the invasion.

The NAAF first had to destroy or neutralize Axis air power prior to the
assault. Next, it had to provide close air support to the naval, ground, and air-
borne assault forces. It also had to shield the invasion area, ongoing naval opera-
tions, and the assault convoys from enemy air attack while taking the offensive
against enemy shipping and naval forces. Additional air units based in Malta and
the Middle East would aid the NAAF in its endeavors.69

The NAAF's plans placed all units in Malta under the command of the Air

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Officer Commanding, Malta, who in turn came under the general direction of
the Commander of the Northwest African Tactical Air Force, Arthur
Coningham. Air plans further ensured the maximum amount of flexibility by
arranging for a high degree of coordination between the Northwest African
Tactical and Strategic Air Forces; depending on the situation, either air force
might come under the operational control of the other J"

The air plan had three main phases. The first phase, from the defeat of the
Axis in Tunisia to July 3, called for the NAAF to bomb systematically Axis air
forces and Italian industry over a widely dispersed area so as not to give away
the invasion target. The heavy bombers would bomb airfields in Sardinia, Sicily,
and southern Italy, along with the ports of Naples, Messina, and Palermo and
industrial targets in southern Italy. Harris's Bomber Command would strike tar-
gets in northern Italy, in the hope of keeping some Axis air forces out of the
invasion area. The second phase of the bombing, the week before the invasion,
would switch attacks to enemy communications with Sicily and concentrate on
enemy airfields with round-the-clock bombing. This phase ignored landing
beaches in the hope of maintaining tactical surprise. The third phase, after the
invasion, would keep the Allied air forces continuing their counterair attacks
while maintaining air superiority over the island.

The AAF official history notes that "the air plan dealt for the most part with
broad policies and it had not been integrated in detail with ground and naval
plans. This was deliberate and the result of sound strategic and tactical consider-
ations."'?2 Unlike the North African campaign, the Sicilian operation would
ensure the air forces the maximum flexibility in their employment and prevent
the immobilization of air resources caused by parceling air out to specific units
or sectors. As the operation began, 4,900 operational Allied planes faced 990
German and 700 Italian air force operational aircraft.'73

As the invasion approached, the photographic and signal intelligence section
at Spaatz 's headquarters in La Marsa put together the products of both sources
of information on an hourly basis.74 Spaatz, as usual, paid special attention to
ensuring rapid dissemination and use of the fruits of the intelligence effort. On
June 18, he ordered a direct communications link set up between the NAAF War
Room in La Marsa and the forward command posts of the Tactical, Strategic,
and Coastal Air Forces. He also directed that each air force's forward command
post have present for duty at all times an officer with the authority to make bind-
ing decisions for that air force.75 These measures increased his control over sub-
ordinates and helped to enable all elements of the NAAF to respond quickly to
the latest German moves.

Throughout the Sicilian campaign, the NAAF performed its many tasks suc-
cessfully. Before the invasion, its heavy- and medium-bomber groups, aided by
the bombers attached to the U.S. Ninth Air Force and by its own fighter-
bombers, kept up their attacks on the Axis air forces. These attacks, which
started with strikes assisting the NAAF's April 1943 assault on German air

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Pantelleria and Sicily

transport into the Tunisian bridgehead and continued through and after the anti-
air strikes supporting the Pantelleria operation, rose to a crescendo in the week
preceding July 10 (D-day). Spaatz firmly believed in the necessity of conducting
a vigorous counterair offensive before other land, sea, or air operations began.
On June 24 he observed to Arnold, "The German Air Force becomes very cocky
when it has a few successes. It then becomes necessary to give them a thorough
beating on their airdromes as well as in the air."''^

By the beginning of June, the Luftwaffe had started to transfer bombers from
Sicily and southern Italy to southern France and northern Italy. This move dimin-
ished its ability to attack the ports where the Allied invasion forces assembled.
Ultra, however, revealed an increase in Luftwaffe fighter and fighter-bomber
activity on Sicily, which continued until July 3. At that point the NAAF began a
final week of intensive bombardment, which reduced the number of fighters by
one-third and caused the fighter-bombers to withdraw. Diversionary and coun-
terair raids on Sardinia in the week before the invasion reduced the 130
Luftwaffe fighter-bombers there to 35 percent serviceability and denied them the
aviation fuel necessary for sustained operations. Added to the invaluable infor-
mation gained from signal intelligence was detailed aerial photographic recon-
naissance. NAAF aircraft took special photos of industrial areas and communica-
tion lines and daily pictures of the Corsican, Sardinian, Sicilian, and Italian air-
fields and the ports berthing the major surface combat units of the Italian fleet.'?'?

By July 10, only two airfields on Sicily remained entirely serviceable. Also,
NAAF strikes against communications lines had totally disrupted the Sicilian
rail network by destroying rolling stock and repair facilities. As a final fillip, on
July 9, NAAF Spitfires shattered the Hotel San Domenico at Taormina, the Luft-
waffe's headquarters on Sicily. This raid, prompted by the pinpoint accuracy of
signal and other intelligence, dislocated the Luftwaffe's response on the day of
the invasion.''^ The NAAF's effective preinvasion attacks of Sicily helped to
limit to 12 ships the losses among the invasion fleet of 3,000 craft as a result of
Axis air action, as opposed to the original estimate of possibly 300.^9

When the Allied troops reached the shore, Coningham's Northwest African
Tactical Air Force once again shouldered its responsibilities for air-ground
cooperation. Allied air had an equal voice in air-ground arrangements. It had not
in the invasion of North Africa in 1942. Montgomery's 8th Army continued its
excellent relationship with Air Vice-Marshal Harry Broadhurst and the Western
Desert Air Force. On the U.S. side Spaatz had spent considerable energy provid-
ing support for Lt. Gen. George S. Patton's U.S. Seventh Army.

On May 13, Spaatz, Tedder, and Coningham met and agreed on new com-
mand arrangements for air support and cooperation. Col. Paul Williams,
Commander of the XII Air Support Command (XII ASC), the principal U.S.
component of the Tactical Air Force, was to move over to Troop Carrier
Command (TCC), a unit charged with the delivery and supply of airborne troops
in the combat zone. Col. Lawrence P. Hickey would take command of XII ASC

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Headquarters, which would become a glorified air support party attached directly to
Patten's headquarters. The fighter units of XII ASC would join the Third Air
Defense Wing directly under Coningham's command, while Brig. Gen. John K.
Cannon replaced Kuter as Coningham's second in command and principal
American deputy. Finally, Teddra- was to meet with all army commanders and senior
air officers before the invasion in order to completely clarify arrangements. The con-
ferees also agreed that when U.S. forces had firmly established themselves on Sicily,
the XII ASC would reconstitute itself as a major combat unit.80 According to Spaatz,
these moves resulted from his feeling that the Tactical Air Force had not given the
U.S. n Corps enough help in the just-completed campaign.8i

The new arrangements left Patton unsatisfied. He noted in his diary on May
22, "Tedder controls the air with Spaatz, a straw man, under him. . . .
Conyngham [sic] commands the tactical air force and the close support air force
by another British Vice Air Marshall [sic]. Our close support force is com-
manded by a Colonel. . . . The U.S. is getting gypped. "82 Patton took his com-
plaints to Alexander, who passed them on to Spaatz. For his part, Spaatz assured
Alexander that he had placed Catmon in Coningham's headquarters precisely
because Patton had more faith in Cannon than in any other air force officer.
Spaatz promised to send Cannon to Patton as soon as the former had a chance to
become familiar with his new job.83

LL Gen. Carl A. Spaatz receiviag a report from meinbers of the 90th Photographic
Intelligence Wing, North Africa, July 1, 1943.

242

Pantelleria and Sicily

Two days later on May 24, Spaatz met with Cannon, told him of the earlier
promise to Alexander, and instructed him to see Patton within the week. Spaatz also
noted that Patton had expressed apprehension to Eisenhower as well and instructed
Cannon to inform Patton that the air reconnaissance squadron attached to his head-
quarters would receive its orders directly from XII ASC and not Coningham.84

Before the landing Spaatz made one major change in the implementation of
the air support command arrangement. He replaced Colonel Hickey, who had
apparently never gained the confidence of Coningham,85 with Maj. Gen.
Edward J. House. This change mollified both Coningham and Patton while mak-
ing the rank of the Commander of XII ASC equal to that of Air Vice-Marshal
Broadhurst's, Air Officer Commanding the Western Desert Air Force.

Air Power and the Invasion of Sicily

With few exceptions, air power performed successfully throughout the
Sicilian campaign. Although the NAAF's efforts minimized friendly ground and
naval losses to enemy air power, air-ground cooperation again proved unsatis-
factory to the U.S. ground forces. For most of the campaign on-call air support
remained non-existent. Maj. Gen. John P. Lucas, Commander of VI Corps,
voiced an apparently widespread opinion: "Air missions took too long to accom-
plish even after the planes had been moved to Sicily. Authority to fly this mis-
sion could be obtained in about three hours whereas the mission itself took only
20 or 30 minutes."87

Near the end of the fighting, however, the Allies introduced the "Rover Joe"
(in British usage, the "Rover" tentacle), a communications unit located with
front-line divisions or brigades or sometimes smaller units, consisting of an
armored scout car equipped with radio sets and a joint staff of army officers and
one RAF officer. It communicated with the Army Air Support Control, the joint
Army-RAF communications group at the WDAF/8th Army Headquarters; with
the Air Liaison Officer at the wing or group airfield; and, by means of a VHF
radio, directly with aircraft over the target area. The staff of the tentacle kept in
close touch with the local army unit commander. If he approved an air strike, the
liaison officer at the wing was briefed. When the planes arrived, the tentacle's
RAF officer directed them to the target. The U.S. Seventh Army and XII ASC
used a similar system based on the jeep.*^^

The partial failure of airborne operations as well as the failure to prevent the
Axis evacuation of Sicily by completely interdicting the Straits of Messina
marred the air effort. The initial paratroop and glider forces landed on D-day
(July 9), seized many of their objectives, and caused great confusion to the
island's defenders. Nonetheless, the landings proved costly in terms of man-
power; and, because the troops were so widely scattered, their effect on opera-
tions was disappointing.

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Subsequent missions did not remedy initial problems, and one reinforcement
mission flown on the night of July 1 1 resulted in heavy losses for little discernible
gain. This mission was scheduled to drop the 504th Parachute Regiment's 2,300
soldiers into the friendly American beachhead at Gela at about 1 1 :00 p.m. Its
approach route took it over friendly ships offshore and then over American-occu-
pied positions in Sicily. Generals Patton, Bradley, and Matthew B. Ridgway (the
parachutists' commander) all took extreme care to inform the Army, especially
the antiaircraft crews, of the drop and instructed them to hold their fire. They
also received assurances from the Navy that guaranteed antiaircraft-free passage
over ships offshore.

Unfortunately, the mission arrived on the heels of the last Axis air attack of
several that had hit the area during the day. An earlier attack had blown an
ammunition ship sky-high. A gunner in the fleet, confused and nervous from a
day of Axis bombing and perhaps uninformed of the drop, opened fire on the
slow, low-flying, troop-carrying aircraft. Within seconds every antiaircraft gun
on ship and shore joined him. They slaughtered the unprepared and ungainly
transports, shooting down 23 and damaging 60 of the 144. The 504th Regiment
reported 81 dead, 132 wounded, and 16 missing.89 Pilots lost formation and geo-
graphical bearings and proceeded to scatter the paratroops from Gela to the east
coast.90

Eisenhower demanded an immediate investigation by both Patton and
Spaatz, exclaiming, "If the cited report is true, the incident could have been
occasioned only by inexcusable carelessness and negligence. . . . You will insti-
tute within your command an immediate and exhaustive investigation into the
allegation with a view of fixing responsibility." Eisenhower also asked for a
complete statement of disciplinary action taken, if any proved necessary.91

Spaatz visited both the 51st and 52d Troop Carrier Wings on July 13 and
met with all group commanders who had led missions on the nights of July 9
and 11. As he informed Arnold in a letter the next day, he found morale high
despite the losses. Spaatz had several pertinent observations for Arnold, who
enthusiastically supported airborne operations: (1) airborne operations can avoid
excessive casualties only by achieving surprise; (2) excessive losses will occur if
troops are dropped on organized battle positions; (3) ground and naval units
need extensive training to prevent them from firing on friendly aircraft; and (4)
surface forces should get ample warning before an airborne overflight of their
positions and should be forbidden to fire on any planes during the designated
time of the overflight.92 Tedder endorsed the report, adding, "A. A. firing at
night is infectious and control almost impossible. "93 The lessons Spaatz,
Eisenhower, and the advocates of airborne operations gleaned from the Sicilian
operation paid dividends in the planning for the airborne phase of the cross-
channel invasion.

In addition to the supervision of combat operations, which, of course,
required much of Spaatz 's time and effort, two other related matters received

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Pantelleria and Sicily

significant attention: the question of a separate postwar U.S. Air Force and the
establishment of an all-Atnerican, all-AAF, Mediterranean-wide command. In
summing up the Tunisian campaign, Spaatz had written to Arnold, "If it were not
for the disturbance which would ensue, I would probably aimounce the urgent

necessity of a separate Air Force. "94 This comment reflected not only his opinion
of the just-completed campaign but also the experiences and conclusions over his
entire career. In 1925, at Brig. Gen. William "Billy" Mitchell's court-martial,
Spaatz had stated that the air arm could not function properly under the aegis of
the War Department, and the eighteen years after the trial had only served to rein-
force that opinion. On June 1, Spaatz, in a conference with Doolittle and Maj.
Gen. Follett Bradley, who commanded one of the U.S. continental air forces
charged with training and had just arrived from Baker's Eighth Air Forces
Headquarters in Britain on a trip at Amold's behest, agreed that, although the cur-
rent air organization was adequate for the defeat of Germany, the final campaign
against Japan would require the separation of the U.S. Army Air Forces from the
U.S. Army. Spaatz added that the AAF ought to disentangle itself from the British
Army and the RAF as well. This action would enable the AAF to set up all-U.S.
strategic and tactical air forces whose commanders would have equal rank with
the Army Ground Forces commander. The overall air commander would outrank
the ground force commander.95 These musings did not leave AAF circles.

Spaatz also believed that air power should have a preeminent place not only
in the Sicilian invasion but in any amphibious operation. Before the Sicilian
landings he observed, "The next operation will be successful, but the same mis-
take is being made which was made in the Pantelleria assault — that of placing
air as a secondary power to the ground forces and not giving them the top
command when air success is first in importance in making the operation a suc-
cess. "^^ A few days later, on July 5, he codified his ideas on the proper role of
air power in future operations as follows: (1) air power isolates the area where
the ground forces will attack; (2) air power will attain air supremacy over that
area; (3) enemy forces and fortifications will be reduced by a rising scale of
attack a la Pantelleria; and (4) only after the completion of the foregoing actions
will ground forces, fully supported by tactical and strategic air, begin their
assault. Spaatz added that, in operations having a further lead time for planning
than HusKY/Sicily, the air commander should have the supreme command and
army and navy forces should start their combat operation only after the air com-
mander had given the go-ahead.^^

It should also be noted that Spaatz did not view the Strategic and Tactical
Air Forces as units that operated entirely independently of one another. Many
times he made it clear that strategic forces should be employed in roles that pro-
vided direct support to the ground forces when required — during, for example,
preinvasion and breakthrough operations. On at least one occasion he com-
plained to Eisenhower that Tedder tended to overcompartmentalize strategic and
tactical air activities.98

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

In August, Spaatz had another opportunity to advance the AAF's drive for
independence and equality. U.S. Senators of the Select Committee to Visit the
War Theaters, after spending time in England with Eaker's Eighth Air Force,
flew into Marrakech to tour the North African Theater. On August 13, Spaatz
and Tedder met with Sen. Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr., of Massachusetts, the com-
mittee's Republican member. Two days later, Spaatz met with three Democratic
members, Sens. Richard B. Russell of Georgia, Albert B. Chandler of Kentucky,
and James M. Mead of New York, and with Sen. Bennett C. "Champ" Clark
who, although not appointed to the select committee, had apparently attached
himself to it. At both meetings Spaatz emphasized the necessity of separating
the air force from the ground army .99 He even asked General Wilson, the
group's escort, to keep that thought "foremost" in any conversations he had with
the Senators. 100

Spaatz's papers contain a rather florid draft of a statement that he apparently

used in his conversations with the committee members. Entitled "Separation and
Efficiency," dated August 3, 1943, the ten-page draft, which may or may not
have been personally written by Spaatz, presents an AAF insider's argument for
the division of the U.S. armed forces into three equal branches for the purposes
of combat and economic efficiency. "Why," asks the paper, "does the one major
service that has demonstrated its powers remain a divided weapon, existing in
many forms under several services but consolidated and coordinated nowhere?"
After a lengthy examination of the differences in the handling of air power
between the Army Air Forces and the Navy, in which the latter is found want-
ing, the paper suggests a reform of the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff which would
grant to the air force an equal vote with the two other services and to the head of
the Joint Chiefs the power and responsibility to make final decisions. The paper
also recommends the establishment of theater commands on the same joint
bases. The complete separation of the AAF Air Staff from the War Department
General Staff would accompany reform. lOl The select committee proved infer-
tile soil for such proposals. As Spaatz probably realized, serious congressional
consideration of the proper position of the AAF in the U.S. military hierarchy
would have to wait until after the war. Upon its return to Washington in October
1943, the committee merely noted, "Close integration of our land, sea and air
forces has been accomplished in most theaters and works extremely well. It
points the way to a sound post-war military policy ."102

Along with his desire for the eventual independence of a U.S. air force
within the U.S. military structure, in the summer of 1943 Spaatz had a more
immediate goal — independence from the Royal Air Force. The February 1943
reorganization of Allied air power in North Africa had set up the Northwest
African Air Forces and had provided the NAAF with a combined U.S. -British
staff from Spaatz's headquarters dovm to, but not including the combat group
level. From the Kasserine Pass crisis to the Axis surrender in Tunisia, the
NAAF's arrangements had worked well, although Spaatz believed that the good-

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Pantelleria and Sicily

will of the individuals involved had been more responsible than any intrinsic
merit or stability in the structure itself. 103

Spaatz also found the air arrangements between the NAAF and Air Chief
Marshal Arthur Tedder's Mediterranean Air Command (MAC) less than perfect,
he "expressed the fear that MAC was becoming too operational, and that there
was an increasing tendency for that command to go direct to elements of the
NAAF."104 The practice of bypassing Spaatz's headquarters, especially in com-
munications between Tedder and Coningham, rankled the Americans. On May
24, Spaatz had a conference with Coningham's American deputy. Brig. Gen.
John K. Cannon; Spaatz stated that "the Tactical Air Force has the tendency to
consider itself an independent air force" and that he expected Cannon to keep
him "informed of any tendencies or concrete action in this direction." Spaatz
added that he ultimately aimed to group all American tactical units under
American command. In the meantime, Spaatz cautioned Cannon, the reconnais-
sance squadron attached to the U.S. II Corps should not come under the com-
mand of Western Desert Air Force, a British command, or Tactical Air Force,
nor would he permit the reorganization or breaking up of any American
groups. 105

On June 1, Spaatz told Doolittle that he preferred to have all American
Tactical and Strategic Air Force units under a U.S. commander and that he
thought it best to "extricate" the AAF from the RAF. Three days later Spaatz
noted in his diary a disagreement between himself and Coningham about which
particular American officer should command the XII ASC, an all-U.S. unit. On
June 6, Spaatz became extremely irked when Coningham treated the Pantelleria
operation in a particularly offhand manner. Later, through his deputy. Air Vice
Marshal Robb, he advised Coningham that a change of attitude would be desir-
able. On June 12, at the conclusion of the Pantelleria operation, Cannon and
Spaatz met again at Sousse. Cannon reported that MAC had sent a signal mov-
ing the U.S. 33d Fighter Group from the Tactical to the Coastal Air Force three
days prior to the final assault. This action had clearly intruded into Spaatz's
realm of authority as Commanding General, Twelfth Air Force, and Command-
ing General, NAAF. Spaatz instructed Cannon to tell Coningham that "if he car-
ried out any future orders received direct from MAC he would be relieved of his
command — that all orders should come direct from NAAF." Spaatz further
spelled out his view in person to Tedder on June 21: "MAC does not have the
right to exercise control over units under the command of NAAF," Spaatz
claimed, "unless [that] order is coordinated through HQ, NAAF."106

The establishment in mid- June of a joint MAC-NAAF advanced command
post at La Marsa blurred further the lines of authority. This command post,
which served as the control center for the Sicily operation for both Tedder and
Spaatz, had direct radio links to all of the NAAF's and MAC's subordinate com-
mands. It also served as a collection and analysis point for photographic and
electronic intelligence. Access to this communications network and intelligence

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

made it easier for MAC to assume a larger operational role at Spaatz 's expense.
By June 27, Spaatz's American chief of staff, Brig. Gen. Edward P. Curtis, had
begun to suggest that the joint command post wasted too much staff. Spaatz
replied that he expected an early break, with NAAF Headquarters moving for-
ward while MAC stayed behind. 107

By July 12, Spaatz apparently had decided to ensure his control of U.S. air
units even if it meant completely bypassing the British. On that date he ordered
the creation of a new communications network manned entirely by Americans.
The system, which would operate only between senior U.S. officers, would have
no central filing system; copies of messages would be kept only by sender and
recipient. Spaatz wanted the system, which soon became known as Redline, in
effect by August 1. The first link was to be established between Cannon and XII
ASC, presumably to give XII ASC a way to circumvent Coningham. Spaatz also
wanted the network so flexible that even missions akeady airborne could still be
recalled. When established, the system would give Spaatz complete control,
without British interference, over all AAF units and personnel in the Mediter-
ranean.

Spaatz planned to go even further in separating his forces from the RAF. On
July 12, he instructed Generals Cannon and Quesada "to have officers in train-
ing so that you will have them ready to take over. I want the 12th Fighter
Command built up so that key personnel will be trained when the Americans are
in complete control." Spaatz also wanted American officers in each function of
the Tactical and Coastal Air Forces who could take over at a moment's
notice. The next day Spaatz told Doolittle that future plans for the NAAF
were unstable.

Eventually, Redline grew into a swift and effective all-Ainerican commu-
nications system. Redline traffic reveals that the most voluminous message
files deal with Cannon at the Tactical Air Force. Spaatz used this link as a
means of asserting his control over the U.S. units in Coningham' s command,
where responses to his regular orders were consistently delayed. He simply
had copies repeated to Cannon over Redline. An early exchange of messages
typifies the traffic. On August 7, Spaatz testily wired Cannon, "It is stated in
the Tactical Air Force Operations Report for August 5 that Desert Air Force
sent three A-36 missions to toe of Italy et cetera. On my visit yesterday I was
assured that A-36 groups are operating under command control of 12 Air
Support Command. Answer immediately as to what circumstances Desert Air
Force gives orders to A-36 groups?"!^^ Three hours later Cannon replied,
"Tactical Air Force Operations Report for August 5 is in error. Desert Air
Force never repeat never under any circumstances gives orders to A-36 groups
or to any other organizations assigned to 12 ASC'ii' In contrast, Spaatz and
Doolittle seldom resorted to Redline since their regular channels had no
British middlemen and, of course, Doolittle responded to Spaatz, his American

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Pantelleria and Sicily

commanding officer, with a great deal more alacrity than he did to Coningham.
Cannon, for his part, could not use regular channels because they ran straight
through Coningham.

On the morning of July 18, Spaatz and Eisenhower met to discuss the reor-
ganization of the AAF in the Mediterranean Theater. Butcher, Eisenhower's
naval aide, described in his diary how Allied Force Headquarters viewed
Spaatz's status: "This situation has resulted in Spaatz being virtually squeezed
out of his job, yet the vast majority of all aircraft in operation are American.
Ike is keenly aware that there may be American reactions against the current
arrangement."! '2

Later in the day Spaatz visited Eisenhower with a long message for Marshall
which, after some discussion, Eisenhower sent. "After careful examination and
test of the U.S. air organization in the Mediterranean, Spaatz and I," wrote
Eisenhower, "have concluded that the Ninth Air Force should be abolished as a
separate entity and incorporated into the Twelfth." Eisenhower gave six consid-
erations that influenced his decision. The first three concerned the advantages in
having only one AAF headquarters with a single logistical and administrative
organization. The last three addressed Spaatz's and the AAF's problems with the
RAF. Eisenhower explained:

Under the existing setup the entire air force is under the strategic control of the
Air Chief Marshal [Tedder], yet his principal American assistant [Spaatz] has
direct control over only part of the American force. In other words the
American Air Force and principal American commander do not have that pres-
tige that should be theirs.

In his next point Eisenhower explained that recent operations had shown the
need for the consolidation of Tedder's and Spaatz's headquarters, in order "to
permit the constant and instant coordination of all air forces in the Mediterranean."
Furthermore, in the heat of intensive fighting, tactical and strategic air force opera-
tions merged into one problem that was virtually impossible to coordinate
through more than one headquarters. Thus, if Spaatz had a secure position as
commanding general of all AAF forces in the Mediterranean, the NAAF could
disappear and Spaatz could serve as Tedder's deputy. This post would give
Spaatz "a position of great strength, prestige, and influence," while allowing the
British to maintain the overall strategic responsibility for the theater allotted to
them by the directives of the Combined Chiefs of Staff. The scheme would also
"provide absolute continuity of American command of all American units from
top to bottom."! 13

In his reply to Eisenhower's message, Marshall accepted the outline of the
plan. Eisenhower asked Spaatz to prepare a response, which he sent out under
Eisenhower's signature on July 26.114 On August 22, Eisenhower joined the

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

units of the U.S. Ninth Air Force to those of the U.S. Twelfth Air Force.* This
action placed every AAF unit in the theater under Spaatz and administratively
moved the units belonging to the defunct Ninth Air Force from the control of the
British Desert Air Force to the U.S. Twelfth Air Force. In practice the Ninth's
units continued to perform their old roles in the Strategic and Tactical Air Forces.
The move did not solve the problem of overlapping functions between MAC and
NAAF which continued to plague the two organizations until they joined to form
Headquarters, Mediterranean Allied Air Forces (MAAF), on December 10, 1943.

Eisenhower and Spaatz met in Algiers on August 4 where Spaatz informed
his superior that he and Tedder disagreed on air reorganization "primarily
because of the extent to which I insist that American units be commanded by
American commanders all the way up to the highest command." Eisenhower
agreed to return Tedder's headquarters from La Marsa to Algiers, to separate
Tedder from day-to-day operations while keeping him where he could supply
advice on air matters close at hand. Back at his headquarters, Spaatz told his
staff that the NAAF had just reverted to its status prior to the establishment of
the NAAF-MAC Combined Command Post — in other words, the NAAF had
direct control of operations. He added that Tedder would accept this arrange-
ment before they retumed to Algiers.! 15

This state of affairs lasted five days and then Eisenhower reversed himself.
In Tunis, on August 9, in a meeting with Eisenhower, Tedder, Coningham, and
Alexander on planning for the invasion of Italy, Spaatz had an opportunity to
present organizational problems. He noted that the current situation left
Coningham in doubt as to the chain of command. The situation could be cor-
rected if orders to Coningham and Doolittle came from the NAAF, not from a
combined NAAF-MAC headquarters or from MAC alone. In addition, MAC
Advance Headquarters should be disbanded, and morning meetings between
MAC and NAAF no longer held.

After the meeting, Eisenhower told Spaatz that he had changed his mind,
perhaps succumbing to urgings from Tedder. As a result, Spaatz and Eisenhower
were back to the position they had taken in their July 18 message to Marshall.
Eisenhower "stated that he did not want anything to develop which would indi-
cate that the RAF and the USAAF could not operate together." He wanted MAC
as the "top over-all" headquarters, with the Twelfth Air Force as an administra-
tive head for all U.S. units. Spaatz complied and directed his staff to send to
MAC all nonadministrative functions of the NAAF. Spaatz noted in his diary,
"This is a compromise organization and will be successful only if senior staff
officers are very careful to consider the proper prerogative of staff officers of
other headquarters."! 16

* Headquaners, Ninth Air Force, was transferred to England to lead the U.S. tactical air force
intended to support the cross-channel invasion. The Ninth Air Force had been part of the Northwest
Afiican Air Forces.

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Pantelleria and Sicily

In fact although not in name, Spaatz became Tedder's deputy. He main-
tained a voice in overall strategic direction and zealously championed the
administrative separation of the British and U.S. air forces in all but the top
command levels. Yet despite his stand, day-to-day operational control of Allied
air power in the Mediterranean increasingly tended to become Tedder's pre-
serve. Spaatz would have found much to agree with in the postwar statement of
his successor as deputy, John Slessor:

The position of deputy commander is not an easy one; he is rather liable to be
neither fish, flesh, fowl nor good red herring and his responsibility is not easy
to define. As in all these things, it depends largely on personalities, and on
friendly arrangements between the commander and his deputy about who does
what — an arrangement easier to agree upon than to make known to all subordi-
nate commanders.'"

Spaatz had succeeded in gathering the disparate AAF elements in the theater
under a single U.S. commander, and he remained Eisenhower's principal
American air adviser. But he had failed to separate the AAF from the RAF com-
pletely, and the two would remain harnessed together, thanks to Tedder's pre-
eminent position as overall Air Commander in Chief.

This squeezing out of Spaatz left Coningham with what amounted to inde-
pendent control of the theater's tactical air forces. Spaatz could not and Tedder
did not control him. Several errors in judgment by Coningham, which went
uncorrected by higher air authority, may have contributed to the unsuccessful air
interdiction of the Axis evacuation from Sicily across the Straits of Messina to
Italy. From August 1 1 to 17, the Germans and Italians, working independently,
evacuated more than 100,000 men, 9,800 vehicles, 47 tanks, 150 guns, and
17,000 tons of munitions and stores. Three German divisions escaped to fight
again. The Allies had made no plans as they had in the Tunisian campaign to
halt this retrograde movement, which earned the Allied conmiand structure and
each of the three services equal shares of the reproaches from postwar analysts.

Land forces, particularly the British, did not press the Axis forcefully
enough to prevent them from disengaging the vast majority of their troops. The
naval forces would not risk the loss or damage of their heavy units by bringing
them into the confined waters of the straits in order to sink the evacuation ships.
The Allied high command structure, influenced perhaps by Hitler's previous
refusal to evacuate Tunisia, not only did not anticipate the evacuation but failed
to realize it had begun until very late in its progress. Neither Eisenhower nor his
three chief subordinates, Alexander, Cunningham, and Tedder, pushed hard
enough or coordinated readily enough with their colleagues to mount the com-
bined ground, naval, and air effort necessary to close the Straits of Messina. 119

Finally, the air forces, under Coningham, made several mistakes. Coningham
assumed that the evacuation would take place largely at night, and he anticipated
heavy air opposition over the straits. Both these reasonable assumptions proved

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

wrong, but he did not abandon them. Although he had the authority to request
the assistance of Strategic Air Force's heavy bombers, medium bombers, and
fighters, with twelve hours' advance notice, subject to Doolittle's approval,
Coningham apparently never requested the American daylight bombers after
August 9. From July 29 to August 17, NAAF heavy bombers flew only 142 sor-
ties over Sicily. 120 Most of the NASAF therefore devoted itself to attacks on the
Italian mainland distant from the straits, in preparation for the upcoming inva-
sion of Italy. On the day the main German withdrawal began, Coningham noti-
fied Tedder that, should a big withdrawal develop, "we can handle it with our
own resources and naval assistance."i2l In fact, Coningham overestimated the
ability of the NATAF to halt the evacuation. The Axis powers had brought up
numerous heavy and light antiaircraft guns to defend the crossing. These put up
such intense fire that NATAF's light bombers and fighter-bombers could not
operate effectively against Axis shipping, which also carried heavy antiaircraft
armament. 122 ^for did Coningham press home his attacks, perhaps because he
and his superiors sensed no emergency. On August 16, the last full day of the
evacuation, with an available force of 970 aircraft, he sent only 317 sorties
against the straits.i23 After the war, Coningham himself concluded, "The escape
of a large number of the enemy at Messina proved that a density of flak can be
provided so lethal that air attack can be held off sufficiently to maintain commu-
nications."l24

Coningham apparently believed that his orders should come from Tedder
rather than Spaatz. This was the view that Spaatz, who at the time of the evacua-
tion had lost much of whatever control he ever had over Coningham, expressed
to Eisenhowever on August 9.125 Tedder had taken over strategic direction and
allocation for theater air power, thereby forcing Spaatz to concentrate primarily
on purely American administrative matters.

Spaatz 's papers contain no references at all to the Axis evacuation. Given
his intense interest in the details of the operation against supply lines in Tunisia
and in the bombing of Pantelleria, it seems reasonable to conclude that he had
become detached from day-to-day operations, especially the tactical sphere of
responsibility. Instead, during the time period of the evacuation he found time to
campaign for air force independence with visiting senators and to inspect bomb
groups in North Africa. In addition, he oversaw the AAF in the Mediterranean's
first Combined Bomber Offensive mission — agamst fighter assembly plants in
Wiener-Neustadt, Austria, on August 13 — and discussed plans for AAF reorga-
nization and the coming invasion of Italy with Eisenhower and Tedder. 126

In short, Spaatz had no hand in stopping the evacuation. There were indica-
tions that if he had he would have, at the very least, used the U.S. heavy bombers
more frequently on evacuation targets. On August 4, shortly before the evacua-
tion, he said, in Eisenhower's presence, at a general officers' meeting, "It is my
belief that it [air] should have been used exclusively in Sicily to expedite the
battle there." In his diary Spaatz added, "Too much insistence exists in the mind

252

Pantelleria and Sicily

of Tedder that there be a differentiation between Tactical and Strategic Air
Forces. Under certain battle conditions they should be considered as one Air
Force and should be applied [together] as was done in the case of Pantelleria."l27
Spaatz's remark on Tedder's mindset foimd an echo in the criticism of the
air effort in official Royal Navy and U.S. Army histories. '28 Both point out
shortcomings in Tedder's and Coningham's performances. The U.S. Army his-
tory, in particular, takes Tedder to task for continuing to employ the heavy B-17
and B-24 bombers of the NASAF too far from crucial evacuation ports.
Coningham contributed by releasing the heavy bombers from interdiction
responsibility on August 1 1 and by overestimating the effectiveness of his own
tactical forces. If Spaatz had had more responsibility for this phase of the opera-
tion, he might have been more flexible in his use of heavy bombardment, which
in any case would not have been the panacea that U.S. Army historians implied
it might have been, because the Germans evacuated over open beaches, targets
much less suitable to heavy bombers than the local ports at each end of the
straits.

During July and certainly by the beginning of August, Tedder supplanted
Spaatz as Eisenhower's chief air adviser, although propinquity rather than ulte-
rior purpose accounted for much of the change in Spaatz's status. By the nature
of his job. Tedder stayed physically closer to Eisenhower and occupied a link in
the chain of command between Spaatz and Eisenhower. As a result, Eisenhower,
who based his entire command philosophy on Allied unity and teamwork, not
only listened more often to Tedder, but went out of his way not to appear to seek
Spaatz's views because they were American. Nor did Spaatz make Eisenhower's
task easier. As Spaatz began to lose influence on Allied operations, he naturally
began to concentrate more and more on a sphere over which he had greater con-
trol — ^the administration and strategic policy of the AAF in the Mediterranean.
Fortunately, Eisenhower, Tedder, and Spaatz liked and respected one another
personally and professionally. This triangle, which could have produced emo-
tional and institutional fireworks, eventually became a sound working relation-
ship, with occasional tiffs and disagreements, instead of a Mycenaen epic with
heroes sulking in their tents while the battle raged outside.

253

Chapter 8

Salerno and London
(July-December 1943)

It was very dark indeed on September 13, but thanks to a
full effort by Air, enemy counterattacks were slowed up
and finally on the 14th pretty much knocked in the head.'

— Spaatz to Eaker, September 18, 1943

The Invasion of Italy

On July 26, the day after Mussolini fell from power, the Combined Chiefs of
Staff (CCS) directed Eisenhower to proceed with the plans his command had
drawn up for an invasion of Italy at Salerno, a city just south of Naples. The
Allies chose Salerno chiefly because their relatively short-range fighter aircraft
in Sicily could not operate effectively farther north. The Germans made the
same calculations and marked the area as a likely invasion spot. They based a
panzer division there, and a good road network enabled them to reinforce the
area rapidly if the Allies did indeed arrive.

After taking power, Mussolini's successors began secret peace negotiations
with the Allies. Marshal Pietro Badoglio's government agreed to a secret
armistice timed to coincide with the invasion. The Allies hoped that chaos
within the Italian armed forces and in their relationship with their German part-
ners resulting from the surprise cessation of hostilities would ease the way for the
invading forces. Allied air power also sought to smooth the path. The Strategic
Air Force, in particular, spent much of the five weeks prior to the invasion in
counterair and supply and in the communications line interdiction strikes that had
become standard. By the time of the invasion on September 9, the Luftwaffe and
the Italian rail network had suffered severely.

Once again the Northwest African Air Forces (NAAF) protected the inva-
sion fleet effectively, despite a temporary resurgence of Luftwaffe activity. Only

255

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

five major Allied ships were sunk and nine were heavily damaged.2 When the
German counterattack against the beachhead reached its peak on September 13
and 14, the Northwest African Strategic Air Force (NASAF) joined the North-
west African Tactical Air Force (NATAF) in a maximum effort against German
units, strong points, and communications on the front line or immediately behind
it. Because all of the NAAF's striking forces were directly supporting the beach-
head, Eisenhower requested the CCS to transfer three heavy-bomber groups from
the Eighth Air Force to the NAAF. In addition, he asked the CCS to order the
Eighth to bomb Northern Italian communications from England. The CCS
promptly complied.3 In all, from September 12 to 15, the NAAF dropped 3,500
tons of bombs and flew 6,000 sorties over the Italian battlefront.4

Allied naval support forces also played an important part in repelling the
counterattack. During the entire Salerno operation they pumped 11,000 tons of
shells, the equivalent of 72,000 field artillery shells (105mm), into German posi-
tions. 5 Given the advantage in accuracy of naval gunfire over bombing. Allied
navies contributed somewhat more than Allied air in breaking up the German
assault. Nonetheless, Eisenhower, Alexander, and Clark, Commander of the
U.S. Fifth Army, which had operational control of the invasion, had nothing but
praise for the air support given by the NAAF. Alexander wrote to Spaatz on
September 17 that the air attacks had greatly aided the morale of the ground
units and inflicted heavy losses on the enemy. In addition, said Alexander, the
air strikes "have seriously interfered with his movements, interrupted his com-
munications and prevented his concentration of the necessary forces to launch
large scale attacks. You have contributed immeasurably to the success of our
operations.''^ Alexander also passed on Clark's "acclaim of the close and contin-
uous air support given his army." And Eisenhower told Lt. Gen. Joseph T.
McNamey, U.S. Army Deputy Chief of Staff, on September 16, "I carmot say
too much for our Air. . . . Our airmen hit what they are aiming at, and their
effect in this campaign has been remarkable.''^

Following this activity the U.S. air effort in the Mediterranean began to fall
off, mainly because of weather and manpower problems. The wet fall and winter
of 1943-1944 caused the cancellation of many missions, which, of course,
reduced the effect of air power on land operations and on the interdiction of
enemy supplies and communications. Fine flying weather in the summer con-
tributed to the shortage of manpower by allowing aircraft to undertake almost
daily missions; as a result, air crews completed their fifty-mission combat rota-
tion more quickly than anticipated.* The ability to fly almost incessantly also

* The number of required combat missions for air crews varied throughout the war depending
on theater, type of aircraft, and intensity of combat. In the summer of 1943, heavy-bomber crews in
the Mediterranean, where enemy opposition was light, had to fly fifty missions before returning
home. At the same time, heavy-bomber crews in Britain, who faced much heavier opposition (and
hence had a shorter life expectancy), had a combat tour of twenty-five missions.

256

Salerno and London

led to increased fatigue among air and ground crews, causing more depletion of
the human resources needed to conduct the air battle.^ The replacement situation
had become severe even before the invasion of Italy. Spaatz reported to Arnold:

As the extent to which air has assisted the ground action becomes more widely
known increasing demands are made for its employment. We are faced with a
rather difficult problem in this respect in that weather almost never interrupts
flying and between 70% and 80% of our airplanes are kept in commission.
Combat crew fatigue has become the main problem.'

The following day Eisenhower sent, at Spaatz's behest, an "Eyes Only"
cable to Marshall in which he pleaded for an immediate increase of the replace-
ment rate from 15 percent per month to 25 percent per month. Eisenhower
noted, "It now appears that we must either fail to meet demands or gradually
reduce our groups' effectiveness as a result of attrition." Alluding to the surrender
negotiations with Italy and the worsening Axis position on Sicily, Eisenhower
added, "We have reached a critical position in this area which requires that any
favorable development, military or political, be fully and immediately exploited.
Air forces, of course, provide our most effective means of rapidly applying pres-
siu"e where necessary."lo

The Salerno operation only exacerbated the shortfall. At the height of the
German counterattack, Spaatz wrote to Arnold:

In addition to communications, the biggest worry at present is the old one of
replacement crews. Our frequency of operation in spite of all efforts to hold it
down to a minimum, is continuously greater than the replacement rate warrants,
and crews are becoming war weary faster than replacements will arrive to
relieve them."

Eisenhower, too, pleaded with Marshall for more men: "Our actual use of air
has greatly exceeded that which was plaimed. I consider that reducing the scale
of our present air effort might prove disastrous." Eisenhower urged Marshall to
take remedial action at once; otherwise "our strength will drop below that essen-
tial for conduct of operations."l2

Arnold and Marshall, however, could do little to meet these appeals. They
temporarily sent down eighty B-24s (two groups) from the Eighth, but the
vagaries of U.S. military manpower recruitment and procurement, especially in
the AAF, had produced a manpower crisis that particularly affected air crews.
The low point in the supply of trained manpower for the AAF occurred in the
sunmier of 1943, leaving Arnold and the AAF unable to meet more than the
minimal planned replacement flows. 13

During this replacement crisis Spaatz confronted another delicate personnel
problem — evaluating the performance of the pilots of the 99th Fighter Squadron,
the only black AAF unit then in combat. In an "Eyes Only" cable on August 17,
Spaatz alerted Arnold to a possible problem. General Cannon, Deputy Com-

257

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

mander of the NATAF, reported that the 99th was "beginning to show evidence
of tiring." Cannon compared the unit's perfonnance unfavorably to that of the
33d Fighter Group, which was operating from the same airfield under the com-
mand of Col. William W. Momyer, and noted, "It is indicated that the colored
pilot cannot stand up under [the] same pressure as [the] white pilot." Cannon,
however, noted the mitigating fact that although Lt. Col. Benjamin O. Davis, Jr.,
the 99th' s commanding officer, reported that he had been promised four
replacement pilots per month when he went into action in May 1943, he had
received a total of only four replacements by mid-August. As Spaatz and
Cannon well knew, a shortage of replacement pilots meant that a unit had to
work overtime to maintain its sortie rate. The 99th, operating under added strain
for a continued period, was worn out compared with white units with more
replacements. Spaatz personally requested "that no conclusion be drawn until
further study and experience."!^

Even as Spaatz wamed Arnold, Time magazine began to prepare a story on
the 99th. Both apparently had gotten advance warning of the story, which
appeared in the September 20, 1943, issue. The story accurately stated that
"unofficial reports" from the Mediterranean suggested that "the top air com-
mand was not altogether satisfied with the 99th's performance" and was think-
ing about transferring the unit to the Northwest African Coastal Air Force
(NACAF).i5

On September 10, either in response to Spaatz's warning or to the impend-
ing story in Time, Arnold requested the preparation of "as detailed a confidential
report as the facts now in your possession warrant" on black pilots without delay.
Arnold further noted, "We have received from many unofficial sources second
hand tales of the fact that the Negro pilot tires very easily, and that he loses his
will to fight after five or six missions." Arnold knew that Spaatz would realize
"the urgency required for this information in view of the fact that we contemplate
building additional Negro units at once."16

As ordered, Spaatz directed Cannon, despite his involvement in the fighting
associated with the Salerno invasion, to expedite the completion of a compre-
hensive report on the 99th. On September 18, Cannon replied by forwarding a
report prepared by the Commanding General, Xll ASC, Maj. Gen. Edwin J.
House. Citing an unnamed officer 18 "who has been in the best position to
observe carefully the work of the 99th squadron over its entire combat period,"
House severely censured the 99th's performance. Although the unnamed officer
noted that the 99th' s "ground discipline and ability to accomplish and execute
orders promptly are excellent," he concluded:

Based on the performance of the 99th Fighter Squadron to date, it is my opin-
ion that they are not of the fighting caliber of any squadron in this group. They
have failed to display the aggressiveness and desire for combat that are neces-
sary to a first class fighting organization. It may be expected that we will get
less work and less operational time out of the 99th Fighter Squadron than any
squadron of this group.

258

Salerno and London

House added his own observations. He recommended that the squadron be
reequipped with obsolescent P-39s and reassigned from the XII ASC to the less
active NACAF. He also remarked:

On many discussions held with officers of all professions, including medical,
the consensus of opinion seems to be that the Negro type has not the proper
reflexes to make a first-class fighter pilot. Also, on rapid moves which must be
part of this Command, housing and messing difTiculties arise because the time
has not yet arrived when the white and colored soldiers wiU mess at the same
table and sleep in the same barracks.

Finally, House suggested, "If and when a colored group is formed in the United
States, it be retained for either the eastern or western defense zone and a white
fighter group be released for overseas movement."l9

In his endorsement of the report to Spaatz, Caimon wrote, "The pilots of the
99th Fighter Squadron fall well below the standard of pilots of other fighter
squadrons of this Command," in categories such as eagerness for combat,
aggressiveness, will to win or reach the objective, stamina, and ability to fight as
a team. Black pilots had "no outstanding characteristics in which they excel in
war over the pilots of other squadrons of this Command."20

The report contradicted what Spaatz had recorded in early June 1943, that
Colonel Davis had told him the "men have lost a little of the eagerness they had
before any combat missions, but are proving themselves. "21 In any case, Spaatz
forwarded the report to Arnold, expressing his "fiill confidence in the fairness of
the analysis" made by Cannon and House, observing: "I feel that no squadron
has been introduced into this theater with a better background of training than
had by the 99th Fighter Squadron."22

The report came to the attention of the McCloy Committee, a special com-
mittee established by the War Department to oversee black troop policies. On
October 16, Colonel Davis testified before the committee and effectively refuted
House's and Momyer's criticisms.23 The 99th remained in combat in Italy and
was eventually joined by the all-black 332d Fighter Group.

At the very least, the foregoing report demonstrated the inability of the
Army hierarchy to conduct an objective evaluation of black soldiers in the U.S.
Army of World War II. The incident may have affected Spaatz's evaluation of
them. After the war he told the Gillem Board, which was investigating the possi-
ble future roles of black soldiers in the AAF, that they should not serve in inte-
grated units and that they would be more effective in support and service units
than in combat units.24

Throughout World War II, the War Department specified a policy of strict
segregation requiring separate but equal accommodations, training, and treat-
ment. Spaatz, accordingly, did not brook egregious discrimination. In the
autumn of 1943, he became aware that AAF rest facilities on the Island of Capri,
in the harbor of Naples, were not admitting black officers. He had the situation

259

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

rectified.25 The AAF built a separate rest facility on Capri for black AAF com-
bat officers (the approximately thirty black pilots assigned to the 99th). Not until
May 1944 did the AAF in the Mediterranean begin construction of a rest camp
for the enlisted personnel of the 99th or for black officers and enlisted men
assigned to AAF service organizations.26

The Mediterranean Theater and Strategic Bombing

Once it had defeated the Nazi counterattack on the Salemo beachhead, the U.S.
Fifth Army captured Naples on October 1. On the same day, the British 8th Army,
advancing from the toe of Italy, occupied the great airfield complex of Foggia, eighty
miles to the northeast of Naples. The capture of Foggia gave the AAF the aq)ability
to open up a second front in the Combined Bomber Offensive against Germany by
putting it well within range of Austrian and south German industrial targets.

This new aspect of the air war had been part of the AAF's plans since the
promulgation of AWPD/1 in September 1941. AWPD/1 had provided for a
bomber force of very long-range B-29s (still on the drawing boards in 1941)
operating against Germany from bases in the Suez region. Similarly, at the
inception of the North African invasion, Arnold and Spaatz had persuaded
Eisenhower as the European Theater Commander to agree tentatively to a single
air force for Britain and North Africa, which would allow the strategic bombing
of Germany from both areas.

At the end of the Tunisian campaign, Eisenhower forwarded to Marshall a
suggestion from Spaatz that "this theater would offer a very fine region from
which to use some of the new B29s."27 Eisenhower also sent the Combined
Chiefs of Staff his recommendations on the course of action to follow after the
fall of Sicily. To this document (CCS No. 223) Tedder added a statement in
which he pointed out the advantages of launching strategic bomber missions
from Italy. These feelers went unnoticed by Marshall and the rest of the Combined
Chiefs, who met in Washington, D.C., from May 12 to 25, 1943. There they
accepted Baker's plan for the Combined Bomber Offensive (CCS No. 217),
which called for a rapid buildup of an Eighth Air Force powerful enough to
defeat Luftwaffe fighter forces and bomb key German industries.28

At Arnold's insistence, however, the Combined Chiefs authorized a one-
time-only, low-level B-24 raid against the Romanian oil fields and refinery com-
plex at Ploesti, provided Eisenhower approved, which he did in early June. In
addition to two B-24 groups (the 376th and 98th) from the Ninth Air Force, the
CCS diverted one group (the 389th) scheduled to reinforce the Eighth and two
of the Eighth's own groups (the 93d and 44th) to the Ploesti raid (code-named
Tidalwave). These 177 bombers launched the first Mediterranean raid to partic-
ipate in the Combined Bomber Offensive by attacking the Ploesti oil targets on
August 1. They lost 54 aircraft and 532 crewmen and inflicted heavy, but not
decisive, damage to their targets.29

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Salerno and London

Before flying the Ploesti raid, these groups joined the NAAF and flew sev-
eral hundred sorties in the SiciUan campaign. They also participated in two other
strategic missions before leaving the theater, one before and one after the Ploesti
raid. On July 19, with the medium bombers and B-17s of the Twelfth Air Force
(more than 500 planes in all), they also bombed airfields near and two railroad
marshaling yards in Rome. They damaged the fields and the rail yards severely,
but one bomb landed a thousand feet from one of the yards in the nave of the
Basilica of San Lorenzo where it caved in the roof and front facade, destroying
thirteenth- and fourteenth-century frescos and mosaics.30 Reported casualties
were 700 killed and 1,600 wounded.^l

This raid in the classical terms of Douhet, the Italian air theorist, was aimed
against the will of a nation. Few other single strokes could have produced the
blow to national pride and spirit or so forcefully demonstrated the failings of
Mussolini's ramshackle Fascist state to the Italian people than this raid. On
August 13, 259 heavy and medium bombers returned to Rome's marshaling
yards and inflicted heavy damage, closing the line to Naples for five or six days
and killing 221 persons and wounding 565 more. The next day, the Italian gov-
enmient declared Rome an open city.32

Spaatz and the NAAF had planned the initial raid many weeks before its
execution. On June 1, Spaatz discussed the prospects of bombing Rome with
Churchill, Marshall, and Alan Brooke, British Chief of the Imperial General
Staff, who had come to the Mediterranean to obtain Eisenhower's views on post-
Sicilian operations. In his description of the Prime Minister's visit, Eisenhower
related that "long discussions were carried on regarding the desirability of
bombing the marshalling yards near Rome." The CCS authorized the raid on
June 15.33 In addition, Spaatz emphasized the necessity of capturing northern
Italy for use in air operations against Germany.34

Two weeks later Spaatz and Tedder, while plarming support operations for
the upcoming Sicilian assault, decided to interdict rail yards in both Naples and
Rome as part of the overall campaign to disrupt supply and communications in
Italy. Spaatz suggested that Naples should receive not only bombs but surrender
leaflets as well.35 He did not make clear whether he thought the latter might ren-
der the port susceptible to a coup de main or prove effective as a psychological
ploy in the war against Italian morale. Spaatz may have felt that a hard double
blow at those two key cities might undermine Italian morale and weaken opposi-
tion to the invasion. He noted that if air power could not be concentrated against
those two targets, the entire effort should fall on Sicily itself. In private, Spaatz
had earlier expressed great faith in the psychological impact of bombing. On
May 8, he wrote to a friend in Washington, D.C., that, in the B-17, the United
States had discovered the principal weapon for concluding the war successfully.
"We have ample evidence," remarked Spaatz, "to clearly indicate they can blast
their way through any defenses and destroy the will to fight in any nation which
may oppose us."36

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Nine days after the Sicilian landings the AAF struck Rome in a raid that
showed precision bombing at its best and helped to topple Mussolini's regime
six days later." Naturally, Spaatz sent a special report to Arnold:

It [the raid] should prove of particular interest to our air force supporters, but
definitely has very little interest from an air force standpoint. It was too easy.
Seven other raids are now under study and of these the one on NAPLES is cer-
tain to hit them in the eyes, especially the "Sunday-morning quarterbacks."'*

Arnold and Spaatz usually tried to stay a step ahead of any critics of air power.

Shortly before their return to England, the Eighth's three groups, joined by
the Ninth's two groups, executed a strategic mission against German fighter
plants at Wiener Neustadt, Austria. On August 13, the groups left their bases
around Benghazi, Tripoli, and flew more than 1,200 miles to their target. They
achieved complete tactical surprise and inflicted severe damage on hangars and
grounded aircraft and on the fighter construction and assembly plants of Wiener-
Neustaedter Flugzeugwerke A.G.; for much of the remainder of the year, pro-
duction at the plants slowed noticeably.39 This was the first time that Allied
bombers based in the Mediterranean had attacked a target in Greater Germany.

The attacks on Rome, Ploesti, and Wiener Neustadt strengthened Spaatz's
conviction that bombers based in his command should participate in raids on
Germany. A week after the Wiener Neustadt raid Spaatz wrote to Lovett, "I am
increasingly convinced that Germany can be forced to her knees by aerial bom-
bardment alone. The process can be accelerated by us if suitable bases are avail-
able in the Mediterranean area as well as those now available in England. "40
This statement reflected views that Spaatz had expressed for months. On June
24, he had written to Arnold that the fate of the air forces after the next two
operations (Sicily and Salerno) concerned him greatly. He also believed that the
heavy-bomber effort against Germany ought to come from more than just one
base area: "If we can establish ourselves in Italy, much of Germany can be
reached from there with better weather conditions at our airdromes than prevail
normally in England. This would immediately, when applied, force a dispersion
of the German fighter and anti-aircraft defenses."4i Spaatz suggested that the
necessary heavy-bomber force could be obtained by converting his existing
B-25 and B-26 groups to B-17 groups. The excess medium bombers could then
go to the French.

After talks with Doolittle, Spaatz reiterated most of his foregoing sugges-
tions in a July 14 letter to Arnold. Spaatz did modify the proposal slightly by
observing that not all of his medium-bomber groups could convert because
ground support missions required aircraft with the medium bombers' operating
characteristics. Again he pointed out the advantages of strategic bombing from
Italy:

I am confident we will progress up the Italian Peninsula, and before too many
weeks have passed, will be in a position to bomb the fighter production plants

262

Salerno and London

in the vicinity of Vienna and other places now beyond the effort out of U.K. I
believe points we can reach amount to 97% of their production.''^

Arnold held different views. In late July, he told a member of the RAF
Delegation in Washington that the fall of Sicily and potential fall of Italy did lit-
tle for the Allies against Germany. Because the bombing offensive against
Germany must come from Britain, the three B-24 groups on loan to Spaatz
should be returned immediately. The best way to finish the war was to attack by
the shortest way — across the channel. Arnold regarded Eisenhower's call for
reinforcements in the Mediterranean as an extravagance that could compromise
the cross-channel invasion.43 When the RAF Delegation reported these opinions
to Portal, he instructed his mission in Washington to present the RAF's case for
strategic bombing from Italy, especially from the central (Rome) and north (Po
Valley) Italian areas. Portal, like Spaatz, pointed to the advantages of spreading
German fighter defenses and placing more vital targets within easy range. He
believed that without question the Allies should create in Italy the largest
bomber force that a logistical base could support. He accepted the fact that the
limiting element of logistics would mean a smaller total force in Italy than the
one stationed in Britain.44

Air Marshal William Welsh, the head of the RAF Delegation, discussed
Portal's ideas with Arnold on August 1 and reported considerable modification
of Arnold's views. Arnold agreed completely on the need for a bomber force
flying from northern Italy. A decisive factor in changing Arnold's mind may
have been British intelligence indicating significant dispersal of German fighter
assembly and manufacturing capacity to Austria and other southern European
targets beyond the range of the Eighth Air Force's heavy bombers.45 But Arnold
added a new wrinkle. He suggested that the Allied bomber offensive required a
single overall commander to coordinate the strategic bombing forces in both
Italy and Britain in order to avoid competition, overlarge liaison staffs, and con-
stant appeals to the Combined Chiefs of Staff for decisions. Welsh warned
Portal that Arnold would bring up the matter of command when they next met.46

In the meantime, AAF Headquarters rejected Spaatz's proposals to reequip
his medium-bomber groups because it wished neither to delay the B- 17 buildup
in Britain nor to deprive Eisenhower of support.47 Similarly, the CCS rejected
Eisenhower's request for a loan of four of the Eighth's B-17 groups for the
Salerno operation. Lt. Gen. Jacob L. Devers, U.S. European Theater Com-
mander, and Eaker, the Eighth Air Force Commander, strongly supported the
turndown because they feared that such a transfer would wreck the current
Combined Bomber Offensive.48 Marshall also refused to transfer four medium-
bomber groups from Britain, and Arnold rejected the request by Eisenhower,
Spaatz, and Tedder to keep the Eighth's three B-24 groups that had bombed
Ploesti in the Mediterranean theater.49 On September 2, Arnold informed Spaatz
that he would receive no more P-38 replacement aircraft for six weeks.50 These
actions enraged Eisenhower,5l but Marshall and Arnold pointed out that the

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

NAAF already outnumbered the entire Luftwaffe and that the needs of
PoiNTBLANK* — ^thc U.S. daylight precision bombing portion of the Combined
Bomber Offensive against Germany that was a prerequisite to the cross-channel
invasion — overrode all other considerations.52

If Eisenhower and Spaatz had lost their campaign to acquire some of
Baker's assets, at least they had helped to gain recognition of the point that Italy
would serve as an admirable base for future attacks on Germany. At the Quebec
Conference, August 14 to 25, 1943, Roosevelt, Churchill, and the Combined
Chiefs agreed on "strategic bombing operations from Italian and Central
European bases, complementing Pointblank."53 The British Chief of the Air
Staff, Portal, remarked, "If we could have a strong force of Heavy and Medium
Bombers there [northern Italy] in the near future, Germany would be faced with
a problem insoluble."54 Amold, in the midst of the conference, wrote to Spaatz
that "a planned and sustained strategic bombing attack on German key industrial
targets from Mediterranean bases" warranted the top priority.55

Two days after the conference, Amold requested Spaatz to retum to Wash-
ington for ten days to two weeks. With Eisenhower's approval, Spaatz scheduled a
trip to Washington for the beginning of October. He told Eisenhower that he
would emphasize the replacement crew problem and the "utilization of the
Mediterranean base area for heavy bombers including B-29s."56

Once the CCS had accepted Italy as a base for strategic bombing, details of
command, control, strength, and coordination with the Eighth Air Force needed
attention. Eisenhower signaled Marshall on September 19, "Forward movement
into Italy necessitates immediate planning on my part for extension of bomber
effort into Germany." He went on to inquire about the exact number of aircraft
to be sent and, after stating his own and Spaatz's belief in the effectiveness of
that aspect of the Combined Bomber Offensive conducted from Italy, informed
Marshall that Spaatz would arrive in Washington prepared to discuss numbers
and "the overall organization and control of strategic air forces as Tedder,
Spaatz, and I see it."57

By October Amold and his staff had drawn up plans for a new strategic air
force — the Fifteenth Air Force. On October 9, the day Spaatz landed in
Washington, Amold submitted to the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) his design
for turning the Twelfth Air Force into a tactical air force and establishing the
Fifteenth as a strategic air force. Both forces would operate under the theater
commander, but the Fifteenth would occasionally receive directives from the
CCS for employment in the Combined Bomber Offensive. The Fifteenth would
receive the Twelfth's six heavy groups and fifteen more from the continental
United States.

* Pointblank's first objective was to destroy the Gennan daylight fighter forces, after which it
would attack the German ^rcraft industry, the ball-bearing industry, and other high-value economic
targets.

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Salerno and London

Eaker and Devers objected vigorously, arguing that the plan diverted forces
from Britain and sacrificed the principle of concentration of force, thereby jeop-
ardizing Pointblank and Overlord. The JCS, after discussions with Bedell
Smith and Spaatz, approved Arnold's plan. The JCS then submitted the matter to
the Combined Chiefs of Staff, who had overall control of the Combined Bomber
Offensive. The CCS agreed with a proviso inserted by the British that if logisti-
cal problems prevented the stationing of heavy-bomber groups in the Mediter-
ranean, then the excess bombers would go to Britain.58 The CCS directed
Eisenhower to employ the Fifteenth Air Force against strategic targets. They
allowed him to use units of the Fifteenth that had been reassigned from the
Twelfth Air Force (six heavy-bomber groups, and two long-range fighter groups)
primarily against political targets in the Balkans and in support of the land forces
in Italy rather than against Pointblank objectives, until the land forces secured air
bases north and east of Rome.59

Spaatz, who had returned to La Marsa on October 22, the same day the CCS
approved the formation of the Fifteenth, quickly assured Arnold on the logistical
capabilities of southern Italy. Spaatz immediately obtained an authoritative state-
ment on logistics from a West Point classmate, Lt. Gen. Brehon B. Somervell, the
crusty Commanding General, Army Services of Supply. Somervell, the Army's
chief logistics and supply officer with a status virtually equal to Arnold's, had
visited the Italian theater and Spaatz at the end of October. Armed with Somer-
vell's estimate and the results of a recent inspection of Foggia and its supply line
back to Taranto, Spaatz sent out a telegram, over Eisenhower's signature, mini-
mizing supply difficulties. Eisenhower appended a staff report from Bedell
Smith which indicated somewhat more soberly that Italy could support the
planned influx of bombers and escorts. Smith's report gave Arnold the ammuni-
tion he needed to refuse to discuss the issue when the British again questioned
the capability of Italy to support additional strategic groups.60

For their part the British had come to question not the eventual need for the
Fifteenth, whose existence they had already approved, but the timing of its
increase. Portal had always favored strategic attacks from Italy because he
assumed that the central and northern portions of the peninsula would be avail-
able for bases. Hitler's decision to defend Italy south of Rome and Field Marshal
Kesselring's successful execution of that policy upset his calculations, however,
and he began to question the effectiveness of basing bombers at the Foggia
fields in the south.^l In London, Eaker took issue with the rate of the Fifteenth's
bomber and fighter group buildup specified in Eisenhower's instructions. He
privately protested to the British that the nine heavy-bomber groups scheduled
to go to Italy in November, December, and January should come to Britain, even
if Italy could support them logistically.62

On October 26, the British Chiefs of Staff, reflecting Portal's and Baker's
positions, suggested to the CCS in Washington that the fifteen heavy-bombard-
ment groups scheduled for Italy be redirected to their original destination —

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Britain. They further asked that the six heavy-bombardment groups already in
Italy be assigned primarily to Pointblank even before the fall of Rome.63
Churchill seconded these suggestions. He instructed Portal not to allow the
strategic buildup to interfere with the battle for Rome but to give the armies and
their tactical air support first priority. Churchill emphasized that the goal from
the British must be "saturation" or overwhelming strength for the American day-
light attacks.64

When the British Joint Staff Mission in Washington presented that position

to the CCS, the Americans brushed it aside. At the October 29 meeting, Arnold,
referring repeatedly to assurances given him by Spaatz, said that the buildup of
the Fifteenth did not interfere with the strengthening of Eisenhower's tactical air
or ground forces. Arnold maintained that bombers in Italy would be more effec-
tive than those in Britain and renewed his promise to send to Britain all the
groups that the Fifteenth could not supply or operate effectively. Marshall
reminded the British that Eisenhower himself had called for a strategic air force
in Italy, in part to have those forces at his disposal in case of a ground emer-
gency, during which he could decide relative priorities. With the losses during
the Schweinfurt mission of October 14 in mind, Marshall observed that strategic
forces in Italy would help reduce "very heavy casualties" incurred in daylight
bombing over northwest Europe.65 Having already accepted the creation of an
additional U.S. strategic air force, the British could hardly continue to object to
the way the Americans divided their own assets, especially in light of assurances
that Pointblank remained the prime objective and that the Americans could
supply their own forces.

The creation of the Fifteenth Air Force, whose headquarters would serve as
the hub of the strategic bombing campaign based in Italy, naturally consumed
much of Spaatz's ten-day sojourn in Washington. In addition to the always vex-
atious problem of replacements, Spaatz and Arnold probably discussed arrange-
ments for the overall control of strategic air forces in Europe — a complex prob-
lem of great concern not only to the AAF and the RAF but to the theater com-
manders and the Combined Chiefs as well.

The theater commanders, Eisenhower in Italy and Devers in Britain, wanted
total authority over all air forces in their commands. Had this authority been
allowed, the coordination of strategic bombing against Germany would have
been hamstrung, especially if both the Mediterranean and the European Theaters
of Operation possessed competing strategic forces. The CCS, charged with the
overall strategic direction of the war, also had a stake in the problem. They had
decided at the conferences in Washington in May 1943 and in Quebec in August
1943 that the successful invasion of the Continent required a successful strategic
bombing campaign. The first objective of such a campaign would be to so dam-
age the Luftwaffe that it could not contest Allied air supremacy over the inva-
sion area. Competing with the requirements for strategic bombing in the eyes of
the CCS were the equally valid claims of the invasion conmianders and ground

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Salerno and London

troops for tactical support of preinvasion preparations, the landings, and post
invasion operations.

The AAF and the RAF had separate agendas on the issue of command and
control. Arnold and the AAF wanted a single Allied Strategic Air Force
Commander in charge of the Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces and Bomber
Command, with headquarters in London and a status equal — ^presumably with
four-star rank — ^to that of the European and Mediterranean theater commanders.
This idea, if approved, would in a stroke make the AAF's and the RAF's strate-
gic air forces independent of the ground forces' leaders and allow untrammeled
pursuit of the strategic bomber campaign against Germany — ^the raison d'etre of
both air forces. In addition, the airman who held the post would emerge with a
prestige that at least matched that of the war's other theater commanders, such
as Generals Eisenhower and MacArthur and Admiral Chester Nimitz. Arnold
probably assumed that the commander would be a member of the AAF, princi-
pal supplier of aircraft. Even if an RAF officer got the job, Arnold would still
have taken a large step toward eventual postwar autonomy for the AAF.

Next, Arnold wanted a U.S. Strategic Air Force Commander in Europe (also
based in London) who would take operational control of both U.S. strategic air
forces (the Eighth and Fifteenth) and administrative control of the U.S. air forces
in Britain (the Eighth and Ninth). The AAF would thus acquire control over all
of its heavy bombers directed toward Germany. Without such a headquarters,
the two strategic air forces, each under a separate theater commander, might
well fail to coordinate their efforts adequately. Such a command would also be
at least equal to Bomber Command in prestige and stature and would certainly
exceed it in numbers of heavy bombers. Because this headquarters would be in
London, it could still take advantage of British intelligence and cooperate with
Bomber Command — a unit already headed by an officer with the equivalent of
four-star rank. His U.S. opposite number would probably have the same rank,
which would reflect well on the AAF. By giving the U.S. Strategic Commander
administrative control of the Ninth (Tactical) Air Force, which was slated to
provide tactical air support for the cross-channel invasion, Arnold may have
hoped to influence what promised to be the major U.S. land campaign of the war
and to augment the power and prestige of the head of the U.S. Strategic Bomber
Command.66

Although Arnold's plan stemmed from both his proposal for a combined

bomber command in the summer of 1942 and his and Spaatz's advocacy of a
single theater air force in the fall of 1942, his campaign for the acceptance of a
new strategic command began no later than August 1, 1943, when he informed
the head of the RAF Delegation in Washington, Air Marshal Welsh, of his idea
for an overall commander.67 Arnold continued to explore the idea during a trip
to visit Britain and Eaker in September 1943. After spending three days inspect-
ing the Eighth, Arnold visited Air Chief Marshal Harris at Bomber Command on
September 5. That evening he and Harris discussed the subject of a combined

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

command "in generalities." Arnold favored the plan because it allowed more
efficient use of aircraft. Harris objected chiefly, as Arnold noted in his trip jour-
nal, because the British would then lose control of the bomber offensive. Harris,
who operated with virtual autonomy from the RAF staff, could hardly be
expected to accept an American superior when he had already freed himself
from a British one.68 Arnold also discussed his plan with Portal,69 who probably
indicated that he found it impractical.

By early October, Arnold had carried his ideas to Harry Hopkins, Franklin
Roosevelt's alter ego, who endorsed them and presented them to the President.70 a
month later, Marshall, who by and large supported Amold's position, advised him
not to press the question until after the settlement of the more important questions of
a unified Mediterranean command proposed by the British and the appointment of a
single supreme commander for all U.S.-British forces fighting against the Germans.^l

Nevertheless, Arnold persevered in his advocacy of new command arrange-
ments. When the President made the first leg of his trip to the initial Big Three
meeting with Churchill and Stalin at Tehran, Iran, in November 1943, he sailed
on the brand-new U.S. battleship Iowa. The U.S. Chiefs traveled with him and
added the finishing touches to their presentations and plans for the Cairo
Conference with Churchill and Chinese leader Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek,
November 22-26, and the Tehran Conference, November 28 to December 1.
During the voyage Arnold succeeded in gaining the backing of his fellow chiefs
and the President for his command scheme. In a JCS memo for the President
dated November 17, 1943, the JCS stated that from the military point of view
the operation of the British and American strategic bombers required unity of
command. The memo, which offered different proposals depending on how the
British reacted to the American push for a supreme Allied commander in
Europe, specified a single bomber command whether the British agreed to an
overall supreme commander or not.72

The next day Arnold obtained the American Chiefs' agreement for the for-
mation of a new U.S. headquarters to command and control all U.S. strategic
bomber forces in Europe. The U.S. Strategic Air Forces in Europe (USSTAF)
would command both the Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces from London, where it
could coordinate action with British Bomber Command. The theater comman-
ders retained the right, upon notification of the Commanding General, USSTAF,
to deploy bombers in the event of a tactical or strategic emergency. The JCS
also agreed to Amold's suggestion for a commanding general, Carl A. Spaatz.
His name went forward to the President with the rest of the package.''^ Amold
chose Spaatz to head USSTAF for both professional and personal reasons.
Spaatz had the seniority required for the post; he had the confidence of Portal,
Tedder, and other high-ranking RAF officers; he possessed experience in con-
ducting strategic bombing operations under wartime conditions; he had demon-
strated his ability to function smoothly and effectively in theater-level Anglo-
American operations; and he was personally loyal to Amold, supporting his

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Salerno and London

beliefs as to the wartime and future roles of the AAF.

The RAF diametrically opposed Arnold's proposals. It wished, for the most
part, to maintain the status quo, which best served its interests. The RAF Chief
of Staff, Portal, had received from the Combined Chiefs of Staff the task of
coordinating the Eighth Air Force and British Bomber Command effort from
Britain. On paper and subject to concurrence by the AAF, therefore, the British
were in charge of the Combined Bomber Offensive, and Bomber Command
remained an independent part of the offensive. This maintenance of Bomber
Command's role was important, because the balance of heavy-bomber strength,
heretofore in favor of the British, would swing dramatically in favor of the
Americans during 1944. The British objected, too, that a new command would
disrupt the excellent relations between the Eighth Air Force and the RAF, create
a new unnecessary headquarters staff, and move the responsibility for coordina-
tion to Washington from London, which already had intelligence and communi-
cations personnel trained and ready to work. As for the Fifteenth Air Force, the
British asserted that tight, direct coordination between that force and the forces
in Britain would be impossible to attain and that shuttle bombing when, for
example, British-based bombers striking a target in southern Germany continued
on to land in Italy rather than on their home base, was not practical because
bombers rapidly lost effectiveness when away from their own dedicated ground
maintenance and supply echelons .^4

On November 20, the Iowa docked in Oran, where Eisenhower met Roose-
velt at the quay and flew with him to Tunis. The following day Roosevelt and
Hopkins went sightseeing; the President went to selected Tunisian battlefields
with Eisenhower; Hopkins went to Spaatz's headquarters. Roosevelt and
Hopkins used their visits to evaluate the two generals with an eye to future reas-
signment. Hopkins questioned Spaatz closely about his views concerning the
entire war strategy in Europe and about the feasibility of assisting the Soviets in
their advance westward. Spaatz cited the Ploesti oil refineries and Balkan targets
of a "psychological" nature, such as rail centers and depots, but noted that con-
tinued destruction of fighter and mimitions factories in Germany would advance
the Soviet cause as much as any other targets.75

Next, Hopkins asked Spaatz for his views on the Combined Bomber Offensive
and its relationship to the cross-channel invasion and to operations in the
Mediterranean. Spaatz replied boldly that once the weather cleared over
Germany in April and May, thus allowing continuous operations from Britain
and Italy, Germany would give up in three months. Overlord, Spaatz thought,
was neither necessary nor desirable. From the point of view of air power, further
gains in Italy would bring the bombers closer to Germany and represented a bet-
ter investment in men and materiel than the cross-channel invasion.

Hopkins was impressed but imconvinced.''^ He belonged to the Marshall/War
Department Operations Planning Division school of strategy, which upheld the
primacy of the Overlord cross-channel invasion over all other operations. But

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

apparently Spaatz 's personality, sincere advocacy of air power, and determina-
tion to get the job done at any cost must have persuaded Hopkins that Arnold
had been wise in championing him for the command of the strategic air forces in
Europe.

Once the chiefs of state and their military leaders assembled in Cairo on
November 23, Arnold's proposals encountered stiff opposition from the British.
Although Marshall and Roosevelt, on separate occasions, brought up the issue of
an overall Allied strategic air force with Churchill, they could not overcome
British resistance. To Roosevelt's observation that "our strategic air forces from
London to Ankara should be under one command," Churchill replied that a deci-
sion on the matter could be deferred until after Overlord— and that the current
system worked well enough.''^ The dispute was not resolved until after the
Tehran Conference, which dealt mainly with inter-Allied relations and assur-
ances to the Soviets of American and British intentions to open a second front
against Germany in the spring of 1944.

At the Second Cairo Conference, December 3-7, the Americans and the
British settled their chief outstanding differences concerning strategy, strategic
priorities, and operations. On December 6, Roosevelt announced his decision to
appoint Dwight D. Eisenhower as Supreme Commander, Alhed Expeditionary
Force (SCAEF), from which position he would direct the invasion of France.
Marshall, who had wanted the command and had many reasons to think he
would get it, was disappointed. He was to continue as Army Chief of Staff. The
President told him, "I could not sleep at night with you out of the country ."''^ It
was the most important personnel decision of the war; Eisenhower achieved
greamess in his new role as commander of the cross-channel invasion, while
Marshall continued to perform admirably his taxing and equally important chores
in Washington.

At the Second Cairo Conference, the Americans abandoned their quest for
an Allied Strategic Air Force and a supreme commander. The Allies did agree to
institute the U.S. Strategic Air Forces in Europe (USSTAF). The British declined
to interfere in what they regarded as an unwise, but purely American, decision.^^

USSTAF would establish its headquarters m London and employ its strength
primarily against Pointblank targets in accordance with directives issued by the
CCS. In so doing it would continue to coordinate activities with RAF Bomber
Command and ensure that in assignment of supplies and services between tacti-
cal and strategic operations Pointblank had first priority. Amold as Commanding
General, U.S. Army Air Forces, would continue to have direct channels to the
Commander, U.S. Strategic Air Forces "on matters of technical control, opera-
tional and training techniques, and uniformity of tactical doctrine." The imple-
menting directive to the American theater commanders and Commanding
General, Strategic Air Forces, stated that the Strategic Air Forces would continue
under the direction of the Chief of the Air Staff, RAF, as agent for the Combined
Chiefs of Staff, until coming directly under the control of the Supreme Allied

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Salerno and London

Commander (for Overlord only) "at a date to be announced later" by the CCS.
Should a tactical emergency arise, the theater commanders could employ the
strategic forces upon notification of the CCS and Commanding General, Strategic
Air Forces.80 Before accepting this directive the British Chiefs stipulated that
Arnold should consult Eisenhower, Tedder, and General James Maitland Wilson,
British Commander in Chief, Middle East, and Eisenhower's replacement as
Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean. 81

Also at the Second Cairo Conference, during a meeting of the Combined
Chiefs of Staff on December 4, Arnold left no doubt in Portal's or his other lis-
teners' minds about his unfavorable view of Eaker's efforts as commander of the
Eighth Air Force. He complained of a "lack of flexibility in operations" despite
numerous inspections and reports; a 50 percent aircraft availability rate* (in an
industrialized country) as opposed to 60 to 70 percent in other (more primitive)
theaters; and the dispatch of only one 600-aircraft operation in the whole month
of November. He said, "The failure to destroy targets was due directly to the
failure to employ planes in sufficient numbers. A sufficient weight of bombs
was not being dropped on the targets to destroy them, nor was the proper prior-
ity of targets being followed."82

Arnold found that failure intolerable. The hostile tone in his memoirs
describing his September inspection of the Eighth revealed a growing disen-
chantment with Eaker's progress. He was very angry, for example, as he listened
to radio reports during his flight to England of B-17s running out of fuel on the
ferry route through Gander, Newfoundland, and Prestwick. Arnold had worked
himself into a heart attack to get planes for the AAF and in Eaker's command
they, with their needed crews, were lost before ever reaching combat. "I was not
satisfied," he remarked.83 Also, while Arnold stayed in England, the Eighth suf-
fered the misfortune of a large raid's misfiring over Stuttgart. Not a single one
of 338 B-17s sent out reached its primary target. Arnold noted darkly, "Certain
features of the operation never did find their way into reports sent up through
channels."84 On December 2, 1943, Arnold had a talk with his staff — Kuter,
Vandenberg, and Hansell. He expressed to them the same dissatisfaction he
would show two days later to the Combined Chiefs.85

On December 7, Arnold met Wilson for the first time and lunched with
Tedder. He discussed the new air arrangements with both and found that neither
objected to them.86 On December 8, he flew to Sicily where he met the Presi-
dent, Eisenhower, Bedell Smith, and Spaatz, all of whom had traveled on the
same C-54 aircraft from North Africa to Sicily .87 Arnold consulted first with
Eisenhower and Bedell Smith, who approved of his choice of Spaatz to com-
mand the Strategic Air Force.88 Even though they were still puzzled as to the

* The availability rate is the number of aircraft and crews officially listed in the theater or unit
divided by the number of aircraft and crews actually available for combat. A 50 percent rate meant
that Eaker had only half of the number of his planes ready to fight.

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Spaatz and the Am War in Europe

exact task and position within the command hierarchy of the strategic air com-
mander, both Bedell Smith and Eisenhower preferred to have a known and
friendly quantity, such as Spaatz, in the job rather than a stranger who might not
appreciate the needs of the ground commanders. In his trip notebook Arnold
noted, "Both agree Spaatz was the man for the job. Wouldn't take anyone else,
not even Tedder."89 After Eisenhower and Bedell Smith endorsed the selection
of Spaatz, Arnold presumably obtained a final ratification from the President.
Roosevelt, who had used his flight and the previous days' meetings and dinner
with Eisenhower and Spaatz in Tunis to add to impressions collected earlier,
raised no objection.

Then Arnold and Bedell Smith informed Spaatz of his appointment to the
post of Commanding General, U.S. Strategic Air Forces in Europe. Spaatz him-
self would have preferred not to set up an overall strategic headquarters,90 but he
told Arnold that once the new headquarters went into operation "it must come
under Eisenhower's control not later than March 1 to be properly tied in with
OvERLORD."9i He added that it might be possible to increase the rate of opera-
tions in Britain but that congested conditions there might prevent the full use of
aircraft. Finally, he explained the complicated air command arrangements in the
Mediterranean to Arnold and warned that the contemplated shift of personnel
(such as Tedder and himself) might well upset the delicate balance between the
RAF and the AAF there.92

This last point may have been the final consideration in Arnold's decision to
remove Ira Eaker from command of the Eighth Air Force and transfer him to the
Mediterranean. As Arnold and Spaatz had confirmed that day, Tedder would
soon vacate his post as Air Officer Commanding, Mediterranean Allied Air
Forces (MAAF) to go to England as Eisenhower's deputy commander (not as
deputy for air). Eaker's transfer south would allow the AAF to fill the chief air
command in the Mediterranean — a position promised to the Americans during
the general reorganization of the commands in the theater — with a widely expe-
rienced combat officer.

After their meeting Arnold and Spaatz talked briefly with Eisenhower; they
recommended Eaker's transfer and Eisenhower agreed.93 In addition, Spaatz
reiterated to Eisenhower what he had told Bedell Smith — when the cross-chan-
nel battle began, Spaatz should serve directly under Eisenhower so that all of the
power of the strategic air forces could assist the invasion.94 The three generals
left the conference unsure about exactly what form the subordination of
USSTAF to the Supreme Allied Commander would take and when it would
occur.95 Two and one-half weeks later, on Christmas Day, Eisenhower con-
fessed to Marshall, "To be perfectly frank, this assignment for Spaatz leaves me
somewhat puzzled as to purpose and . . . position of such a command in an
American organization, since we always, in each Theater, insist upon a single
commander."96

After these brief meetings, all of which took place in little more than an

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hour, Spaatz returned to Foggia and his palatial headquarters with Arnold, where
they spent the night. The next evening, December 9, Arnold, Spaatz, Doolittle,
and Cannon met over dinner to discuss the new organization and the future of
the Twelfth and Fifteenth Air Forces. As for personnel, Spaatz reaffirmed his
recommendation that Eaker be transferred to the Mediterranean and suggested
that Doolittle replace him as commander of the Eighth, that Brereton retain com-
mand of the Ninth (the tactical air force designated to provide American direct
support for Overlord), and that Carmon keep the Twelfth while becoming head
of MAAF's Tactical Air Force* Arnold was also finally convinced that the
Fifteenth could handle the fifteen additional heavy-bombardment groups sched-
uled for the Mediterranean Theater.^?

On December 12, Arnold completed his talks with Spaatz, finished his
inspection of the AAF in Italy, and departed for Tunis to complete arrangements
with Eisenhower. They agreed to the personnel changes recommended by
Spaatz with the addition of Maj. Gen. Nathan F. Twining, who at that time com-
manded the Thirteenth Air Force in the South Pacific, to command the Fifteenth.
By December 15, Arnold had returned to Washington greatly pleased. In his
memoirs he wrote, "As far as the Army Air Forces were concerned the thing we
wanted most of all had been gained at the [Cairo] Conference. We had received
confirmation of our present plans for bombing the interior of Germany to a
pulp."98

Upon his return to the Pentagon, Arnold set in motion the personnel changes
to which he, Spaatz, and Eisenhower had agreed. Eaker's transfer to the
Mediterranean immediately became a cause celebre. Eaker must have known he
stood on slippery turf. Both before and after Arnold's inspection tour in Septem-
ber he had received from Arnold's headquarters an increasingly querulous string
of inquiries demanding higher rates of operations, greater employment en masse
of available aircraft, and more spectacular bombing results.99 Only a month
before, however, he, Spaatz, and Tedder had met at Gibraltar to discuss the
coordination of the Combined Bomber Offensive between the Eighth, the
Fifteenth, and RAF Bomber Command. They agreed to put Eaker on Spaatz's
Redline and to exchange messages at least twice a day. They further divided
Germany into bombing zones and allocated targets for each American air force;
and they provided for exchanging target material, posting liaison officers in each
headquarters, and sharing blind-bombing (bombing through clouds with the use
of radar) techniques. They also allowed the Fifteenth to station a permanent
intelligence liaison officer in London as its representative on all British Air
Ministry intelligence matters. 100 At the end of the conference the three Allied air-

* The current MAAF Tactical Air Force Commander, Air Marshal Coningham, had already
been selected to command the British 2d Tactical Air Force which would support the British ground
forces in Overlord. The Northwest African Air Forces (NAAF) had been redesignated
Mediterranean Allied Air Forces (MAAF) in the fall of 1943.

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Spaatz and the Air War m Europe

Maj. Gen. John K. Cannon, Commanding General, Northwest African Tactical Air
Force; Lt. Gen. Car! A. Spaatz, Commanding General, Northwest African Air
Forces; Lt. Gen. Mark W. Clark, Commanding General, Fifth Army; and General
Henry H. Arnold, Commanding General, U.S. Army Air Forces, awaiting depar-
ture in front of an idling Piper L-4 Grasshopper, after a visit to the Fifth Army
front in the Pesenzano area, Italy, December 11, 1943.

men sent word to Arnold, "We are in complete agreement on all matters."l0l

Apparently, Eaker had his first intimation that Arnold remained dissatisfied
with his operation during a visit on December 14 from Portal, who asked him to
answer the criticisms that Arnold had expressed during the three conferences at
Cairo and Tehran. Baker's defense satisfied Portal, who forwarded it to Arnold
and concluded, "I found Eaker thoroughly alive to need for earliest possible
attacks on Pointblank targets and to importance of using maximum force avail-
able. I am confident you will see great achievements as soon as weather gives
him a chance."J02 Four days later Eaker received the official message transfer-
ring him to the position of Commanding General of the Mediterranean Allied
Air Forces.

Arnold put the best possible face on the move; "As a result of your long
period of successful operations and the exceptional results of your endeavors as
Commander of the Air Force in England you have been recommended for this
position."l03 But Eaker objected to being "kicked upstairs." He felt as if he had
been kicked in an even more sensitive area. More than twenty years later, he
remarked, "The darkest hour for me was when I was ordered to the Mediterranean

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Salerno and London

Maj. Gen. James H. Doolittle in front of a Martin B-26 Marauder at Maison Blanche,
Algeria, October 15, 1943.

and relieved of my command of the 8th Air Force."i04 To Maj. Gen. James E.
Fechet, a fonner head of the Air Corps and an old friend, Eaker said, "I feel like
a pitcher who has been sent to the showers during a world series game."'05

Shocked and angry, Eaker fought to retain control of the command that he
had nurtured over the previous thirteen hard months. With an abundant supply
of heavy bombers and new P-51 long-range escort fighters filling the supply
pipeline from the United States and beginning to reach the units in England,
Eaker knew that he had success within his grasp. He immediately wrote to
Arnold:

Believe war interest best served by my retention command Eighth Air Force;
otherwise experience this theater for nearly two years wasted. If I am to be
allowed any personal preference, having started with the Eighth and seen it
organized for a major task in this theater, it would be heart-breaking to leave it
just before climax.""*

Then Eaker went to Devers, his theater commander, who was also ticketed
for a Mediterranean berth (although he was ignorant of it at the time) and then to
the U.S. ambassador to Britain, John Winant. Eaker even approached Portal.
Finally, unaware that they had already approved of his transfer, he telegraphed
Eisenhower and Spaatz for a reprieve. 107 Portal attempted to help Eaker, writing
frankly to Arnold that he disagreed with some of the impending persoimel
moves. "To move hun now that we approach the climax of the air war over

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Western Germany would be a grave mistake. I therefore greatly hope that when
the final decision is made you will feel able to leave Eaker here."i08 Portal also
thought Doolittle ought to stay with the Fifteenth and, in a backhanded slap at
Brereton, who already commanded the Ninth Air Force, he said, "I do not know
Twining, but if you should decide to send him to 9th Air Force to take
Brereton's place I can assure him a warm welcome and a receptive ear for his
Pacific experience."l09 AH this was to no avail.

Arnold's replies to Portal and Devers (written by Kuter) emphasized the
need for a man of Baker's qualities in the Mediterranean (to fill the vacuum left
by Spaatz). To Devers, Arnold added, "This move is necessary from the view-
point of world wide air operations."! 10 To Portal, Arnold replied that General
Wilson would find Eaker topnotch in the Mediterranean and "the Spaatz-
Doolittle- Anderson team a vigorous and effective one in the U.K."lii Arnold
did his best to quash any hope Eaker retained of staying with the Eighth: "I
extend to you my heartfelt thanks for the splendid cooperation and loyalty that
you have given me thus far and for the wonderful success of your organization,
but I cannot, repeat, not see my way clear to make any change in the decisions
already reached.''^'^ Spaatz, after receiving Arnold's approval, replied in a vari-
ation on the same theme: "Command of an Air Force in either place is relatively
of less importance as compared to overall requirements, particularly since
Eighth Air Force under new setup will function as an operating headquarters
more nearly approximating Eighth bomber command."! 13

Eaker's appeals did not go completely unheeded. On December 23, Bedell
Smith informed Spaatz, that "strong objections are being raised to the transfer of
Eaker from the U.K." Spaatz, who replied that he would not go to England
unless Ira Eaker came to the Mediterranean, still believed that the AAF in
the Mediterranean required Eaker's leadership to replace his own. us in a post-
war interview he said:

I know this — that I would have been satisfied to have stayed down in the
Mediterranean and command the Mediterranean Air Force, if I hadn't had to go
up on that cross-channel operation. ... I didn't look forward at all to England at
that time. I felt my job down in the Mediterranean was just the job I wanted to
have.'"

From Bedell Smith, Spaatz learned that his position would be clarified by
Eisenhower in a cable to Marshall, H'? and he recorded in his Command Diary
his irritation at what he regarded as Arnold's backshding on the subject. Arnold
had not strongly enough sold Marshall on the changes, and now Eisenhower
would have to bail them both out. "My original estimation of Eisenhower's fair-
ness has been strengthened," noted Spaatz, "by the way ... he is taking this and
the way he is standing by me in my decision."ii8

But before Eisenhower could send his explanation, he found a stinging tele-
gram on his desk from Marshall, who had received Eaker's cri de coeur on

276

Salerno and London

December 22, when he returned to Washington from a Pacific tour following the
Second Cairo Conference. 119 Marshall, tired after a long tour and still deeply
disappointed from his own failure to gain the Overlord command, reacted with
an uncharacteristically emotional display, especially for a man who exemplified
the Virginia Military Institute tradition, derived from George Washington
and Robert E. Lee, of complete imperturbability in the face of stress. After
questioning the tendency to "gut" the Mediterranean theater of leadership,
Marshall said, "I believe 1 was more disturbed over the pressure of TEDDER
and SPAATZ to move EAKER to the Mediterranean because to me he did not
appear particularly suited for that theater and I am forced to the conclusion that
their attitude is selfish and not purely objective."i20 Arnold seemed to have cre-
ated the impression that not he, but Spaatz and Tedder, wanted Eaker ousted.

On Christmas day in Tunis Eisenhower told Spaatz that he would send a
message to Marshall in which he would give Spaatz' s views as his own. Spaatz
again remarked in his diary, "General Eisenhower has [been] and is firm in [his]
decisions and I consider him one of the finest men I know." 1 21 In his "Eyes
Only" cable to Marshall, Eisenhower gave assurances that he had studied the
proposed personnel changes for some time and had a "completely objective"
attitude in recommending them. Then Eisenhower justified the transfer by point-
ing out Eaker's ability and noting the waste of talent involved in having him and
Spaatz in the same theater. The only other air officer he would consider for the
Mediterranean, Maj. Gen. Lewis H. Brereton, had just set up his Ninth Air Force
in England to serve as the U.S. tactical air force in support of Overlord.
Brereton' s selection might disrupt that vital phase of the invasion.

Noting Spaatz's intention to stay in the Mediterranean if Eaker stayed in
London, Eisenhower implied that he needed Spaatz in London and that he
accepted conditions concerning Eaker. Eisenhower emphasized to Marshall that
in Spaatz he had one of the few senior officers experienced in air-ground sup-
port, a practice "that is not repeat not widely understood and takes men of some
vision and broad understanding to do . . . right. Otherwise a commander is for-
ever fighting with those air officers who, regardless of the ground situation,
want to send big bombers on missions that have nothing to do with the critical
effort."l22

Later in the day Eisenhower wrote to Eaker, stating of the new move that
Arnold (with no mention of Spaatz) had proposed it during his stopover in Sicily
and that he had agreed to it "because of the absolute necessity of finding an out-
standing man for the post of Air CINC of the Mediterranean." He then added his
own opinion that if Spaatz left for Britain, Eaker must come south, for "we do
not repeat not have enough top men to concentrate them in any one place. "123

The day after Christmas Spaatz flew from Tunis to Algiers for further dis-
cussion about the new posts with Eisenhower, who showed him the message
from Marshall questioning Eaker's transfer. At first Spaatz bristled and told him
that he would write to Marshall to explain; but upon reflection he decided

277

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

against such a move. 124 it would accomplish nothing except to prod Marshall on
a sore point and make Spaatz appear self-serving. Besides, the transfer had been
confirmed and Spaatz would leave for England in two days. At the same meet-
ing Spaatz told Eisenhower that in order to prevent disputes, presumably about
logistical, material, and replacement priorities between the Eighth and Ninth Air
Forces, Eisenhower needed to appoint a Commanding General, Army Air
Forces, European Theater of Operations. As m the Mediterranean, a single AAF
general officer could then arbitrate between the competing demands of the
strategic and tactical air forces. Spaatz also told Eisenhower that, instead of
dealing directly with the Fifteenth Air Force, he intended always to go through
the Commander of the Mediterranean Allied Air Forces, in this case, Eaker.i25

In the Eaker incident, Eisenhower had taken a straightforward position. He
welcomed Arnold's and Spaatz's recommendation because he wanted Spaatz in
England with him. When objections arose, he backed Spaatz. When Spaatz made
it clear he would not go to Britain unless Eaker was transferred, Eisenhower per-
suaded Marshall to bow to the new arrangements.

Spaatz, too, had taken a straightforward position during the Eaker transfer.
At no point in his wartime papers or postwar interviews did he criticize Baker's
performance in command of the Eighth. Unlike Arnold, Spaatz had extensive
personal experience with difficulties involved in the mounting of large-scale
heavy-bomber missions and with the frustrating and peculiar weather conditions
in England and Western Europe. Spaatz believed in Ira Baker's great ability,
especially as a military diplomat, and wanted him in the Mediterranean to
advance the war effort and the AAF's cause as the new Commander of the
Mediterranean Allied Air Forces. Knowing that Eisenhower wanted him in
London, Spaatz told Arnold: "If I go to England, then Ira must have command of
the air forces in the Mediterranean."l26 He did not consider Baker's move a
demotion; 127 in fact, Spaatz later credited himself with the original recommen-
dation that Eaker move.l28 He wanted Eaker in the Mediterranean because he
knew that, given the complex and intermingled operational and administrative
controls over the American air forces in Europe in which he and Eaker would
operate, he needed a man he knew and trusted. 129

There was no hint that Spaatz advocated Baker's transfer in order to remove
a rival or a possible center of opposition from England.

Unlike Eisenhower and Spaatz, Arnold had mixed motives in removing
Eaker. AAF official historians said in 1949, "If Arnold's dissatisfaction over the
rate of Eighth Air Force operations entered into the decision, the record appar-
ently has left no evidence of it."130 xhe diplomatic record of the Cairo Confer-
ence, published in 1961, and Amold's own memoirs, published in 1949, contra-
dicted them. Arnold probably did feel that Baker's talents could be more effec-
tively applied in the Mediterranean, but he did not lose sight of his main goal —
removing Eaker from the Eighth Air Force for not fully employing the resources
supplied him to pursue the ultimate purpose of the Combined Bomber Offensive.

278

Salerno and London

He seized on the command shuffle stemming from the Cairo and Tehran confer-
ences to cloak a decision he had probably already reached. In his own mind, at
least, he had saved face for himself, Eaker, and, most important, for his beloved
AAF. Eaker might be broken-hearted and a friendship of twenty-five years'
standing shattered, but Eaker and Spaatz had been moved to where the
Commander of the AAF wanted them.

In February 1944, Arnold explained to Spaatz his reason for assigning him
to London in a highly emotional and confidential letter. Arnold had advanced
the Strategic Air Force for a purely military consideration — unity of command
for the British and Italian portions of the bomber offensive. But he went on:

Another and perhaps equally important motive behind the formation of the
United States Strategic Air Forces in Europe was my desire to build an
American Air Commander to a high position prior to the defeat of Germany. It
is that aspect particularly which has impelled me in my so far successful fight
to keep your command parallel to Harris' command and, therefore, parallel to
Dee's. If you do not remain in a position parallel with Harris, the air war will
certainly be won by the RAF, if anybody. Already the spectacular effectiveness
of their devastation of cities has placed their contribution in the popular mind at
so high a plane that I am having the greatest difficulty in keeping your achieve-
ment (far less spectacular to the public) in its proper role not only in publica-
tions, but unfortunately in military and naval circles and, in fact, with the
President himself Therefore, considering only the aspect of a proper American
share in credit for success in the air war, I feel we must have a high air com-
mander some place in Europe. Today you can be that commander.'^'

After an exchange of messages on personnel matters between Eisenhower
and Marshall, the latter accepted Eisenhower's recommendations almost in toto.
Marshall acquiesced in Spaatz's transfer with the proviso that no large new staff
organization be created as a consequence of it. 132

On December 28, 1943, Spaatz boarded his B-17 on the first leg of the flight
to England. For thirteen months he had advanced the effectiveness and impor-
tance of the AAF in the war against the Axis in the Mediterranean Theater of
Operations. His personal involvement in the day-to-day operations of the NAAF
had waned as Air Chief Marshal Arthur Tedder actively assumed his own role as
Eisenhower's Commander in Chief for Air. Spaatz had directed the bombing of
Pantelleria, controlling the combined operation's plarming, execution, and air,
naval, and land coordination. From that high point of broad responsibility his
influence had steadily diminished until, by the end of the Sicihan campaign, he
apparently exercised little control over his RAF subordinate commander for the
Tactical Air Force, Air Marshal Arthur Coningham.

As a result of the peculiarities of the Allied command structure in the Medi-
terranean, Spaatz found himself reduced to the de facto position of head of the
Northwest African Strategic Air Force. After the merger of Spaatz's and
Tedder's operational headquarters by Eisenhower in late summer 1943, Tedder

279

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

felt free to go directly to the RAF Commander of the Tactical and Coastal Air
Forces, but constrained to go through Spaatz to give orders to Doolittle, an
American officer. That this situation did not cause a great deal more anger and
mistrust than it did is a tribute to the personalities of Tedder and Spaatz, espe-
cially Spaatz, who subordinated himself for the mutual good.

Spaatz concentrated his energies on consolidating the AAF's position within
the theater and expanding its part in the Combined Bomber Offensive. He suc-
ceeded in both endeavors. By the end of his tenure in the Mediterranean he had a
fully functional ail-American communications network, Redline, in place,
which enabled him, as AAF chief in the Mediterranean, to retain close adminis-
trative ties with his units, independent of the RAF or any combined Allied orga-
nization. Redline also allowed him to retain what minimal control of operations
he had.

Spaatz held the strongest belief that an air force based in the Mediterranean
Theater could, by attacking from the south, increase Germany's defense burden
and advance the goal of the Combined Bomber Offensive. His convincing
Arnold and Eisenhower and, then, the three's convincing the Combined Chiefs
of Staff of the soundness of that belief resulted in the establishment of the
Fifteenth Air Force. He may also have felt, at least until his appointment as head
of U.S. Strategic Air Forces in Europe, that commanding the Fifteenth rather
than serving as Tedder's deputy would give him a chance to contribute more to
the war effort.

When Spaatz departed for London he left behind two large, well-organized,

and well-supplied American air forces. Of course, a year's worth of combat
experience and the fruits of America's vast industrial effort did much to improve
their status. Spaatz also deserves credit as a military administrator. The responsi-
bility for military administration rested in his headquarters, not in Tedder's
Mediterranean Air Command or the Strategic, Tactical, and Coastal Air Forces.
They dealt only with operations.l33 Without Spaatz's efforts there might have
been not only one air force, but one air force dominated by the RAF and devoted
to the close support of the army. Spaatz's establishment of a strategic air force,
over the objections of those favoring a stronger heavy-bomber buildup in
England, would also prove important in the long run. Bombers based in Britain
did not have the range to hit the vital Axis oil targets of southeastern Europe.
Without the Fifteenth Air Force, the Allied bombing campaign would have
achieved substantially fewer results. Arnold might well have refused to consider
splitting his forces in the face of the enemy and handing part of them over to an
officer he did not know as well or trust as completely as Spaatz.

280

Part Four

The Point of the Blade

Strategic Bombing and the
Cross-Channel Invasion
January-June 1944

Part Four
The Point of the Blade

Strategic Bombing bears the same relationship to tactical
bombing as does the cow to a pail of milk. To deny imme-
diate aid and comfort to the enemy, tactical considerations
dictate upsetting the bucket. To insiu°e eventual starvation,
the strategic move is to kill the cow.'

— US. Strategic Bombing Survey, November 1945

On January 1, 1944, Lt. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz officially assumed command of
the United States Strategic Air Forces in Europe (USSTAF). This new headquar-
ters had operational control of two U.S. strategic air forces, the Eighth in Britain
and the Fifteenth in Italy. Under the direction of the Chief of the Air Staff, RAF,
who acted as an agent for the U.S.-British Combined Chiefs of Staff, Spaatz was
responsible for directing the U.S. portion of the Combined Bomber Offensive —
the U.S.-British strategic bombing campaign against the German war economy
and military machine. At some imspecified future date, before the invasion of
France from Britain (Overlord), Spaatz would come under the command of the
Supreme Allied Commander of the invasion force. Once under Eisenhower's
control, USSTAF would apply its forces to the preinvasion air campaign, to the
assault, and to subsequent phases of the campaign.

Spaatz would play a far stronger and more prominent role in the deliberations
of the Allied high command and enjoy greater prestige and autonomy than his pre-
decessor, Ira Eaker, because he was much friendlier with Eisenhower and Tedder,
because he would oversee a much larger, more generously supplied, more effective,
and more organizationally indepeiuient force, and because, in the last analysis, he
would exercise a more forceful personality.2 In the beginning of 1944, the focus of
Anglo-American operations shifted from the Mediterranean to northwest Europe,
where the decisive ground operation to overthrow Germany would be launched.
This fact magnified the importance of the commanders and their decisions.

Spaatz faced two problems: he had to (1) get the maximum number of bombers
over the target (which meant using escort fighters because not enough unescorted
bombers would survive to reach their destinations) and (2) get the greatest possi-
ble accuracy from bombs delivered. Spaatz was compelled to substitute sheer
tonnage for precision when his bombers failed to destroy their targets — this
practice required bombing in less-than-perfect weather conditions and using
radar for navigation and sighting.

283

By January 1944, the Americans' operational plan for their part of the
Combined Bomber Offensive, known as Pointblank, had three high-priority
targets: (1) single-engine fighter plane production, (2) twin-engine fighter plane
production, and (3) German antifriction bearing manufacturing.3 As a single
overriding prerequisite to the neutralization of these targets, Pointblank called
for the destruction of the Luftwaffe's fighter forces in being — the chief obstacle
to the success of the Combined Bomber Offensive. Pointblank had its origins
at the Casablanca Conference in January 1943, where Roosevelt, Churchill, and
their military staffs had agreed to a bomber offensive against Germany. In May
1943, at the Washington Conference, the Combined Chiefs of Staff approved a
plan for the Combined Bomber Offensive drawn up by Eaker and the Eighth Air
Force. This plan was based on priorities originated by an AAF-supported study
group (the Committee of Operations Analysts) and agreed on, with some modifi-
cations, by experts of the British Ministry of Economic Warfare and the RAF
Air Staff.4

The plan gave the highest priority to German fighter plane production. Early
elimination of fighter manufacture was essential to the accomplishment of the
rest of the Combined Bomber Offensive and would heighten the chances of suc-
cess for the cross-channel invasion by reducing expected air opposition. Allied
planners had identified antifriction, or ball, bearings as crucial in the production
of German war materiel. The effects of their unavailability, although not imme-

Air Chief Marshal
TraiTord Leigh-Mallory,
Commander, Allied
Expeditionary Air Force,
1943-1944.

284

The Luftwaffe Engaged

diately felt in enemy front-line strength, would eventually touch all types of
high-speed military equipment. The Allies believed from their own experience
that ball bearings could not be stockpiled and that only large plants could manu-
facture a complete range of them. In addition, more than half of all German pro-
duction was concentrated in one locality within range of bombers based in
Britain — Schweinfurt.5 But the Allies soon learned that the Germans were not
so dependent on ball bearings as predicted. Moreover, the Eighth Air Force,
because of heavy losses, had been unable to follow up attacks on Schweinfurt in
August and October, which had alerted the Germans and led them to disperse
the industry and redesign their equipment to use less of its vital product.

While attempting to carry out their mission under Pointblank, Spaatz and
his headquarters became increasingly involved in the planning and the conduct
of the preinvasion air campaign. A protracted dispute eventually developed
between Spaatz and the Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Air Force
(AEAF), Air Chief Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory. Spaatz became, almost by
default, the chief spokesman for a faction of the Allied high command that
objected to the massive antirailroad and transportation interdiction plan sup-
ported by Tedder and advocated by Leigh-Mallory, who had operational control
of all tactical combat air forces directly assigned to Eisenhower's invasion force.

These two interwoven threads of Pointblank and Overlord dominated
Spaatz's thoughts and actions for the crucial period between New Year's Day
1944 and the invasion of France on D-day, June 6, 1944.

285

Chapter 9

The Luftwaffe Engaged
(January-February 1944)

We look upon our attacks against Germany now as major
battles that are phases of a campaign. Each of these battles
has all the elements of a major land or sea engagement,
involving movement over tremendous distances, involving
holding forces, involving penetrations and involving envel-
opments.'

— Spaatz to Arnold, January 10, 1944

Reports of the actual dispatch of over 800 heavy bombers
against German fighter targets on 2 successive days and
your ability and intention to repeat on the 3rd day are the
brightest items that have crossed this desk for a long time.^

— Arnold to Spaatz, January 31, 1944

Upon his arrival in London on December 29, 1943, Spaatz found the Eighth
Air Force facing a crisis. For two and a half months it had flown no deep-pene-
tration bombing missions into Germany during clear weather.3 As the Army Air
Forces offical history admitted, "The Eighth Air Force had for the time being
lost [the battle for] air superiority over Germany. "4 The AAF had learned during
the October 14 Schweinfurt mission, in which it lost 60 of 320 bombers dis-
patched, wrote off 7 bombers as not repairable, and counted 138 more as dam-
aged,5 — "that such operations without fighter protection were impossibly
costly."6 Portal, in his capacity as the coordinator for Pointblank, informed the
Combined Chiefs of Staff on December 4, 1943, that "the program was, in fact,
some three months behind [schedule]. ""^ As of early January 1944, Eighth Air
Force statistics, only slightly skewed by the disastrous Schweinfurt mission.

287

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

showed that only 26 percent of those crews beginning operational tours in the
theater could expect to complete twenty-five missions (the minimum needed to
return to the States); 57 percent would be dead or missing; and the remaining 17
percent would fail to complete their tours because of combat fatigue, accidental
death, transfer, or administrative reasons.^ Arnold reported only slightly less dis-
couraging statistics to Marshall, noting that the Eighth's 3.8 percent loss rate per
mission from July through November translated into a loss of 64 crew members*
out of every 100.9

Spaatz, however, would soon take advantage of opportunities and resources
unavailable to his unlucky predecessor, Ira Eaker. In a campaign that bore some
resemblance to that of Ulysses S. Grant versus Robert E. Lee in the spring of
1864, Spaatz would use every opportunity to close with the Luftwaffe and force
it to bleed and die. Similarly, just as the relative contributions of Grant and
George G. Meade, the actual commander of the Union Army of the Potomac,
blurred and merged, so, too, did those of Spaatz and his chief subordinate Maj.
Gen. James H. Doolittle. Grant's drive from Fredericksburg to Petersburg
destroyed the offensive potential of Lee's army and tied it to a trench system
that it could not successfully defend. Spaatz, in the upcoming campaign, would
pull the Luftwaffe's teeth, forcing it to defend only the most preeminently
important target systems, such as oil, while allowing the AAF daylight air
supremacy over Germany. Also like Grant, Spaatz benefited through the prodi-
gal output of men and material from an industrial economy whose production
was overwhelming.

The pipeline that had supplied Eaker with only a slowly increasing force
overflowed in late 1943 and early 1944 for Spaatz. The Allied victory in the
Battle of the Atlantic and massive U.S. merchant shipping production turned the
constricted flow of supplies that had slowed the U.S. buildup in Britain for the
first one and a half years of the war into a fast-flowing river. As a consequence
of delays caused, in part, by a January 1943 decision by Arnold and Spaatz to
divert P-38s to the North African Theater, Eaker's first operational P-38
"Lightning" long-range fighter group (the 55th) of approximately seventy-five
aircraft became operational the day after the Schweinfurt mission. The P-38s of
the 20th Fighter Group went into action in December 1943, as did the first long-
range P-51B Mustang fighters (the Ninth Air Force's 354th Fighter Group). In
March the P-51 began to use new external fuel tanks (drop tanks), which en-
abled it to go as far as any bombers in the theater. 10

As of December 30, 1943, the Army Air Forces in England comprised 4,618

* A loss rate of 3.8 percent per mission meant that 3.8 percent of the original force was lost on
each mission. By the end of 25 missions the cumulative loss suffered by the original 100 air crews
was therefore 64 air crews, even though only 3.8 percent, on average, were lost in a single mission.
Reinforcement of the original 100 crews would have no effect on their chances for statistical sur-
vival because new arrivals would be lost at the same rate.

288

Lt. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz, Commanding General, U.S. Strategic Air Forces in
Europe; Maj. Gen. Natlian F. Twining, Commanding General, Fifteenth Air Force;
and Lt. Gen. Ira C. Eaker, Commanding General, Mediterranean Allied Air Force.

Maj. Gen. Lewis H. Brereton, Commanding General, Ninth Air Force; Lt. Gen.
Carl A. Spaatz, Commanding General, U.S. Strategic Air Forces in Europe; and
General Dwight D. Eisenhower, Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force,
studying a photograph of a Ninth Air Force medium bomber field, April 22, 1944.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

aircraft, 4,242 of them combat aircraft, divided into 4574 groups (26% of heavy
bombers, 12 of fighters, 4 of medium bombers, 2 of troop carriers, and 1 of
reconnaissance).! 1 Despite constant attrition from September 1943 to May 1944,
the number of fully operational heavy bombers in Eighth Air Force tactical units
rose from 461 to 1,655. During the same period the Eighth's fighter aircraft also
jumped from 274 to 88212 and the number of personnel assigned to the Eighth
went from 150,000 to 400,000. By February 19, 1944, another part of Spaatz's
command, the Fifteenth Air Force, would contribute an additional 12 heavy
bomber and 4 fighter groups.i3

Before taking on the Luftwaffe, Spaatz instituted a system in which opera-
tions and administration received equal attention. This arrangement stemmed
from Spaatz's dual responsibilities as the Commander of USSTAF, in opera-
tional control of the Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces, and as the head of the AAF
in Britain in charge of administration for the Eighth and Ninth Air Forces. The
Ninth, a tactical air force, made up the U.S. contingent of Air Chief Marshal
Leigh-Mallory's AEAF. Spaatz appointed Brig. Gen. Hugh J. Knerr as his
Deputy for Administration, assigning directorates subordinate to him for person-
nel, supply, maintenance, and administration. 14 Maj. Gen. Frederick L.
Anderson became Spaatz's deputy for operations over directorates for operations
and intelligence. (See Chart 4, U.S. Strategic Air Forces in Europe, May 1944.)
The official AAF history comments that this arrangement "integrated operations
and logistics in one headquarters to a degree never before attained and repre-
sented a triumph for the concept that logistics was of equal importance with
operations."'^

By elevating logistics to the same command level as operations Spaatz
increased the status and morale of his logistics organizations. He placed his
administrative control of the Ninth Air Force at the same level as his operational
control over the Fifteenth Air Force. By tying the Eighth and Ninth together
administratively, Spaatz made it harder for the Ninth to separate itself com-
pletely from his headquarters. He also emphasized the separateness of the AAF
from both the RAF and the U.S. ground forces. A few months later Spaatz wrote
to Arnold, "The Maintenance and Supply fiinctions of our Air Forces cannot be
integrated into the British Maintenance and Supply system for obvious reasons.
Therein we have a firm foundation upon which to build our effort to regain and
retain complete control of all U.S. air units in all theaters." Not only did the new
organization help to maintain independence from the British; it helped also to
maintain institutional independence from the U.S. Army Service Forces (ASF).
In the same letter he added, "We must always be alert that the A.S.F. does not
extend its control of ground services to the Air Forces through lack of an organi-
zation of our own capable of rendering all manner of base services to air units in
the combat zone."l6 In keeping with Spaatz's desire to avoid as much adminis-
trative detail as possible, the reorganization reduced the number of people
reporting directly to him to three — ^the two deputies and his chief of staff.

290

Chart 4

U. S. Strategic Air Forces in Europe
May 1944

U. S. STRATEGIC AIR FORCES IN EUROPE

Director of
Intelligence

Director of
Operations

Director of
Weather
Services

Commanding General USSTAF

Daputy CommaiMling Gamral
Operation*

AirUnpaetor

Adjutant General

Director of
Plans

Admitustrative Control

OperadcMial Control through MAAF ■

Comnwndbig Qmersl
Eighth Air Fbffce

Commanding General
Fifteenth Afr Force

Deputy Commanding General
Administration

Commanding Qonaral
Air Service Command USSTAF

Air Inspector

Director of
Technical
Services

INrector of
Supply

Statistic^ Control Office

Director of
Administrative

American Component
HQ AEAF

Commanding General
Ninth Air Force

Lt. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz meetii^ his oldest daughter, "Tattie" (Katharine) (left), a
Red Cross worker, England, January 1944.

The Luftwaffe Engaged

Lt. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz and his command plane, a B-17 named for his youngest
daughter, "Boops" (Carla), Italy, 1944.

Spaatz overcame the worries of Portal and Marshall that his headquarters
would graft a new and large layer of bureaucratic staff onto already awkward air
command arrangements in England. His new headquarters simply moved in
on Eighth Air Force Headquarters, abolished it, absorbed most of it, and sent the
rump on to the headquarters of VIII Bomber Command, which, in turn, became
Doolittle's new headquarters, redesignated Headquarters, Eighth Air Force.

Maj. Gen. Walter Bedell Smith, Eisenhower's chief of staff, participated in
the discussions for the new organization. On January 1, he assured Eisenhower,
who had returned to the United States for a short visit, that "the . . . planned
Organization represents NO repeat NO increase in personnel and NO repeat NO
increase in the number of Headquarters ."l^ The same day, Spaatz and Bedell
Smith agreed to locate Eisenhower's Supreme Headquarters with USSTAF at
Bushy Park, code-named Widewings.18 Spaatz believed that this arrangement
overcame one of the basic flaws of the Mediterranean organization, which had
allowed the different service commanders to locate their headquarters in areas
widely separated from the theater commanders and each other.

The decision to co-locate USSTAF and SHAEF (Supreme Headquarters
Allied Expeditionary Force) together gave Spaatz an advantage over the other
air leaders. Their very distance from Eisenhower would assure Spaatz greater
access to the ear of the Supreme Commander. Bedell Smith's and Spaatz 's

293

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

agreement ruined the plans of the Commander in Chief of the AlHed Expedi-
tionary Air Force, Air Chief Marshal Leigh-Mallory in his complex at Stanmore.
He had intended to move Eisenhower into Bushey Heath, a group of adjacent
buildings. Stanmore, the Headquarters of No. 1 1 Group, had perhaps the finest
communications network in Britain. Much of the Battle of Britain had been
directed from Stanmore, and its facilities had since expanded. Before Leigh-
Mallory and Lt. Gen. Frederick Morgan, the principal planner for Overlord des-
ignated Chief of Staff Supreme Allied Command (COSSAC), could explain the
situation to Smith, however, several battalions of U.S. engineers had descended
on Bushy Park and erected Eisenhower's headquarters. When Bedell Smith
learned that Morgan and Leigh-Mallory had meant to place SHAEF at Stanmore,
he remarked, "My God, I've married the wrong woman."l9 From the beginning
of the campaign, Spaatz gained a leg up in the fight over the air command
arrangements that would plague the Allies until April 1944.

Spaatz further strengthened his command by supporting and pursuing far-
sighted personnel management practices. He continued the enlightened racial
policies of his predecessor, Ira Eaker. As the number of black AAF persormel
in England began to increase above 3,000, Eaker instructed his staff to "stop
arguing as to reasons why they [blacks] were sent here and do our best to coop-
erate with the War Department in making their employment here satisfactory to
all concerned." Eaker believed that "90 percent of the trouble with Negro
troops was the fault of the whites" and told his staff "to give serious thought to
handling this important problem."20 As a result, in August 1943, the Eighth Air
Force reorganized all black AAF units into the Combat Support Wing, a name
carefully chosen to give black soldiers a feeling of contributing to the war
effort. This move gave black AAF units a single strong commander with a good
organization and an efficient supervisory headquarters. The commanding offi-
cers of the Combat Support Wing were sensitive to racial problems and they
recognized the circumstances unique to their black units. Spaatz and Eaker also
made it clear that they would allow no discrimination and expected their troops
to avoid derogatory remarks and altercations.^!

Spaatz also enthusiastically supported the assignment of Women's Army
Corps (WAC) personnel to USSTAF. So determinedly did he press for WACs
that in February 1944 General Arnold succeeded in obtaining a USSTAF allo-
cation of them separate fixim that of the European Theater of Operations. The
AAF in Europe had a quota of 4,448 WACs as opposed to a quota of only
1,727 for the ETO. By June 6, 1944, the AAF had female personnel assigned
throughout its Bomber, Fighter, and Troop Carrier Commands and its bombard-
ment divisions, even down to individual combat wings.22 Spaatz's own execu-
tive officer, Capt. Sally Bagby, ran his unique personal/military headquarters.
Spaatz was the highest-ranking officer in the theater to have assigned a woman
to such a position.

294

Maj. Gen. Frederick L.
Anderson, Commanding
General, VIII Bomber
Command, December
1943.

Maj. Gen. Earle E.
Partridge, Deputy
Commanding General,
Eighth Air Force, spring
1944.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Brig. Gen. Curtis E.
LeMay, Commanding
General, 3rd Bombard-
ment Division, Eighth
Air Force, 1943.

Initial Operations

On January 3, Spaatz was briefed on the V-1, a German jet-propelled pilot-
less bomb, and the threat that it posed. The new weapon badly frightened British
leaders, who immediately decided to concentrate a special effort on knocking
out its launch sites and rendering it inoperable. This effort to eliminate the sites,
code-named CROSSBOW, would divert, over Spaatz's continued objections, much
of the AAF's strength from both strategic and preinvasion bombing. After this
first experience with Crossbow Spaatz noted, somewhat acerbically, that it was
"very apparent from all conversations so far" that "everyone" accepted the
Crossbow diversion from the main air effort. Spaatz went on to observe that if
the Germans considered Crossbow so important, why had fighter opposition to
raids on the sites decreased from November to December?23

From the beginning of January to Februaiy 15, the weather and Crossbow
proved almost as adversarial to the U.S. daylight bombing offensive as the
Luftwaffe. In that period the Eighth's heavy bombers flew combat missions on
twenty-one days. Only six of those bombing missions went forward under com-
pletely visual conditions, and only two of those six attacked strategic targets in
Germany. Nine other missions struck V-1 launch sites in France.24 in eleven of the
thirteen missions over Germany the AAF resorted to bombing directed by an
early, inaccurate system of radar which enabled the Eighth to conduct only area
bombing. Area bombing tormented the Germans but did not provide results any-
where close to those obtained by visual means. The Eighth had only twelve B-17s

296

The Luftwaffe Engaged

equipped with H2X radar equipment. They arrived in October 1943 with hand-
built equipment and served as pathfinders (PFF), or lead planes, for bomber
groups.25 Spaatz and Doolittie worked them hard. Their crews became exhausted.

The American H2X derived from the British-developed H2S radar bombing
system. H2X was critically important in increasing American bomb tonnage
dropped on Europe because it enabled operations in overcast conditions. Its con-
tribution to the weight of the U.S. bombing effort in 1944-1945 was second
only to the success of the U.S. long-range fighter escorts in preserving the
bombers themselves. That H2X stemmed from British, not American, efforts
constituted another indictment of prewar U.S. military air thinking. America's
failure to anticipate the need for long-range fighter escort and to develop as early
as possible the ability to locate and bomb targets through clouds left U.S. strate-
gic bombers operable at only a fraction of their strength and almost ruined the
efforts of the AAF. The Americans owed a great debt to the RAF not only for
the P-51 but for H2X as well.

Ever mindful of public perception, Arnold instructed Spaatz to abjure the
term "blind bombing" for the H2X technique, because it gave "both the military
and the public an erroneous impression."26 Spaatz agreed to use such terms as
"overcast bombing technique," "bombing through overcast," "bombing with
navigational devices over clouds extending up to 20,000 feet."27 He also pressed

Lt. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz and his executive officer, Capt. Sally Bagby, Women's
Amy Corps, spring 1944.

297

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Arnold for more radar-equipped planes, explaining that the "results of the past
two months' extensive use of Pathfinder (H2X) aircraft in the Eighth Air Force
have shown the equipment offers enormous possibilities for further intensifica-
tion of the bombing offensive against Germany." He drove the point home by
adding, "The most critical need of the Strategic Air Forces is for more
Pathfinder aircraft. A few H2X airplanes now will profit our cause more than
several hundred in six months" [emphasis in original]. 28

The bombing of Germany by nonvisual means continued a policy begun
under Eaker in the last quarter of 1943. Although nowhere nearly as accurate as
precision bombing, radar bombing allowed more frequent operations, main-
tamed the pressure on German cities, and forced the Luftwaffe to intercept under
adverse weather conditions. Its adoption of this policy marked the AAF's accep-
tance of the reality that daylight precision bombing alone could not win the air
war. The implications of this belated acknowledgment were little remarked on at
the time. Yet, at this point the AAF, without ever publicly or privately admitting
it, abandoned its unquestioning faith in prewar bombing doctrines.

Once he assumed command, Spaatz wanted to go after the Luftwaffe imme-
diately. The Pointblank directive under which he operated left the means for
doing so up to him. Spaatz 's approach differed significantly from that of his pre-
decessor. Because of his lack of long-range escort fighters, Eaker had had no
choice but to rely on a bomber-based strategy. The Eighth under Eaker's com-
mand had attempted to ruin the Luftwaffe fighter force by bombing the German
air industry. The Americans had hoped that attrition inflicted on all battle fronts
and by short-range U.S. and RAF fighters out of Britain would destroy the dam-
aged German air industry's ability to replace losses. Eaker may have focused too
heavily on his bombers and their task. His fighters appear to have concentrated
on their escort duties to the detriment of then: possible employment in counterair
and ground sweeps. This philosophy was made clear during an Eighth Air Force
Commanders' meeting in September 1943, where the prevailing sentiment was
that "fighters must escort the bombers whether they bring down any German
fighters or not."^^ In any case, Eaker had few fighters to waste.

Official doctrine supported Eaker's tactics. AAF Field Manual 1-15,
"Tactics and Techniques of Air Fighting," of April 10, 1942, and AAF Field
Manual 1-5, of January 18, 1943, emphasized pursuit's air defense and escort
roles, with a bow to ground support. The replacement for the latter manual. War
Department Field Manual 100-20, sent a mixed message. In addressing the role
of fighters belonging to a strategic air force, such as the Eighth, it stated,
"Accompanying fighter aviation, where its radius of action permits, is also used
to increase [the bomber's] security. Fighter aviation also furnishes air base
defense for bombardment bases."30 That passage offered little encouragement
for aggressive action.

The direction given a tactical air force such as the Twelfth, differed radically
from the advice given the strategic air forces. Whereas the mission of the strate-

298

The Luftwaffe Engaged

Eighth Air Force heavy bombers, equipped with H2X radar, dropping four-pound
incendiary bombs "blind" in overcast sities over Kiel, Germany, December 13, 1943.

gic air force was "the defeat of the enemy nation,"3l the first priority of a tacti-
cal air force was the gaining of air superiority "by attacks against aircraft in the
air and on the ground, and against those enemy installations which he requires
for the application of air power. "32 Fighters formed the air-to-air component of
the counterair team, and light and medium bombardment formed the air-to-
ground segment. The manual's tactical section reflected Spaatz's experience
with the AAF in North Africa, as the strategic section reflected Eaker's experi-
ence with the Eighth Air Force in Europe.

Unlike Eaker, Spaatz and Doolittle decided on or before their arrival in
Britain to intensify the campaign against the Luftwaffe by using their fighters in
an offensive air-to-air role, instead of purely as escorts. Spaatz also intended to
use the Ninth (Tactical) Air Force to assist in the counterair effort, despite the
fact that Leigh-Mallory intended to use it for preinvasion operations. Shortly
after Spaatz's visit to Washington two months earlier, Arnold had expressed to
Marshall similarly aggressive sentiments which were probably reflective of his
own combative temperament but could have come, in part, from Spaatz. Spaatz
might have discussed his experiences in the Mediterranean campaign with
Arnold. In any case, Arnold recommended in a memo to Marshall that the Allied
air forces "seek out and destroy the Gemian Air Force in the air and on the

299

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

ground without delay. The defensive concept of our fighter commands and air
defense units must be changed to the offensive." He called for more imaginative
use of fighters as ground strafers, as fighter bombers, and as air-to-ground rocket
launchers to assist the Overlord assault.33 Spaatz could be sure of Arnold's
support for a more active fighter force. Both men must have realized and
counted on the fact that a changeover to offensive fighter tactics would impose a
far higher rate of attrition on both the Luftwaffe and the AAF. Arnold would
have to support Spaatz with many replacement fighter pilots and aircraft.

On several occasions, especially in his first meetings with Eighth Air Force
staff personnel, Spaatz reiterated his desire to close with the Luftwaffe. On
January 9, he visited the Eighth's War Room. There he met an old acquaintance.
Col. Richard D'O. Hughes, Assistant Chief of Intelligence, and the principal
link between the Eighth Air Force and the Enemy Objectives Unit (EOU) of the
Economic Warfare Division of the U.S. Embassy, London. The EOU served as
the de facto target planning staff of the Eighth. Hughes, an expatriate British
subject with numerous British decorations and long-time service in the British
Indian Army, served his new coimtry ably not only by applying his considerable
intellect to the complicated issues of targeting but also by using the British "old
boy" network to gain entree to British intelligence and targeting agencies.34

Spaatz told Hughes of his main objective to knock out the Luftwaffe by hit-
ting it in the air, on its airfields, and at its fighter factories:

It is my belief that we do not get sufficient attrition by hitting fighter factories,
therefore we must place emphasis on airdromes and knocking them down in the
air. Our mission is destroying the Gterman Air Force, and that we will hit pri-
mary objectives when weather permits, but at other times will choose targets as
stated above, which will bring fighters into the air.''

Spaatz had voiced this concept of targeting vital economic objectives to force
Luftwaffe attrition almost two years earlier,36 and it remained one of his guiding
principles throughout the war.

On subsequent days Spaatz repeated to Hughes and to his operational com-
manders, Anderson and Doolittle, that he considered his chief mission the
destruction of the Luftwaffe and that he would not even wait for "proper
weather [in which] to bomb the priority targets.''^? Spaatz's official "Opera-
tional Directive" instructed Doolittle to hit the airframe factories and the
German fighters "in the air and on the ground."38 On January 21, in the first of a
weekly series of "Eyes Only" reports to Arnold, Spaatz optimistically wrote that
he needed only a few days of visual bombing to wreck the remaining fighter and
ball-bearing factories. Then, "all other attacks will be made on the basis of
destroying enemy air force in air and on ground. Such attacks will be made so
far as possible under conditions most favorable to ourselves and normally will
be against objectives which force German fighters into combat action within
range of our fighters."39

300

The Luftwaffe Engaged

By late January, Spaatz had come to the realization that "we must continue
to attrit the German Air Force on the ground whenever we can operate." In a let-
ter to Arnold, Spaatz stated his policy:

I feel you would become very impatient with me if this very large striking force
spent most of its time on the ground or in training flights, waiting for the few
days when visual bombing permits hitting our primary targets — ^the aircraft fac-
tories. I also feel sure that to confine our operations to that alone would not
deplete the German Air Force at the necessary rate.*"

Neither Arnold nor Eaker, who had held similar views while leading the Eighth,
disagreed with these sentiments. What made Spaatz's formulation unique was
his insistence on attacking the Luftwaffe on the ground as well as in the air.
Thanks to Spaatz's experience in Tunisia and particularly in Sicily, he had first-
hand knowledge of the devastating effect of a prolonged counterair campaign on
the Axis air force bases in the Mediterranean. Hundreds of German planes,
many repairable, had littered Sicilian airfields and fallen into Allied hands.
Spaatz reiterated this point to Arnold: "I feel personally that this matter of hit-
ting airdromes from U.K. requires a shot in the arm, both as to methods of attack
and frequency of attack. I believe that in our penetration into Germany that
advantage must be taken of the use of intruder aircraft."4l Spaatz expressed sim-
ilar views to the Assistant Secretary of War for Air, Robert A. Lovett:

I believe that some of the methods applied in the Mediterranean are applicable
here. . . . My tendency will be to place a little bit more emphasis upon swatting
the enemy on his airdromes whenever possible and [on forcing] him to fight
under conditions most advantageous to us."^

Spaatz also communicated this insistence on attacking the Luftwaffe before
it could become airborne to Eisenhower and Tedder. On January 22, Spaatz dis-
cussed his plans for USSTAF with Eisenhower. They were, first, to attack
fighter and ball-bearing plants whenever conditions permitted visual bombings
and, second, to attack "targets in Germany under conditions most favorable to
obtain maximum destruction of German fighters in the air and on the ground. "43
Later in the day Spaatz discussed his plans with Tedder. They "agreed that
attacks so far on airdromes had been unfruitful here, possibly due to wrong
method of attack."**

By choosing to attack the Luftwaffe rather than to defend against it, Spaatz
had found the way to break the German fighter force. After December 1943, the
number of U.S. fighter aircraft on hand in fully operational tactical units dramat-
ically increased. The AAF had the means as well as the method of taking the
battle to the Luftwaffe.45 By April 1944, American fighter sweeps and intruder
missions, which Spaatz and Doolittle had launched once they had sufficient
long-range fighter aircraft, were disrupting all types of German air activity —
trainee pilots could not even be assured of practicing in the air uiunolested. The

301

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

sweeps also caught many Geman night fighters and bombers on their fields.

Fortune and the impatience of Arnold also favored Spaatz and Doolittle with
the right man to command their fighters. In August 1943, Amold replaced the
Commanding General of the VIII Fighter Command, Maj. Gen. Frank O'D.
Hunter, with Maj. Gen. William E. Kepner. Hunter, in Arnold's opinion, had
failed to fully support and understand the need for a long-range fighter pro-
gram.46 Kepner, however, not only firmly believed in the feasibility of long-
range fighter escort but had helped to push through the AAF's range extension
program in the spring and summer of 1943.'*'? Kepner subsequently told an inter-
viewer that until Spaatz and Doolittle arrived he had never had enough fighters
to do other than "stick close to the bombers." Furthermore, even though he had
wished to get the fighters out to scour the skies for German fighters, his superi-
ors thought "that the time hadn't come to do that." As soon as Spaatz and
Doolittle arrived, they had "directed that I take such steps as I felt necessary to
lick the German Air Force. If it meant getting out and scouring the skies, even
by thinning down the escort, that would be okay with them. ... It certainly
wouldn't have been possible without their help."48

As it had so often before, British signal intelligence greatly helped Spaatz
accomplish his goals. By the time he arrived in London, Ultra intelligence
intercepts indicated that fuel shortages and deficiencies in pilot training had
akeady begun to impair the Luftwaffe's readiness. The Germans had reduced
their number of reconnaissance flights and had called in test pilots and ferry

The Luftwaffe Engaged

pilots to operate fighters against U.S. daylight raids. In January Ultra revealed
Hitler's orders to cut back Luftwaffe meteorological operations and shorten the
recuperation period for wounded pilots. By February 6, Ultra supplied further
evidence of a Luftwaffe comb-out of its noncombatants to provide pilots and to
meet the needs of the land forces.49 The knowledge that the enemy's resources
were becoming ever tauter must have added to Spaatz's determination to main-
tain and increase the pressure on the foe.

Spaatz knew that if enough Luftwaffe fighter planes went down, Germany
could neither defend its industry nor contest the air over the beachhead. The
requirements of both Pointblank and Overlord for air superiority necessitated
knocking out the Luftwaffe by no later than May 1. Spaatz had 120 days in
which to ruin the offensive power of a large, modem air force.

An examination of the Eighth's first mission of the year, on January 11,
proved typical of many of the missions of the next few weeks. Weather forecasters
predicted clear weather over key aircraft plants at Oschersleben and Halberstadt
and in the Brunswick area. The nature and location of these targets, some less than
a hundred miles fi-om Berlin, aslsiued a heavy and active defense effort by the
Luftwaffe. The Eighth's eleven groups of P-47s, joined by two groups of P-38s,
provided cover from the Dutch coast to within fifty to seventy miles of the tar-
gets. A lone P-51 group would escort the first of the bomber formations all the
way to and from the target.^O

As the heavy bombers left their bases in Britain, the weather deteriorated,
making takeoff and assembly difficult. Nevertheless, 663 B-24s and B-17s left
their fields. Weather continued to worsen, causing the 2d (B-24s) and 3d (B-17s
and B-24s) Bombardment Divisions to abort their flights short of their primary
targets. Instead, they bombed targets of opportunity in western Germany. The
remaining 291 bombers hit their targets but suffered severely from fierce
Luftwaffe reaction. Using improved tactics and fuel tanks developed in the sum-
mer and fall of 1943, the German fighters waited until most of the escorts had
left and then attacked the bombers. Forty-two American heavy bombers failed to
return — 13 percent of the force engaged. All 44 American P-51s fought well, but
weakened their effort by spreading themselves over too large an area in an
attempt to defend the widely dispersed U.S. bomber formations. Even so, the
P-51s were credited with more German aircraft kills than 177 P-47s which had
escorted the bombers part of the way to the target area. Obviously, the Germans
had been able to avoid the P-47s but not the P-51s,-''i but the P-51s also reached
the initial rendezvous point too soon, and thus had insufficient fuel to cover the
bombers on their return fi-om the targets to the P-47s and P-38s providing with-
drawal escort. Meanwhile, the weather over England degraded further, and the
returning 1st Bombardment Division planes had to land on unfamiliar runways
belonging to the 2d and 3d Divisions. Subsequent air reconnaissance revealed
that the plant at Oschersleben had suffered severe damage, and one of the
Brunswick targets, Waggam, site of an aircraft production complex, had received

303

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Early model P-47s over England, summer 1943.

direct hits on almost every one of its assembly piants.52

Spaatz and Maj. Gen. Barney Criles, Chief of Staf¥ of the AAF, who had
come to England to witness the birth of USSTAF, spent January II in the VIII
Fighter Command operations room observing the mission. They shortly discov-
ered for themselves another of the problems that had hampered Eaker— the need
of AAF Headquarters in Washington, D.C., for favorable reports on the bomb-
ing effort. The Eighth Air Force's report on the mission of January 1 1 was not
released in Washington until the morning of January 13. In the meantime, U.S.
newspapers, working on copy from London that was based on intercepts of
German propaganda broadcasts, headlined stories in the evening editions of
January 11 of "123 United States aircraft lost over Germany." The next day the
press picked up German claims of 135 U.S. planes lost. The Eighth's statement,
scheduled for 9 a.m. that day, did not appear, making it seem that the AAF had
decided to conceal a disaster.

When the Eighth's statement finally came out on January 13, the public,
according to AAF headquarters, showed greater interest in the dispute over total
losses than in the damage claims of the AAF. Brig. Gen. Laurence Kuter, acting
as Arnold's representative, told Spaatz in a telephone conference, "We adjure
that future initial releases will come as early as possible to avoid undisputed
prominence in the U.S. press to items released by German radio." Kuter also
"adjured" that future releases should contain graphic references to damage done
rather than tales highlighting German fighter defenses. If Spaatz objected to

304

The Luftwaffe Engaged

FlUing the jripeltaie: Replacement B-17s tar the ESghth Air Fmxx, Eng^d, March 1944.

"needling" from Washington and wanted to avoid future "embarrassment," his
reports had better get to Washington as quickly as possible.^^

The January 1 1 mission evoked an outburst from Arnold, who, angered by
its negative coverage in the press, complained about the small number of
bombers actually attacking signiHcant targets. He felt that the mission had jeop-
ardized the entire principle of daylight bombing: "I cannot understand why with
the great number of airplanes available in the Eighth Air Force, we continually
have to send a boy to do a man's job. In my opinion, this is an uneconomical
waste of lives and equipment." Although he realized that because of the recall,
only forty-seven planes had bombed Brunswick, what deeply worried him was
"the concept of small forces split up all over Europe instead of some good
smashing blows." Instead of pecking away at the German aircraft industry, he
asked, couldn't the AAF send out a really large number of aircraft and simply
level a target? Arnold asked Spaatz for "some new thoughts and new lines of
approach. "54

For eighteen days after the January 1 1 mission, although high clouds or bad
conditions over the bases prevented the bombing of Germany itself, USSTAF
launched three missions against Crossbow installations. On January 21, Spaatz
observed to Arnold, "Basically the principal enemy we face is weather."55 Two
days later Spaatz wrote to Lovett:

The weather here is the most discouraging of all factors and I am sure that it
will result in the loss of remaining hairs on my head, or at least will turn what is

305

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

left of the red into white. Nothing is more exasperating than trying to run an Air
Force continuously hampered or grounded by weather."'*

On January 29 and 30, conditions over England improved enough to allow

the dispatch of large missions against Frankfurt-am-Main (over 800 heavy
bombers) and Brunswick. Unfortunately, both missions had to bomb through
heavy overcast with the assistance of H2X.

By the end of January 1944, little time remained before Pointblank's subor-
dination to Overlord. Spaatz had at most two months to devote the full force of
USSTAF to strategic objectives because by April 1, sixty days prior to the sched-
uled launching of the cross-channel operation, the needs of the invasion would
take primacy. On January 26, Spaatz wrote Eaker, "I have reviewed the problem
of strategic bombing of our enemies, and the thing that has struck me most is the
critical time factor. We have very little time in which to finish our job."

On February 3, the Eighth sent more than 700 bombers in a pathfinder-led
attack on Wilhelmshaven. Bad weather caused 100 of those bombers to abort
and another 61 to bomb targets of opportunity in Emden. The next day, another
pathfmder/bombing-through-clouds raid directed at Frankfurt-am-Main suffered
from weather and navigational problems, and only 233 of 433 bombers sent out
bombed their primary target. The remainder again bombed various targets of
opportunity. This pattern, but on a lighter scale, continued until February 19.^7

On February 17, Portal issued a new bombing directive to both Spaatz and
Harris confirming target priorities agreed on in mid-January. The primary objec-
tive remained the destruction of the Luftwaffe. Single- and twin-engine fighter
airframe and airframe component production and Axis ball-bearing industry tar-
gets were again accorded first priority; second priority went to installations sup-
porting German fighter air forces and other objectives such as Crossbow,
"Berlin and other industrial areas," and targets in southeastern Europe, such as
cities and transportation targets. The plan further instructed Spaatz and Harris
that preparation and readiness for the direct support of Overlord "should be
maintained without detriment to the combined bomber offensive."58

Two features of this directive are noteworthy: (1) as of mid-February,
Pointblank still had priority over Overlord in strategic operations, and (2)
Berlin was singled out for special attention. This mention of Berlin, in part, was
an ex post facto authorization of Harris' Battle of Berlin begun in November
1943. But the directive also specifically authorized area attacks by U.S. forces
on the German capital and any other German city within range:

Attacks should be delivered upon Berlin or other important industrial areas by
both Bomber Command R.A.F. and U.S.S.A.F.E. (latter using blind bombing
technique as necessary) whenever weather or tactical conditions are suitable for
such operations and unsuitable for operations against the primary objective.

306

The Luftwaffe Engaged

Leigh-Mallory and the AEAF

During January, Spaatz had to deal with the frustrations created by the con-
fused Allied command structure as well as those caused by nature. Eisenhower,
as the Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force (SCAEF), commanded
all military forces directly assigned to the cross-channel invasion. Tedder was
Deputy Supreme Commander. Under them came Admiral Berthram H. Ramsey,
Naval Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force; Air Chief Marshal Trafford
Leigh-Mallory, Commander in Chief, Allied Expeditionary Air Force; and
General Bernard L. Montgomery, Commander, 21 Army Group. Montgomery's
army group, composed of the British 2d Army under Lt. Gen. Miles Dempsey
and the U.S. First Army under Lt. Gen. Omar N. Bradley, would conduct the
ground assault. After Montgomery had established and enlarged the beachhead,
the Allies would create additional Commonwealth and American armies, where-
upon Bradley would form an ail-American army group (the 12th). Bradley's first
additional army would be the U.S. Third Army under the redoubtable Lt. Gen.
George S. Patton.

Each of the service components of the Allied Expeditionary Force had a
clearly defined mission. The naval forces would convoy amphibious assault
troops to Normandy, prevent German naval interference (minimal at best), keep
the seaborne supply lines to France open, and provide naval gunfire support to
the troops. The 21 Army Group would force its way ashore, form and expand a
beachhead, and, after a few weeks, break out of the beachhead and begin an
offensive across France and as far as necessary into Germany to defeat the Third
Reich. The AEAF would maintain air supremacy over the invasion convoys, the
beachhead, and subsequent operations of the ground forces. It would further
interfere with and delay as far as possible the movement of German reinforce-
ments toward the beachhead, would transport and supply the airborne assault
forces, and would provide necessary air support for the ground forces. (See
Chart 5, Chain of Command, Allied Expeditionary Force, February 13, 1944.)

To accomplish his mission Leigh-Mallory had two Allied air forces assigned
to his operational control, the British 2d Tactical Air Force under Air Marshal
Arthur Coningham and the U.S. Ninth Air Force commanded by Maj. Gen.
Lewis Brereton. Coningham's force consisted of three groups: the newly formed
No. 83 and No. 84 Groups made up of fighters and fighter-bombers taken from
Fighter Command, reconnaissance aircraft acquired from the dissolution of
Army Co-operation Command, and No. 2 Group of light bombers and Mosquito
Intruder aircraft transferred from Bomber Command. These transfers consimied
two-thirds of Fighter Command, which received the new designation, Air
Defence of Great Britain (ADGB). Leigh-Mallory also retained his responsibili-
ties for the home defenses, and the new chief of ADGB, Air Marshal Roderic M.
Hill, reported directly to him.59

Brereton's air force consisted of three components: IX Fighter Command

307

Charts

Chain of Command, Allied Expeditionary Force
February 13, 1944

U.S. Chiefs of staff

Combined
CHIEFS OF STAFF

British Chiefs of Staff

SUPREIME COiMMANDER

DEPUTY SUPREiME COMMANDER

CHIEF OF STAFF

COMBINED STAFF

Commander In Chief

Allied Naval
Expeditionary Force

U.S. Army
Group Commander

U.S. Naval Force

British Naval Force

British Army
Group Commander

Commander in Chief
Allied Expeditionary
Air Force

Liaison
Command

U.S. Tactical
Air Force

British
Tactical Air Force

The Luftwaffe Engaged

(Maj. Gen. Elwood P. Quesada commanding), IX Bomber Command (Maj. Gen.
Samuel E. Anderson commanding), and IX Troop Carrier Command (Maj. Gen.
Paul L. Williams commanding), plus assorted service and antiaircraft troops. The
IX Fighter Command had two subordinate units: DC Air Support Command would
work with U.S. First Army, while XIX Air Support Command would assist U.S.
Third Arniy. The medium and light bombers of IX Bomber Command could aid
either support group or perform other tasks required by the theater. The IX
Transport Command would supply theater air transport requirements and provide
all airlift needed for U.S. airborne operations. (Under Allied agreements, IX
Transport Command would provide a substantial portion of British combat airlift as
well.) The chief function of the Ninth Air Force was to give air support to U.S.
ground forces participating in the Overlord invasion. Thus Brereton was the
American airman responsible to, not under the direct command of, Bradley, the
overall U.S. ground force commander. Although the Ninth would have eight
medium-bomber, three light-bomber, fourteen transport, and eighteen fighter
groups by invasion day, in mid- January 1944 the Ninth had only five groups — ^four
of medium bombers transferred from the Eighth Air Force and one of P-5 1 fighters.

What confused Allied command arrangements was not the organization of
the expeditionary force, but the role Spaatz's USSTAF and the large RAF
metropolitan commands (Fighter, Coastal, and Bomber) would play in support-
ing the invasion. It would take three months to arrive at a solution that was
barely satisfactory. At the beginning of 1944, Leigh-Mallory assumed that these
forces would to a great extent come under his control. This assumption met stiff
resistance from the independent air leaders, in particular Spaatz and Air Officer
Commanding, Bomber Command, Arthur Harris. In addition, the Ninth Air
Force, more than twice the strength of the British 2d Tactical Air Force, served
two masters: Leigh-Mallory had operational control, but Spaatz had administra-
tive control. Because the two men had very different missions and irreconcilable
conceptions about the correct employment of the Ninth, this dual control soon
led to discord.

At first glance Leigh-Mallory seemed a sound choice as Commander in Chief,
Allied Expeditionary Air Force. He had specialized in army cooperation (that part
of the RAF assigned to supporting the ground forces) and in the offensive use of
fighter aircraft. In World War I he had served as an army cooperation pilot and,
by 1927, he had become Commandant, RAF School of Army Cooperation.^
Shortly before World War II he transferred to Fighter Command and led No. 12
Group, which defended the Midlands in the Battle of Britain. At the very end of
the battle he replaced Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park, a defensive fighter expert,
as Commander, No. 1 1 Group, which defended London and southeastern
Britain. At that point the RAF switched to the offensive, carrying the air cam-
paign to the Germans with fighter sweeps over France.61

Eventually Leigh-Mallory became Air Officer Commanding, Fighter
Command and, in November 1943, he officially gained his post as head of the

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

AEAF. His name had been mentioned in connection with such posts as early as
the summer of 1942, when the British had begun to plan the rearrangement of
their air commands for future large-scale ground operations in France. On March
11, 1943, Leigh-Mailory learned privately, from Portal, of his selection as Com-
mander in Chief, AlUed Air Force (Designate), by the British Chiefs of Staff and
its approval in principle by the Combined Chiefs of Staff at Casablanca. By the
end of June 1943, the CCS had authorized him to begin discussing air matters
with Overlord's plaimers. On August 20, he was recognized as interim head of
the AEAF, but he still had no directive on operations from the CCS.62

A closer look at Leigh-Mallory reveals weaknesses that hampered his ability
to participate in coalition warfare. He has been described "as a man of driving
egoism," with a habitually haughty manner63 and "an assertive temperament."64
Even his apologists admit that he "was so typically English, [and] sometimes
tactless, almost pompous in appearance and naive in character without any
finesse, that it certainly was difficult for the Americans to assess his ability, and
they did little to try to understand him."65 Once Leigh-Mallory absorbed an idea
it became almost immutable.66 This characteristic proved a grave defect, not
because he adopted impractical ideas but because he defended his own beliefs
with an uncompromising ferocity and thus exasperated his opponents.

During the Battle of Britain he engaged in a heated controversy with Air
Vice-Marshal Keith Park, Commander, No. 1 1 Group, and Air Chief Marshal
Hugh Dowding, Air Officer Commanding, Fighter Command, over the proper
employment of fighters. Leigh-Mallory favored launching a large force, assem-
bling it in the air, and using it all at once against the enemy. The problem was
that by the time this "big wing" had assembled, the German raiders, as often as
not, had delivered their bombs. Nonetheless, Leigh-Mallory stubbornly refused
to change his tactics. In fact, Dowding had resolved to remove Leigh-Mallory,
but before he could act, was removed by Churchill. 6V Dowding's abrupt replace-
ment by Sholto Douglas and Park's replacement by Leigh-Mallory offended
many of Fighter Command's senior officers. Likewise, Leigh-Mallory 's obdu-
rate adherence to his own strong ideas about air preparations for Overlord
would intensify his conflict with other air leaders.

Leigh-Mallory had little gift for interpersonal relationships. Not only did his
dispute with Dowding and Park worsen, but, after his elevation to the AEAF, he
did not get along with his American deputies, Vandenberg and Brig. Gen.
Frederic H. Smith,68 or with his subordinate air force commanders Air Marshal
"Mary" Coningham and Maj. Gen. Lewis H. Brereton.^^ The fates had dealt
unkindly with Leigh-Mallory in supplying his associates. He and Tedder differed
in personality, experience, and outlook. Without his knowledge, Leigh-Mallory's
appointee as the head of the 2d Tactical Air Force, Air Marshal J. H. D'Albiac,
was replaced by Tedder with Coningham. At the time, Leigh-Mallory assumed
that Montgomery had consented to this change, but, in fact, Montgomery would
have picked any au- leader over Coningham. Then, the Commander of No. 83

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The Luftwaffe Engaged

Group, the fighter and fighter-bomber group assigned to cooperate with the British
2d Army, was replaced with Air Vice-Marshal Harry Broadhurst at Montgomery's
insistence. Leigh-Mallory assumed that Coningham approved of this move, but in
fact Coningham would have picked any air leader over Broadhurst. Neither
Broadhurst nor Coningham had much use for Leigh-Mallory.^o

Nor did Spaatz and other American airmen view him without suspicion."? l
They mistook his natural reserve for hostility and were put off by his somewhat
ponderous and inarticulate speech.72 In general, they returned his abrupmess in
kind. Leigh-Mallory 's first American deputy. Brig. Gen. Haywood S. Hansell,
was a highly regarded officer and a personal friend of Spaatz, but was promoted
by Arnold and sent to the Pacific to begin B-29 operations. It might have been
better for all concerned if he had stayed in London. Leigh-Mallory 's second
American deputy, Maj. Gen. William O. Butler, lacking the dynamic personality
necessary to attract and keep high-quality American staff officers, did not help
his chief. The American contingent at AEAF Headquarters needed high-quality
officers to counterbalance domination by Leigh-Mallory 's appointments from
Fighter Command. The staffing of AEAF Headquarters called for 150 RAF offi-
cers and 80 AAF officers. Butler had purposely kept the American contingent
small and did not even intend to use all of his authorized billets.73 At one point
Eisenhower even suggested that Butler be replaced with the more forceful Maj.
Gen. Frederick L. Anderson.74

Air Vice-Marshal Harry
Broadhurst, Air OfOcer
Commanding, No. 38
Group, RAF, 1944.

311

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

AEAF Headquarters remained an essentially British organization throughout
its existence, which gave the AAF additional reason to view it with suspicion.75
The Americans either did not understand or refused to acknowledge that Leigh-
Mallory had such a large British staff because he also served as Air Officer
Commanding the home defenses. If his British staff had merely been equal in
number to the American staff assigned to Headquarters, AEAF, it would have
been vastly overburdened^^

Spaatz's and Leigh-Malloiy's disparate personalities added a note of personal
acrimony to their differences, but their widely divergent views on the employ-
ment of air power and of the place of air power in the command structure of the
Allied invasion force would have brought the two men into conflict in almost any
case. The gulf between the two became apparent at their meeting of January 3 on
plans for Overlord. Spaatz noted in his diary, "Am not sure whether L-M
[Leigh-Mallory] has proper conception of air role. Apparently accepts possibility
of not establishing Air supremacy until landing starts."'^'^ Spaatz believed that
delaying the battle for air supremacy until the invasion would be too late not only
for the invasion but for the bomber offensive as well. Spaatz believed that the
Luftwaffe had to be crushed as soon as possible. If Allied air forces had to fight
for supremacy over the beaches, they could provide no support for the ground
forces and might not be able to provide air cover for the invasion fleet; paratroop
drops could not be guaranteed without air supremacy.

In contrast, Leigh-Mallory 's perspective came from his four years' experi-
ence in successfully defending against Luftwaffe attacks. Since 1941, the Germans
had refused to engage in daylight combat with Fighter Command, and Fighter
Command, with its short-range defensive flghters, could not force the Germans
to fight if they chose not to. Leigh-Mallory welcomed the thought that the
Germans would once more have to fly into territory he defended.

A few days later, Spaatz and Overlord's planners, including Leigh-Malloiy
and Lt. Gen. F. E. Morgan, the head of the Allied plannmg group that had drawn
up the original plans for the invasion, clashed over command prerogatives.
Morgan and Leigh-Mallory, who at this stage regarded himself as the commander
in chief of all Allied air power necessary for the invasion, which included
USSTAF,78 insisted that three American P-38 long-range fighter groups move
from the Mediterranean to Britain to help provide air cover. Spaatz objected on the
dual grounds that only he, and not the Allied planning staff, had the authority to
order such a move, and that he would not strip the Fifteenth Air Force of its
escorts and, in the process, weaken it and Pointblank for an unnecessary fight
over the beachhead. Spaatz pointed out to Butler that the matter concerned neither
Morgan nor Leigh-Mallory and that the decision rested entirely with him.79
Morgan appealed to Eisenhower in Washington.

Eisenhower had not yet arrived in London to take up his new command and,
at Marshall's insistence, he had returned to the States for rest and consultation
with the Army Staff. Eisenhower, who had his own ideas about the air situation.

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The Luftwaffe Engaged

apparently backed Spaatz, for the three groups stayed permanently in the
Mediterranean. Marshall, too, clarified the matter in a January 15 message to
Spaatz and Morgan in which he confirmed that Spaatz alone had the authority to
transfer USSTAF units.80

By the time Eisenhower arrived in London on January 16, air command
arrangements in the British Isles had become a veritable Gordian knot, and the
Supreme Commander seemed as confused as anyone. When he had originally
learned of his selection in early December 1943, Eisenhower had requested that
Tedder, whom he intended to install as his commander in chief for air, be trans-
ferred at the same time. On December 17, Eisenhower had written to Marshall,

We would go into the operation with an operational organization set up largely
according to the one we now have here [The Mediterranean]. Tedder would be
my chief air man and with him I would have Spaatz who would have control of
the Strategic Air Forces. Under Tedder will be one officer in charge of coordi-
nating the tactical air forces."

Two weeks later, after receiving a message from Bedell Smith, who had
already become alarmed at the fuzziness of command arrangements, Eisenhower
sent a message to Marshall: "I have received information from Genera! Smith in
London that is disturbing in its implication. He states that the British Chiefs of
Staff have forwarded to the American Chiefs of Staff a paper which proposes
that the Combined Chiefs of Staff shall dictate in detail the organization of tacti-
cal air forces for Overlord. "82

Eisenhower objected strongly, asking Marshall to employ his full authority
to oppose the scheme. He also pointed out that he and other veterans of the
Mediterranean had learned several hard lessons in air power, which he did not
want thrown away by "rigid directives." Eisenhower particularly objected to a
proposal for two separate tactical air forces: "I simply cannot conceive of such
an idea." He had come a long way from the general who had condoned the
parceling out of air power in Tunisia. Eisenhower continued, "I hear that
Tedder, who 1 have assumed to be my chief air man, is really intended to be an
officer without portfolio, and that a man named Mallory is to be my chief air
man. "83 Eisenhower did not object to Leigh-Mallory, whose qualifications as a
fighter expert, he thought, would be most useful at critical stages of the cam-
paign. What he resented was his being unable to use Tedder as he wanted
because of high-level British interference.84

After meetings with Marshall and Arnold in Washington, Eisenhower
warned Bedell Smith on January 5 that he anticipated trouble in securing the
necessary approval for the integration of all forces essential to the success of the
cross-channel invasion. Eisenhower noted, "I suspect that the use of these air
forces for the necessary preparatory phase will be particularly resisted. To sup-
port our position it is essential that a complete plan for use of all available air-

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

craft during this phase be ready as quickly as possible." Eisenhower therefore
requested that Tedder proceed to London at once and consult with Spaatz and
others on the plan.85

Eisenhower assumed that the British would object to having their metropoli-
tan air forces, particularly Bomber and Coastal Commands, placed under the
operational control of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Air
Force. Nevertheless, he intended to ensure the employment of every resource,
including all air power in Britain, to achieve the ultimate success of his mission.
After their Stateside meeting, Eisenhower knew he had Arnold's backing.
Arnold confirmed that both USSTAF and Bomber Command should be placed
directly under the Supreme Commander for the "impending operation." Arnold
made clear his support, saying, "It is my desire to do all that is possible here to
further the simultaneous transfer of these two strategic bombing organizations
from their present status to your command when you feel this transfer should
take place."86

Spaatz and Eisenhower agreed that USSTAF must come under the operational
control of the Supreme Commander. In December, when they both had learned of
their new appointments, Spaatz fully expected to be under Eisenhower's com-
mand at least sixty days before the invasion. All subsequent disputes over prein-
vasion preparations concerned the place and use of strategic bombers under
Eisenhower, not the basic principle that the invasion required the support of heavy
bombers to succeed. In fact, during the initial phases of organizing USSTAF,
Spaatz told the Chief of Staff of the AAF in Washington, Maj. Gen. Barney Giles,
that Eisenhower had learned through Marshall that USSTAF would not be under
him operationally. Spaatz, believed that it should be under Eisenhower both
administratively and operationally. Giles agreed that Spaatz and Eisenhower
would be left to settle command arrangements between themselves.^'^

In the afternoon of Eisenhower's first day of work as Supreme Commander,
January 17, he and Spaatz met. Eisenhower admitted that he had received no
clarification of the "present confused air situation" while in Washington.** Both
agreed to soft-pedal any dramatic action and to proceed with the current cumber-
some arrangements. Eisenhower directed his chief of staff immediately to publish
an order giving Spaatz administrative responsibility for all U.S. air units in the
theater. He also approved the plan to place his own headquarters at Widewings,
Bushy Park, putting himself and Tedder near USSTAF Headquarters.89

On January 22, Spaatz and Tedder discussed air command assignments.
They both believed that their old Mediterranean methods would serve admirably
for Operation Overlord; Tedder should preside over a joint command post, and
RAF Bomber Command, the Eighth Air Force, and the tactical air forces should
all have representatives present at daily meetings held in USSTAF' S War Room.
These flexible proposals so pleased Spaatz that he told Tedder that all he needed
to know was what to hit and when.90 On January 24, both confirmed this prelim-
inary discussion and agreed that the "operation must be conducted the same as

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The Luftwaffe Engaged

in the Mediterranean area, no matter what type of organization was directed by
topside."9i

While Spaatz and Eisenhower sought to pin down USSTAF'S place in the
command structure, Arnold, Portal, Spaatz, and others simultaneously tried to
define its immediate objectives. The Eighth Air Force had not received a new
bombing directive from Portal since the implementation of Pointblank in June
1943. The advent of USSTAF, the imminence of the invasion, and the effec-
tiveness of the Luftwaffe fighter defenses all indicated the necessity of a new
directive. After initial proposals had passed back and forth across the Atlantic,
Spaatz, Portal, Harris, Air Vice-Marshal Norman H. Bottomley (Deputy Chief
of the Air Staff), Air Marshal Douglas Evill (Vice-Chief of the Air Staff), and
Leigh-Mallory met on January 19 to hammer out a modified bombing directive.
Targets and priorities remained unaltered. Coordination of effort between the
Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces, between the Eighth Air Force and Bomber
Command, and between the strategic and tactical air forces in the Me-
diterranean could continue as presently constituted. They also chose to continue
to have Portal coordinate between the tactical and strategic air forces in
England. This later decision was made over Spaatz's objections. He advocated,
instead, an overall air command under the Supreme Allied Commander as a
necessary condition "for efficient operations in preparation for conduct of
Overlord. "92 This suggestion met the united opposition of the British, who
had rejected similar actions of the AAF at the Cairo Conference. The RAF
would not countenance any arrangement that might subordinate it to the AAF.
Eisenhower, with his usual political acumen, realized this fact and struck the
suggestion from Spaatz's report to Arnold.93 He counseled Spaatz to drop the
idea, observing that "the political situation would not permit an over-all air
commander at this time." Eisenhower told Spaatz that he did not require a des-
ignated overall commander; all that he required was that operational control of
all air power, at the proper time for Overlord, "be assured by a single air com-
mander." Spaatz admitted that USSTAF could fulfill its functions without an
overall air commander, but he believed that its lack might jeopardize the ulti-
mate success of the invasion.94

Thus, by the end of January, Spaatz had reaffirmed his personal and USSTAF's
organizational commitment to placing control of the AAF's heavy bombers in
the hands of the commander of the forces assaulting the Continent. This com-
mitment did not mean that he had abdicated his position as the chief proponent
in England of strategic daylight precision bombing; rather, it meant that, in prac-
tice, he would employ those techniques in the way that he thought could most
effectively contribute to the invasion as a first priority. Spaatz did not abandon
the theory that air power alone could bring about the defeat of Germany, but, as
a good soldier, he meant to do all in his power to guarantee the fulfillment of
Overix)RD's objectives. He noted with resignation in his diary:

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Launching of Overlord will result in the calling off of bomber effort on
Germany proper from one to two months prior to invasion. If time is as now
contemplated, there will be no opportunity to carry out any Air operations of
sufficient intensity to justify the theory that Germany can be knocked out by
Air power. . . . Operations in connection with Overlord will be child's play
compared to present operations and should result in very minor losses.''

The still unsettled air command arrangement!? prevailing in late January and
in February complicated operations in no small measure. The Ninth Air Force
was having difficulty dividing its resources to assist the Eighth's strategic mis-
sion, as it was obligated to, while it carried out its own tactical responsibilities.
This difficulty would not be easily overcome. Also, the assignment of early- and
late-model P-51s between the two air forces' fighter groups, originally decided
by General Baker in 1943, was a matter of growing concern. Eaker had sent
most of them to the Ninth Air Force because of their abilities as fighter-bombers.
Early model P-51s were limited by their relatively short range. (The P-51 had
fought in Africa as the A-36 and had formed fighter-bomber groups assigned to
the Northwest African Tactical Air Force.) Wheri drop tanks, improved internal
fuel tanks, and other modifications vastly increased the later model's tactical
radius of operations and combat ceiling, it became the strategic escort fighter par
excellence of World War 11.

Spaatz thus believed that the late-model P-51s' newfound capabilities as
escorts far outweighed their capabilities as ground-support fighters, and he felt
justified in questioning the way the aircraft had been allocated between the
Eighth and Ninth Air Forces. He had the authority, through enabling directives,
to order the transfer of aircraft and personnel as he wished, but because the
transfer of the P-51s to the Eighth Air Force would^affect the operations of the
Ninth, he was required to consult with Leigh-Mallory.

On January 20, Spaatz discussed his decision to move the P-51s first with
General Brereton, the Ninth's commander, who objected to it, and then at a
meeting with Brereton, Tedder, Leigh-Mallory, Doolittle, and Kepner, Com-
mander, VIII Fighter Command. Spaatz overrode Brereton's protests, declaring
that the P-51s were "absolutely essential throughout all operations to cover the
bombers in deep penetration."^^ On January 24, the generals finally accepted
Spaatz's compromise proposal; of the nine P-51 groups scheduled for the
European Theater of Operations, the Eighth would get seven and the Ninth
would retain two. Spaatz commented in his diary, "Leigh-Mallory 's attitude in
this was surprising to me, since after hearing arguments on both sides, he agreed
to P-5 1 's going to Eighth Air Force, based on over-all situations.''^?

Leigh-Mallory proved less amenable in matters involving the Ninth Air
Force's participation in strategic bombing missions. Strategic missions consisted
of much more than simply flying the heavy bombers and escorts to their objec-
tives and retuming them. Punishing the Luftwaffe as well as destroying targets
required large-scale assistance from the Ninth. The Ninth's fighter-bombers and

316

The Luftwaffe Engaged

medium bombers would fly diversionary raids or strike Luftwaffe fighter fields
in missions timed to coincide with the takeoff, assembly, and landing of
Luftwaffe defensive fighter forces. In addition, the Ninth's formations would
help to confuse German fighter controllers by cluttering up the early warning
system with hundreds of additional planes.

Spaatz called these coordinated strikes "absolutely essential" to the maxi-
mum protection of heavy-bomber formations and the destruction of the
Luftwaffe. Spaatz took note of the fact that in two major operations at the end of
January no medium bombers had supported strategic strikes. They bombed
Crossbow (V-1 launch sites in France) targets for which Leigh-Mallory, in his
purely British capacity as head of Air Defense of Great Britain, had prime
responsibility. This situation appeared to Spaatz to be symptomatic of the prob-
lems the AAF would confront "if and when" USSTAF came under Leigh-
Mallory's control. "Leigh-Mallory's concern with what is in front of him," said
Spaatz "may hamper Pointblank Operations."98

Spaatz, supported by his Deputy for Operations, Maj. Gen. Frederick L.
Anderson, continued to press for clarification of control over the Ninth Air Force
during strategic missions. On February 4, Anderson, Brig. Gen. Earle E.
Partridge (Deputy Commander, Eighth Air Force), and Maj. Gen. William E.
Kepner (Commander, VIII Fighter Command) representing the Strategic Air
Forces, met with Leigh-Mallory, his British deputy (Air Vice-Marshal Arthur
Saunders), Maj. Gen. W. Butler (his American deputy from the AEAF), Maj.
Gen. L. H. Brereton (Commander, Ninth Air Force), Brig. Gen. Elwood R.
Quesada (Commander, IX Fighter Command), and Brig. Gen. Samuel E.
Anderson (Commander, IX Bomber Command-Medium). Leigh-Mallory
opened the meeting by observing that the AEAF had done all that USSTAF
required. Anderson expressed USSTAF's view that "the Mediums were not pay-
ing their way; that they should extend their operating range to the maximum
which is, at present, 350 miles; that this should be done at least a couple of times
beyond fighter escort, if necessary to ascertain the Hun reaction."

This statement reflected both Anderson's and Spaatz 's determination to
bloody the Luftwaffe, whatever their own losses. Leigh-Mallory responded that
sending a portion of the medium bombers against the Eighth's targets while
reserving the remainder for Crossbow attacks might satisfy strategic require-
ments. Anderson insisted that the Eighth's missions required maximum
medium-bomber support and that experience had shown that Crossbow bomb-
ing produced unsatisfactory diversionary raids. Although Leigh-Mallory indi-
cated that he would ask Portal for a final determination, he compromised by
issuing the medium bombers additional targets to support the Eighth's efforts.
Anderson, in turn, reaffirmed the Eighth Air Force's commitment to Crossbow
when weather over Germany made strikes there impossible.99

Leigh-Mallory's appeal to Portal proved futile. Portal, after receiving Leigh-
Mallory's brief and one from Spaatz, supported by Arnold, voted in the latter's

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

M^j. Gen. Frederick L. Anderson, Deputy for Operations, U.S. Strategic Air Forces in
Europe, conferring with meteorologists on weatlier conditions over various targets.

favor. On February 15, he wrote to Spaatz, "I have had the various directives
looked up and it seems quite clear that A.C.M. Leigh-Mallory is bound by his
directive (COSSAC [43] 81 dated 16 November 1943) to lend maximum sup-
port to the strategic air offensive. ""^ Portal added that Leigh-Mallory owed
support to the Eighth not only in visual but in overcast conditions; furthermore,
Leigh-Mallory 's own directives to the Ninth Air Force and the British 2d
Tactical Air Force gave priority to support of the Eighth's operations over all
others. Finally, Portal required Leigh-Mallory to add to his target lists of air-
fields all of those designated by USSTAF.lOl

On February 19, the day before the great week-long USSTAF attack on
Germany subsequently known as "Big Week", Spaatz, having already bested
Leigh-Mallory, clipped Brereton's wings as well. Brereton, who had visions of a
Ninth Air Force independent of both USSTAF and the AEAF,102 and his chief
of staff. Brig. Gen. V. H. Strahm, met with Spaatz, Anderson, and Doolittle to
discuss the "use of 9th Air Force Fighters with the 8th Air Force." Brereton
"agreed" that (1) IX Fighter Command would inform Vlll Fighter Command
daily of planes available; (2) VIII Fighter Command would issue "Primary"
[emphasis in original] field orders giving specific jobs by time and group
assigned to IX Fighter Command; and (3) whenever the effort might be delayed
by transmitting orders through Ninth Air Force channels, VIII Fighter Command

318

The Luftwaffe Engaged

could deal directly with Ninth Air Force wing commanders after or immediately
before takeoff. 103

In case Brereton retained any illusions of independence, Spaatz followed up
this meeting with an official letter stating, "The Commanding General, USSTAF,
will exercise control of all administrative and training matters pertaining to the
Ninth Air Force and will assume direct responsibility to higher headquarters for
the proper performance of those functions."104 Because Spaatz's administrative
control of the Ninth and Eighth Air Forces in England included the power of
promotion, he held the whip hand over any U.S. officer who desired to advance
his career.

Of course, Leigh-Mallory and Brereton saw Spaatz as a "noncooperator"
with preinvasion tactical air plans. Both men had been charged with fielding air
forces trained in close air support. They could not do so as long as Spaatz
insisted that they devote maximum effort to supporting Pointblank. As usual,
when training demands and operational necessity clashed, the immediate needs
of the active forces at the front took precedence. Spaatz was destroying air-
planes, killing German pilots, and bombing factories while the tactical airmen
wanted to conduct training exercises.

"Big Week"

The final settlement of the Ninth's role came at a most opportune moment.
On February 19, 1944, USSTAF's weather forecasters predicted an event
eagerly awaited by the American heavy-bomber leaders in Europe: the breaking
up of the cloud cover over central Europe for an extended period. Headquarters,
USSTAF, ordered Operation Argument to begin the next day. This operation,
planned since early November 1943, called for a series of combined attacks by
the Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces against the Combined Bomber Offensive's
highest-priority objectives. During these attacks, RAF Bomber Command
agreed to make night area bombing attacks on the same targets. (See Map 8,
Greater German Air Industry Targets.)

Because the attacks called for a joint effort by both of its component air
forces. Headquarters, USSTAF, departed from its normal supervisory and pol-
icy-making activities to take direct responsibility for mounting operations.
Accordingly, as a courtesy to his old friend, Spaatz alerted Eaker* first rather
than Twining, Fifteenth Air Force Commander, of the impending implementa-
tion of Argument, requesting that forces bomb the Regensburg and Augsburg
aircraft assembly plants or the ball-bearing works at Stuttgart. Spaatz also

* Although he was Commander of the Mediterranean Allied Air Forces (Twelfth U.S. Air Force
and British 1st Tactical Air Force), Eaker had only administrative, not operational, control over the
Fifteenth. Spaatz, however, always treated Eaker as if the latter had operational control of the
Fifteenth, in effect making a new line of command.

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The Luftwaffe Engaged

directed that "All forces of the 15th Air Force should use an area attack on
Breslau as their secondary mission."i05 He thus demonstrated his willingness to
countenance area bombing if it furthered a legitimate military objective. The
simultaneous attack by the Fifteenth's twelve heavy-bomber groups and four
fighter groups, or even a diversionary attack on Breslau, the alternative target,
would prevent some of the German defenders from concentrating on the Eighth
as it came from England and give it a better chance of successful bombing.

Eaker informed Spaatz that the Fifteenth could not fly its scheduled strategic
mission because he had committed it to the tactical support of the Anzio beach-
head, where a German counterattack had come dangerously close to driving the
Allies into the sea. Eaker believed that if the Fifteenth did not support Anzio, the
Allied theater commander, British General James Maitland Wilson, might declare
the situation a ground emergency and exercise his right to take direct control of
the Fifteenth from USSTAF for the duration of the critical situation. Eaker
wished to avoid that declaration because it would rob him of all flexibility and
establish a troublesome precedent. Eaker also objected because his weather fore-
casters had predicted overcast skies covering the Fifteenth's targets. The Fif-
teenth, which lacked H2X equipment, could not bomb them effectively. 106

Spaatz disagreed. Pointblank, too, had reached a climactic stage. He and
Anderson had previously agreed to accept extraordinary risks to ensure the com-
pletion of Argument prior to March 1, even if it meant the loss of 200 bombers
in a single mission. 107 Spaatz went to Portal with a draft telegram for Eaker that
read, in part, "Because of critical status of Pointblank, it is absolutely neces-
sary that we make our maximum effort under visual conditions. Eighth Air
Force will attack targets as indicated. Therefore, I believe it essential that the
maximum heavy effort possible be used in southern Germany for diversionary
purposes. "108 Spaatz went on to request that at least some of the Fifteenth's
planes fly against their proposed targets or Breslau as a secondary target. Portal,
after consulting Churchill, who ruled that all available forces should support the
Anzio battle, told Spaatz that he could not agree to the transmission of such a
cable to Eaker. Spaatz agreed to cancel the message. 109

The failure to obtain the use of the Fifteenth added to the tension at Spaatz's
headquarters on the night of February 19-20. Even as the Lancaster heavy
bombers of RAF Bomber Command mounted a heavy strike over Leipzig, one of
the Eighth's principal targets for the next day, Spaatz's subordinates debated the
wisdom of following up the RAF's effort with a Sunday punch. The meteorolo-
gists of the Eighth and Ninth Air Forces had conducted their own auguries and
arrived at a forecast less sanguine than USSTAF's. DooUttle and Brereton there-
fore doubted the feasibility of a large-scale raid for the next day. no Kepner
believed that expected conditions would produce icing on the wings of his fight-
ers, cutting the efficiency of the P-38s in half and lowering the efficiency of his
P-47sandP-51s.lll

The P-38, on which great hopes rested, was beginning to prove itself unsuited

321

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

for operations over Europe. Its engines reacted badly to the combination of
extreme cold and high humidity encountered in winter operations. On February
17, VIII Fighter Command reported that 40 percent of its P-38 force was
affected by engine trouble. 1 12 in all, more than half of all P-38 losses in the the-
ater were attributable to engine malfunction.! '3

Anderson vehemently opposed the naysayers. As each call came in from the
Eighth or Ninth, he encouraged Spaatz to continue the operation. 114 Anderson
tenaciously scrambled to maintain the viability of the mission throughout the
long night. Anderson's deputy, also present that night at Park House, described
the scene:

Anderson prepared to stay the night because he knew that he must be there, by
the telephone, knowing that in all military operations there was the chance of
something uncontrolled going on and the whole thing fizzling out and being a
catastrophe, and he was determined to keep the mission on. He knew also that
the public reaction to the possible loss of 200 bombers would be very strong,
even though the mission was a success."'

To Anderson's deputy Spaatz seemed "on the fence" and less strongly commit-
ted to the launch.

That view misinterprets Spaatz 's position or, at least, his style of connmand.
Spaatz allowed his subordinates wide latitude and encouraged them to state their
opinions. Until the decision had to be made in the early morning, he would natu-
rally have listened carefully to both sides. Nor should silence on his part be con-
strued as waffling. Never a garrulous man, in times of stress Spaatz kept a poker
face and retreated into quiet. The decision rested squarely on his shoulders. Brig.
Gen. C. P. Cabell, formerly Commander of the 45th Bomb Wing but at that time
serving on Spaatz's staff and present at Park House, told Brig. Gen. Haywood S.
Hansen,

Finally, when the last moment for action had arrived, the decision was left in the
lap of General Spaatz. The risks were so great and the conditions so unfavorable
that none of the subordinate commanders was willing to take the responsibility
for the launch. General Spaatz quiedy and firmly issued the order lo go.'""

Sixteen combat wings of heavy bombers (over 1,000 bombers), all seven-
teen AAF fighter groups (835 fighters), and sixteen RAF fighter squadrons (to
assist in short-range penetration and withdrawal escort) began their takeoff runs,
assembled, turned to the east, and headed for twelve major assembly and compo-
nent plants that constituted the heart of Hitler's fighter production. As part of the
largest force dispatched to date by the Eighth, six unescorted bomber wings flew a
northern route to bomb targets near Posen and Tutow. The rest of the bomber
force, escorted by the entire fighter force, flew toward Leipzig and Brunswick in
centtal Germany. They would show up on German radar screens in time to attract
the bulk of the fighter reaction to themselves and away from the northern force.

322

The Luftwaffe Engaged

In addition, 135 medium bombers from the Ninth Air Force, two-thirds of
which aborted because of weather, assisted by attacking airfields in western
Europe. In contrast to the loss of 41 bombers against the same targets on January
11, only 21 heavy bombers failed to return to base. The raid seriously damaged
four plants manufacturing Ju 88 (night-fighter/bomber) aircraft in the Leipzig
area and two plants manufacturing Bf 109 (day-fighter) aircraft. The AAF offi-
cial history, basing its assertions on examination of postwar records, cited a
delay of one month's production of Ju 88s and severe damage to about 32 per-
cent of Bf 109 manufacturing capacity. But other official histories admitted that
the raids, like most AAF raids, damaged the machine tools less severely than the
buildings that surrounded them. Those tools, when cleared of rubble and dis-
persed to other parts of Germany, would continue to produce more aircraft.' '"^

When the results reached Park House on the evening of February 20, Spaatz,
according to one witness, was euphoric, "on the crest of the highest wave he had
ever ridden."! 18 That evening Spaatz gave all the credit to Anderson for having
persevered in his fight to save the mission. 1

For the next five days, until the weather once again closed in, the Eighth and
the Fifteenth Air Forces fought their way to and from targets deep inside the
Nazi homeland. The Luftwaffe reacted savagely, provoking heavy and pro-
longed combat with great attrition on both sides. The Fifteenth Air Force, which
lacked P-51s, lost 89 bombers, compared with 158 lost by the Eighth, but actu-
ally suffered a higher percentage loss. 120 in all, USSTAF lost at least 266 heavy
bombers, 2,600 air crew (killed, wounded, or in German hands), and 28
fighters. 121 Almost half of those losses occurred on the last two missions, when
the Germans took advantage of mistakes that left the bombers unescorted or
underescorted.122 in February, the Eighth wrote off 299 bombers, one-fifth of its
force, 123 whereas the Luftwaffe wrote off more than 33 percent of its single-
engine fighters and lost almost 18 percent of its fighter pilots. 124

According to the AAF official history, the damage inflicted by the week's
missions caused a two-month delay in German fighter aircraft production. 125 At
the end of February, Luftwaffe Field Marshal Erhard Milch, in charge of aircraft
production, informed Albert Speer, German Minister for Armaments Produc-
tion, that he expected the March production figures to equal only 30 to 40 per-
cent of the February total. 126 As a result of this meeting, the two set up a
"Fighter Staff to push through a large increase in fighter production. The
Fighter Staff estimated that, at the time of its establishment at the end of
February, 70 percent of the original buildings of the German aircraft industry had
been destroyed. Damage to machine tools was less severe. 127

The delay in German fighter production was even more significant than the
actual number of fighters never produced. By the time the aircraft industry
recovered in late spring and early summer, the Luftwaffe's situation had totally
changed. The Eighth Air Force's attacks on German synthetic oil targets, begun
in May 1944, produced severe aviation gasoline shortages, which resulted in

323

Defenders of the Reich, in increasingly desperate efforts to stem Allied attacks on German
industries and cities, the Luftwaffe relied on a collection of new and aging aircraft, tlie older of
whicli were pressed into new roles. Clockwise from above: The veteran Ju 88 medium bomber,
shown with the search antenna of Liechtenstein airborne radar, served as a night fighter to
counter RAF incursions. A second antenna in the starboard wing homed on warning radar in
the tails of British bombers. Radar also appeared in the night-fighting version of the Bf 110
(opposite, top), some of which could fire on enemy aircraft overhead with a unique upward-aim-
ing cannon. The Bf 109 (opposite, middle), in production since 1937, had evolved by 1944 into a
nearly 400-mph fighter armed with machine guns and a 30mm cannon. The lightweight, nim-
ble, and heavily armed FW 190 (opposite, below), introduced in 1941, outclassed the early
Spitfire but was handily mastered by later Allied fighters such as the P-47 and P-51. The
world's first mass-produced jet fighter, the Me 262 Swallow (Schmdbe) (below), entered combat
in June 1944. As an interceptor the Me 262 carried four 30mm cannon and flew at 540 mph.
Adolf Hitler unwittingly reduced its effectiveness by decreeing that the new aircraft be used
solely as a bomber.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

the catastrophic curtailment of training programs and operations. By July 1944,
hundreds of the newly assembled fighters were grounded from lack of fuel. Had
they been delivered in April or May when fuel was available, they might have
made Pointblank a more risky undertaking.

Big Week also affected replacement production by persuading the German
leadership and aircraft industry to undertake a large-scale and immediate disper-
sal program. This program eventually rendered the aircraft industry relatively
invulnerable to bombing, but it caused more production delays and increased
indirect labor costs by 20 percent '28 while heightening demands on the German
railway system. This situation further strained the economy and left production
even more dependent on uninterrupted transportation.l29

Although postwar research has shown that the missions between February
20 and 25 accomplished less than was originally estimated by the Allies, what
made Big Week "big" was not the physical damage inflicted on the German
fighter industry and front-line fighter strength, which was significant, but rather
the psychological effect it had on the AAF. In one week, Doolittle dropped
almost as much bomb tonnage as the Eighth had dropped in its entire first year.
At same time, Bomber Command conducted five heavy raids over Combined
Bomber Offensive targets losing 157 heavy bombers for a loss rate of 6.6
bombers per 100 sorties, which slightly exceeded the American rate of 6
bombers per 100 sorties. 130 in trial by combat, the AAF had shown that dayUght
precision bombing not only operated as claimed, but at no greater cost than the
supposedly safer and less accurate night area bombing. What is more, USSTAF,
thanks to its fighter escorts, claimed the destruction of over 600 enemy aircraft,
while Bomber Command could claim only 13.131

In their own minds, Spaatz and other high-ranking American air officers had
validated their belief in their chosen mode of combat. Spaatz fairly glowed in a
letter he sent to Arnold summarizing the month: "The resultant destruction and
damage caused to industrial plants of vital importance to the German war effort
and to the very existence of the German Air Force can be considered a conspicu-
ous success in the course of the European war."i32 Spaatz went on to compare
the relative contributions of the month by both the AAF and the RAF. The
Eighth flew 5,400 more sorties than Bomber Command and dropped some 5,000
more tons of bombs, all with a lower loss rate.i33 The AAF had come of age;
the long buildup in Britain had produced results at last:

During the past two years as our forces slowly built up and the RAF carried the
■ great part and weight of attack some circles of both the Government and the
general public have been inclined to think that our part in the battle was but a
small one. I trust that this brief comparison of effort will enable you to erase
any doubts that may exist in some minds as to the great importance of the part
now being played by the United States Army Air Forces in Europe in the task
which has been set us — the destruction of Germany's ability to wage war."*

326

The Luftwaffe Engaged

Although the Luftwaffe fighter force actually increased its bomber kills in
March and April, Big Week, in the minds of Spaatz and other U.S. airmen, was
the beginning of the end for the German daylight fighter. Most of the American
airmen in Europe probably agreed with USSTAF's Assistant Director of
Intelligence, Col. Richard D'O. Hughes, who said three weeks later, "I consider
the result of the week's attack to be the funeral of the German Fighter Force. "135
According to Hughes, USSTAF now realized that it could bomb any target in
Germany at will — a realization that led USSTAF and Spaatz to begin the hunt
for the one crucial target system to bomb, now that the first objective, the sup-
pression of the Luftwaffe, seemed to have been accomplished.l36 in short order
they agreed on the German synthetic oil industry as that critical target system.

The Transportation Plan and Air Command Arrangements

No spent .50-caliber brass shell casings littered the hallways of WroEWlNGS,
Park House, Norfolk House, Stanmore, or the Air Ministry at Whitehall, nor did
hospital wards receive a single casualty. Yet from late January to late March, 1944,
Spaatz and Harris, supported at times by Winston Churchill, engaged in a heated
dispute with Leigh-Mallory, his AEAF staff, and Overlord's planners over the con-
tribution expected of the strategic air forces in supporting preparations for the inva-
sion of France. Eisenhower and Tedder, as hardly disinterested parties, refereed this
dispute with varying degrees of impartiality. Each of the contestants took up distinct
positions, which, depending on the fortunes of his own command, his commitment
to the invasion, and the imminence of the invasion date, he defended at length.

Unlike Harris, Spaatz never questioned the basic premise that at some point
prior to the invasion his force should come under the direct control of the Supreme
Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force. Naturally, given his personal and pro-
fessional biases, he differed, at times sharply, with Leigh-Mallory and others over
the timing, the direction, and the degree of effort demanded of his forces.

Spaatz insisted that any plan adopted must lead, at least, to air parity over
the invasion area by the time the troops left their ports to hit the beaches. 137 He
believed that his forces should begin close assistance to the invasion sixty days
before launching. Support begun earlier would duplicate effort and perhaps neu-
tralize the effects of his strategic bombing campaign against Germany by pre-
venting any follow-up of the blows he intended to deliver. Spaatz also believed
that USSTAF possessed sufficient forces to devote a large simultaneous effort to
the invasion and to the strategic campaign. He would resist any invasion plan
that he believed would require his forces to participate beyond the point of
diminishing returns. Overconcentration of effort on preinvasion operations
would threaten the painfully gained momentum of his strategic campaign and
thereby deny him the chance to try to defeat Germany by air power alone.

Spaatz 's determination to support the invasion and to do all in his power to

327

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

achieve its success did not keep him, as an air strategist, from questioning its
basic utility. In November 1943, according to Capt. Harry Butcher, Eisen-
hower's naval aide, Spaatz told President Roosevelt's adviser, Harry Hopkins,
that, given three months of clear weather, he could defeat Germany and render
the invasion unnecessary. Therefore, he favored, as a better investment, the
strengthening of Allied forces in Italy to gain the Po River Valley and position
the bombers even closer to Germany. 138

After the war, Spaatz implied that Butcher had not gotten his argument
"quite straight" and claimed that, instead of mounting the vast, expensive cross-
channel operation, he favored "sweeping around" to and through the Balkan
states.139 This somewhat Churchillian strategy of attacking upward from south-
em Europe reflected Spaatz's doubts about the possibility of gaining and main-
taining another successful lodgment in Europe in the face of determined opposi-
tion. The Salerno campaign had come close to failure against an enemy not
nearly so well prepared or fortified as would probably be encountered in France.

In mid-February, Spaatz, in a private conversation with the U.S. Ambassa-
dor to England, John G. Winant, detailed his fear that the Germans would volun-
tarily shorten their extended defense line on the Eastern Front, freeing fifty to
seventy-five divisions, "which would have a good chance of destroying any
force we put on the continent."140 At the same time, he expressed his mistrust of
what he viewed as Leigh-Mallory's overconcentration on the invasion's tactical
air power. Spaatz did not see the possibility of a successful assault if the ground
troops had only the benefit of air power applied tactically for their immediate
support. "Strategic bombing of sufficient intensity is necessary first," Spaatz
believed: "The landing of ground troops should be the pushing over of a top-
pling wall."l4l He would, naturally, resent attempts to cut back the Combined
Bomber Offensive before it had undermined the German war economy.

As late as April 10, Spaatz, in a conference with Vandenberg, who had
arrived in London to assume the post of the senior American officer and Deputy
Commander of Leigh-Mallory's Allied Expeditionary Air Force, questioned the
whole basis for Overlord and suggested alternatives. He characterized the
operation as "highly dangerous." Its outcome was "extremely imcertain," and its
failure would "have repercussions which may well undo all of the efforts of the
strategic bombing efforts to date." H2X enabled USSTAF to bomb through
overcast, overcoming its greatest obstacle, weather, and, hence, provided one
more reason not to launch Overlord. Spaatz continued:

If I were directing overall strategic operations, I would go into Norway where
we have a much greater chance of ground force success and where I believe
Sweden would come in with us. Then, with air bases in Sweden, we would
attack Germany from four sides (U.K., Italy, Russia and Sweden) simultane-
ously. Why undertake a highly dubious operation in a huny when there is a
surer way to do it as just outlined? It is better to win the War surely than to
undertake an operation which has . . . great risks.

328

The Luftwaffe Engaged

This curious proposal of Spaatz's may have had, if successful, the geopoliti-
cal advantages of denying Swedish iron ore and ball bearings to the Germans
and of closing the Baltic, while imposing upon the Germans the requirement to
defend another large air sector. The proposal revealed not only a complete rejec-
tion, if not a basic misunderstanding, of the whole ground strategy behind
Overlord, but also an abysmal ignorance of international relations. The Swedes
probably would not have declared war on Germany because of the Allied libera-
tion of Norway, nor would the Soviets have regarded such an operation as the
long-promised Second Front. This implausible scheme, apparently never seri-
ously advocated by Spaatz, illustrates that he hoped to conquer Germany from
the air and to avoid a large and costly land campaign in northwestern Europe.
Spaatz also feared that the supremacy the AAF had gained in daylight might
fade abruptly if the Germans introduced jet-propelled fighters. Spaatz even
doubted the fighting capacity of U.S. groimd forces. His North African experi-
ence had "indicated the inability of American troops to cross areas heavily
defended by land mines, and ... the beaches of Overlord are certain to be
more heavily mined than any area in Africa."l43

Spaatz did not allow his doubts about the utility and feasibility of the cross-
channel invasion to handicap him in the performance of his duties. His fears,
though broad, were not often deep. It is a measure of his self-confidence and
sense of duty that he did not allow his doubts either to unman him or to cause him
to slacken his labors on behalf of the ultimate success of the invasion of France.

Harris held views even less acceptable to Leigh-Mallory: (1) Bomber
Command's operational limitations made it tactically incapable of hitting any
night targets save those in the broad-based area bombing it already pursued, and
(2) any switch from the current operational program would undo everything
achieved to date, allowing Germany the time to harden and disperse its indus-
tries and to use its production lines in an uninterrupted period just before the
invasion. Thus, any subordination of Bomber Command to a detailed tactical
plan might actually have a detrimental effect on Overlord.

Two events, however, combined to undercut Harris's contentions. His win-
ter bombing campaign over Germany encountered increasingly resourceful,
accurate, and costly interception from the German night-fighter force, which, by
the end of March 1944, had become tactically dominant. Bomber Command's
losses mounted steeply and could no longer be sustained by its machines and air
crews. 145 In the first three months of 1944 its losses from all causes were 796
aircraft, compared with 348 in the same period in 1943.1^6 Then, in early March
1944, Portal ordered a series of experimental night precision bombing attacks on
French targets, including railway marshaling yards. These attacks produced out-
standing results, unequivocally demonstrating the abilities of Harris's units to
pulverize the Overlord targets scheduled for them. 1^7 By the end of March
Harris had lost much of his credibility and with it a decisive voice in the prein-
vasion air debate.

329

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

The target of Spaatz's and Harris's fulminations, Leigh-Mallory, indomit-
ably and in his own phlegmatic fashion, pressed for the adoption of the preinva-
sion plans drawn up by the AEAF. He had originally assumed that, as comman-
der of the air forces in direct support of the invasion, he would also assume the
command of the strategic bomber forces when they passed to the control of the
Supreme Commander. This assumption, which soon proved illusory, did not
endear him to either Spaatz or Harris, nor did their opposition to Leigh-
Mallory's claims endear them to him. The chief architect of the AEAF's plan,
Professor Solly Zuckerman, a personal friend of both Tedder and Spaatz, had
returned to London in January 1944 from the Mediterranean, where he had com-
pleted his studies of the bombing campaigns in Pantelleria and Sicily. There he
reached his own judgments about the effectiveness of the campaigns and the
ways to improve upon them. In London, Zuckerman read the preliminary plan,
which he judged inadequate, and he agreed to work with Leigh-Mallory's staff
to prepare a new one. By the end of January, he had produced a plan fully
accepted by Leigh-Mallory. 148

Zuckerman, like Spaatz, Leigh-Mallory, Tedder, Portal, and most other
preinvasion planners, started from the assumption that air superiority over the
beachhead was a sine qua non. Therefore, he recognized the necessity for the
continuation of Pointblank to promote the attrition of the Luftwaffe's fighter
force. Similarly, he accepted as a given the diversion of resources to Crossbow.
The professor then divided the remainder of the preinvasion bombing plan into
three target systems: airfields, coastal defenses, and German lines of communi-
cation. The bombing of the airfields 130 miles or less distant from the beach-
head would begin approximately twenty-four days prior to the invasion; the
bombing of coastal defenses would begin immediately before the assault. The
campaign against communication lines would begin on March 1, ninety days
before the invasion. The bombing of the German transportation system was the
most controversial element of Zuckerman's plan. His studies had convinced him
of the necessity of an intensive attack on the Belgian and northem French rail-
way system, directed in particular at rail marshaling yards and associated main-
tenance facilities. This attritional attack on the railways would so lower their
carrying capacity that the German response in units and material to the invasion
would be fatally slowed. Zuckerman's transportation bombing required the par-
ticipation of all Allied air forces because of the large number of targets to be
destroyed and kept suppressed. It also provided for 45,000 tons of bombs, out of
an entire preinvasion program of 108,000 tons, to be dropped on the communi-
cations system. In his estimates of the bomblift required to neutralize the system,
Zuckerman called for the Eighth Air Force to supply 45 percent of the preinva-
sion effort. Bomber Command, with a bomblift capacity 60 percent greater than
the Eighth's, would supply 35 percent of the preinvasion effort, and the Ninth
Air Force would supply the remaining 20 percent. Zuckerman allotted only 20
percent of the Eighth's effort to Pointblank. 149

330

The Luftwaffe Engaged

A captured German photo of damage to the Fieseler aircraft plant, Kassel,
Germany, after RAF and Eighth Air Force raids.

The AEAF plan's use of all available air power strongly appealed to both
Eisenhower and Tedder, who found themselves in the position of having to yoke
the AEAF, USSTAF, and Bomber Command into the invasion program.
Eisenhower needed direct control over all available planes in Britain to guaran-
tee their support for the invasion. He therefore sought a preinvasion air plan that
could employ all available air forces. Tedder agreed. Unlike Leigh-Mallory,
Harris, and Spaatz, each of whom was identified with a particular type of air
warfare. Tedder had not risen to prominence through a fighter or bomber back-
ground. Rather, he had come to the fore as a leader of large air forces consisting
of all types of aircraft that cooperated closely, both strategically and tactically,
with the overall theater conmiand. It was Tedder who had first called Zucker-
man to the Mediterranean and then dispatched him to London to assist planning
there. Tedder firmly believed in the professor's analysis of the lessons learned
from the Mediterranean campaign and favored his plan.i^

On January 24, Zuckerman and Leigh-Mallory presented a draft of the
scheme at a preinvasion air planning conference. Everyone agreed on the necessity
of bombing the airfields and coastal defenses. This lines-of-communication bomb-
ing proposal, or, as all concerned soon called it, the transportation plan, immedi-
ately raised USSTAF's dander. USSTAF Assistant Director of Intelligence, Col.
Richard D'O. Hughes, told Leigh-Mallory that Spaatz had already said "that a
large percentage of his available bomber effort was available to assist Over-
IjOrd." He went on to note that "if it were considered the right course of action,"

331

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Spaatz was prepared to initiate attacks against rail targets in Germany immedi-
ately with a priority second only to Pointblank. Leigh-Mallory then said he
would have the Air Ministry issue a directive instructing the strategic forces to
bomb such targets in Germany and would add some French rail targets to
USSTAF's list, at which point Hughes began to object: the Eighth did not have
the resources to bomb more than the thirty-nine German rail targets assigned to
it; Crossbow had priority over northwest France when weather permitted; and
the French rail targets did not have political clearance. Leigh-Mallory dis-
counted Hughes's assertions. His proposed directive would not place responsi-
bility for bombing the targets on USSTAF. He would consider anything
destroyed in the next month as a bonus before the plan went into effect (March
1). As for relief from Crossbow obligations and obtaining the political clear-
ances to bomb France, he would arrange them.151

As Hughes realized, Spaatz did not object to attacking rail yards in Germany.
Such targets might lure the Luftwaffe into coming up to fight and could serve as
secondary targets of opportunity when weather conditions over the primary tar-
gets made bombing impossible after the start of a major raid. Such a program did
not represent a major diversion of strategic forces from Pointblank. In contrast,
marshaling yards in northwest France yielded none of the advantages of German
targets. They interfered with USSTAF's secondary priority of Crossbow and,
because of their position inland, did not constitute acceptable targets of opportu-
nity for Crossbow diversions. Nor would the Luftwaffe be inclined to contest the
air over French targets in strength. Finally, bombing French targets would have
detrimental political effects for the Allies. When some bombs missed the yards
and fell into populated areas, as they surely would, the Germans would gain free
grist for their propaganda mills, while the Allies might earn the opprobrium of an
occupied people whose goodwill could greatly benefit the invasion. '

Meanwhile, Leigh-Mallory 's use of the Ninth Air Force in aid of the strate-
gic campaign and his oft-stated belief that the decisive battle for air supremacy
would occur at the time of the invasion troubled Spaatz, who increasingly
resisted placing his forces under the AEAF and a commander whose compe-
tence he doubted and whose advocacy of the transportation plan he could not
support. In a message he wrote, but did not send to Arnold, Spaatz remarked,
"Proposal now under consideration for recommendation to CCS to place
Strategic Air Forces (AAF) under Eisenhower nominally, actively under Leigh-
Mallory, in immediate future. This places CG, USSTAF in impossible posi-
tion."i52 A week later he informed Eisenhower, "I have no confidence in Leigh-
Mallory 's ability to handle the job and ... I view with alarm any setup which
places the Strategic Air Forces under his control." 153 Spaatz and USSTAF
would take every opportunity to speak out against the transportation plan, sin-
cerely believing that it misapplied their forces. They could not advocate command
and control over strategic bombers by Leigh-Mallory. The two issues of tactical
target selection and overall air command and control had become intertwined.

332

The Luftwaffe Engaged

On February 15, after telling Eisenhower how he felt about Leigh-Mallory,
Spaatz attended an air planning meeting at Stanmore, Middlesex, a London sub-
urb and site of Leigh-Mallory 's headquarters. Leigh-Mallory, Tedder, Harris, F.
L. Anderson, Butler, Hughes, and Zuckerman also participated in what became,
at times, a heated discussion. Leigh-Mallory began the meeting by presenting a
definitive version of Zuckerman 's bombing plan, which assigned 41 percent of
the total preinvasion bomb tonnage to the transportation plan and only 1 1 per-
cent to PoiNTBLANK. The Eighth Air Force would provide 45 percent of the total
preinvasion bomb tonnage on all target systems, with Bomber Command con-
tributing a total of 35 percent.* Spaatz, whose staff had received copies of the
plan three days before the meeting and had prepared rejoinders, immediately
said that the AEAF's plan "did not show a full understanding of the Pointblank
operation. "154 Spaatz disagreed with the plan's premise that "air supremacy can-
not be assured until the joining of the decisive air battle which will mark the
opening of the Overlord assault."l55 Air supremacy must be achieved before
the assault, Spaatz said, adding that the AEAF had not consulted USSTAF in the
preparation of a plan that called for a massive commitment of strategic forces,
and that such a plan would not be approved until USSTAF had the opportunity
to participate in its development.

Leigh-Mallory argued that the Luftwaffe would rise to prevent the destruc-
tion of the rail system. Spaatz did not agree. The German fighter force might not
take the bait, he said, and if it did not, he had to retain the authority to attack any
target necessary to make the Germans fight — otherwise he could not accomplish
his primary task of destroying the German fighter force. In other words, Spaatz
would not agree to a scheme that allowed Leigh-Mallory to set his targets.
Leigh-Mallory then suggested that the Combined Chiefs of Staff and the Supreme
Commander settle the issue. 156

Spaatz reemphasized the different phases of the Combined Bomber Of-
fensive: (1) the destruction of the German fighter force, (2) the exploitation of
that destruction to reduce the German will and means to continue the war, and
(3) the direct support of the invasion. 157 Then Spaatz asked when the strategic
air forces would come under Leigh-Mallory's operational control. Leigh-
Mallory shot back, "March 1." At that point, according to Zuckerman, Spaatz
commented, "That's all I want to know; I've nothing further to say."i58
According to Colonel Hughes's minutes of the meeting, Spaatz told Leigh-
Mallory that "he could not concur in a paper at cross purposes to his present
diiective."l59

Spaatz and Leigh-Mallory also wrangled over when the Luftwaffe would be
destroyed. Leigh-Mallory again suggested that higher authorities settle the mat-

* Forty-eight percent of the preinvasion tonnage apparently was assigned to airfields and
coastal defenses. Likewise, the AEAF would apparently provide 20 percent of the total effort.

333

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

ter. Spaatz said that "until a new directive was issued to him, he felt compelled
to make recommendations as to the proper employment of the forces imder his
command to higher authority."'60

Leigh-Mallory and Harris engaged in an equally unproductive dialogue con-
cerning Bomber Command's role. Harris reiterated his prediction that the trans-
portation plan would not succeed and that the air forces would be blamed for its
failure. Finally, Spaatz entered the fray once again to reject the tonnage and
effort figures in the plan. At this point, Tedder proposed a joint planning com-
mittee, as Spaatz had suggested earlier, with representation from USSTAF,
Bomber Command, and the AEAF "to draw up a plan to suit the capabilities of
all concemed."l6l All present accepted Tedder's recommendation.

After the meeting, Spaatz and Tedder had more talks in which they agreed
not to request a change in the current Combined Bomber Offensive directive until
the planning committee produced a scheme acceptable to all parties; meanwhile
the current command system would apply. Spaatz also informed Tedder "that
Americans would not stand for their Strategic Air Forces operating under Leigh-
Mallory."162 For the Americans the suggestion that they come under Leigh-
Mallory 's control was not just a function of their mistrust of the Commander of
the AEAF. The shifting of their priorities to Overlord by March 1 would under-
cut the strategic bombing campaign. Spaatz had originally assumed that March 1,
which he had accepted as the date of USSTAF 's beginning operations under
Overlord, would mark a period sixty days before an early May invasion, but the
possible postponement of the invasion until June confronted him with a ninety-
day delay in the strategic campaign if he remained committed to a March 1 date.
As of February 15 USSTAF had not yet accomplished even its minimum strate-
gic goals. To have the transportation plan proposed to USSTAF before the
Luftwaffe's fighter force had been defeated or the destructive effects of bombing
on the German economy proved was unacceptable. Already frustrated by the
weather, which prevented his forces from going after the Germans, and pres-
sured by Washington to push the Combined Bomber Offensive home, Spaatz
naturally reacted sharply to another threat to the success of his strategic mission.

Two days after the February 15 meeting, Eisenhower met with Spaatz.
Eisenhower had already explained to Marshall that he intended to have his "Air
Preparation" plan accepted as "doctrine" by everyone under his control, includ-
ing Spaatz, whose previous complaints conceming Leigh-Mallory he found
worrying. Eisenhower, quietly attempting to change Spaatz's mind, suggested
that "proper credit had not been given to Leigh-Mallory' s intelligence." Spaatz
stood firm, indicating to Eisenhower that his views "had not and would not
change."l64

A draft press release from the Ninth Air Force that afternoon added fuel to
the fire. The release described Leigh-Mallory as the "Air Commander in Chief."
Spaatz promptly complained to Tedder, who replied, reasonably enough, that the
term had already been released previously. This response failed to satisfy

334

The Luftwaffe Engaged

An Avro Lancaster, backbone of RAF Bomber Command, 1943-1945. "Lanes" had
impressive payloads, but weak defensive armament and protection.

Spaatz. He then called Harris, who supported his position. Through their com-
bined pressure the offending phrase was squelched.

Later that day, Spaatz, Anderson, Hughes, and Col. C. P. Cabell (one of
USSTAF's representatives on the Joint Planning Committee) had dinner at Park
House with Zuckemian. Unlike many of his staff and other ranking American
air officers, Spaatz never let his intense opposition to the transportation plan turn
into antagonism against the plan's creator. Zuckerman recorded that Spaatz dur-
ing the dinner asked him why didn't he stop working "with that man Leigh-
Mallory and join us?"165 in a discussion after dinner, the Americans attempted
to explain their position to the professor. They emphasized the importance of
continual missions over Germany and expressed their hope to have at least a
small force over Germany every day and a larger one when weather permitted
visual bombing. In any case, the small forces, in seeking visual targets through
the clouds, would hit small German towns and their marshaling yards, destroy-
ing both with, they hoped, important effects. 166 Their unsystematic method
failed to convince Zuckerman, whose plans, as the Americans well kpew,
required extensive bombing of French targets by the strategic forces.

On February 19, Eisenhower and Spaatz met again to review air command
arrangements. Eisenhower asked Spaatz how the current system could be made
to work with Leigh-Mallory in his present position. Spaatz replied that no sys-
tem that left Leigh-Mallory in command of the strategic air forces would

335

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

work.167 He recommended as "the only practical solution" the formalization of
the Joint Planning Committee, which was already working on the Pointblank
program and on a plan to merge it into Overlord. After he and Harris had
ensured that this plan conformed to the limitations and capabilities of their
forces,l68 the CCS could issue a new bombing directive redefining target priori-
ties and transferring the strategic air forces to Eisenhower's direction. Spaatz
implied he would not approve any plan that allowed Leigh-Mallory control of all
air operations for an extended period prior to the invasion. He conceded, of
course, that "plans for the employment of Air in the actual assault of Overlord,
including the softening immediately prior thereto, must of necessity be drawn up
by Leigh-Mallory, with representatives from RAF Bomber Command and
USSTAF familiar with the capabilities of these forces."l69 While Spaatz did not
object to Leigh-Mallory 's operating within his own area of expertise, he was
determined to have a voice in the use of U.S. forces.

Eisenhower accepted this plan with two modifications. He asked that Portal
have representation on the committee, and second, that from time to time the
plan be checked against actual bombing results and modified if necessary. These
changes brought the RAF Chief of Staff formally into the process, increasing the
probability that the RAF and the CCS would approve any plan drawn up by the
committee. Portal would also balance Harris, who tended to operate semi-inde-
pendently. Eisenhower's second change allowed him the flexibility to change
air plans as events dictated, l "70

Spaatz apparently assumed that this agreement with Eisenhower would enable
him to carry Pointblank a step or two closer to completion. Later that day, after
lamenting, "Operations this week insignificant because of weather," he summa-
rized for Arnold the February 15 meeting and the new agreement with Eisen-
hower. Spaatz emphasized his fear of a "premature shifting from Pointblank to
direct preparation for Overlord and its consequent indication of willingness to
delay attainment of air supremacy until air battle over beachhead." He also
noted that Eisenhower would insist on putting RAF and AAF strategic forces
under his own control. i"?! In his reply, Arnold wholeheartedly agreed with
Spaatz that "premature diversion of Pointblank and failure to achieve air
supremacy prior to the assault would have tragic results." Arnold further
approved of Eisenhower's gaining some measure of control of the strategic air
forces.172 Fortified with Arnold's support, Spaatz prepared to fight for a contin-
uation of the Combined Bomber Offensive.

As Spaatz and Eisenhower reached their agreement, Harris introduced a new
complication. He appealed directly to Churchill to prevent the subjugation of
Bomber Command to the Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary
Force, especially if that meant control by Leigh-Mallory.

Spaatz 's and Harris's fractious attitude had so discouraged Eisenhower's
second in command, Tedder, that he wrote to Portal on February 22:

336

The Luftwaffe Engaged

I am more and more being forced to the unfortunate conclusion that the two
strategic air forces are determined not to play. Spaatz has made it abundantly
clear that he will not accept orders, or even coordination from Leigh-Mallory,
and the only sign of activity from Harris' representatives has been a series of
adjustments to the records of their past bombing statistics, with the evident
intention of demonstrating that they are quite unequipped and untrained to do
anything except mass fire-raising on very large targets.'"

Tedder went on to warn Portal that if the British Chiefs of Staff and Churchill
continued to withhold Bomber Command from Eisenhower's control "very seri-
ous issues will arise affecting Anglo-American co-operation in Overlord,"
issues that would result in "quite irremediable cleavage" between the Allies.

On February 28, Eisenhower had dinner at No. 10 Downing Street with
Churchill, whom he found impatient for progress on air planning and much dis-
turbed at the thought of Leigh-Mallory 's commanding the strategic air forces.
Eisenhower explained that he was waiting for a coordinated plan on which all
could agree and requested that the Prime Minister refrain from acting on the
matter. The next morning Eisenhower wrote a memo to Tedder urging him to
work more quickly to complete a solid plan before the Prime Minister came "in
this tiling with both feet."l77 This memo sounded the death knell for Leigh-
Mallory's claim to command all air power cooperating with the invasion.
Eisenhower wrote:

I'm quite prepared, if necessary, to issue an order saying I will exert direct
supervision of all air forces — through you — and authorizing you to use head-
quarters facilities now existing to make your control effective. L.M.'s position
would not be changed so far as assigned forces are concerned but those
attached for definite periods or definite jobs would not come imder his com-
mand [emphasis in original].'™

Even as Eisenhower signified his willingness to limit Leigh-Mallory to com-
mand of only the U.S. Ninth Air Force and the British 2d Tactical Air Force
Churchill waded into the air tangle. On February 29, the Prime Minister voiced
his own ideas on Overlord's air organization. Tedder should serve as "the
'Aviation lobe' of Eisenhower's brain," with the power to use all air forces tem-
porarily or permanently assigned to the invasion in accordance with the plan
approved by Eisenhower. Furthermore, Churchill charged Tedder to draw up,
with the assistance of Leigh-Mallory 's AEAF staff, a plan satisfactory to the
Supreme Commander. Leigh-Mallory would prepare plans and execute orders
received from Tedder in Eisenhower's name. As Deputy Commander, Tedder
would be empowered to issue orders to Spaatz, Harris, and Air Chief Marshal
Sholto Douglas, head of Coastal Command, for any employment of their forces
in Overlord sanctioned by the CCS.'^o This outline would eventually become
the command structure accepted by the Allies.

Churchill's minutes of February 29 may have suggested the solution for the
chain of command for air, but Eisenhower foimd other sections of it objectionable.

337

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Although the minutes admonished that "the 'Overlord' battle must be the chief
care of all concerned, and great risks must be run in every other sphere and theater
in order that nothing should be withheld which could contribute to the success,"
Churchill, in the same document, proceeded to violate his own dictum. "There can
be no question," he ruled, "of handing over the British Bomber, Fighter, or
Coastal Commands as a whole to the Supreme Commander and his Deputy." The
three commands had other functions as well as those assigned by Overlord. In
addition, Churchill felt that the CCS should retain the right to vary assignments
to the invasion "should overriding circumstances render it necessary."l8l

Upon reviewing these minutes, Eisenhower accepted Tedder's command
role and responsibility for drafting an air plan, but balked at having anything less
than total operational control of both strategic air forces. Further conversations
with Churchill proved unfruitful. In the beginning of March, Eisenhower told
Churchill that if Bomber Command did not come imder his control, he "would
simply have to go home. "1^2

Eisenhower conceded that Coastal Command, which occupied a lesser place
in the invasion plan, could remain under separate control, but he insisted that
Bomber Command receive its direction through the headquarters of the Supreme
Commander, as agreed by the Combined Chiefs of Staff at Cairo in December
1943. Portal, for his part, denied that the CCS had ever intended to place more
than a portion of Bomber Command under Eisenhower. At this juncture,
Churchill told Portal to negotiate an agreement with Eisenhower and indicated
that he would accept whatever arrangement the two men agreed to. 183 in the
end, during April, the strategic air forces came under Eisenhower's control.

By the end of February 1944, Spaatz had only partially solved the basic
problems confronting his command. Two months of bad weather had reduced
the opportunity for visual daylight bombing of Germany to a handful of days. To
their credit, Spaatz, Fred Anderson, Doolittle, and their men had taken maxi-
mum advantage of those days to damage key German aircraft assembly and pro-
duction targets. Those strikes, in conjunction with bombing-through-overcast
missions, had pushed the loss rate of the German fighter force to an unsustain-
able level. The Luftwaffe lost to all causes 12.1 percent of its fighter pilots in
January and another 17.9 percent in February. Thus, in two months almost
one out of every three of Germany's fighter pilots had been killed or disabled,
including some of its most skilled aviators. Wastage of machines was high, too.
Luftwaffe fighter units wrote off 33.8 percent of their total strength in January
and another 56.4 percent in February, a 90 percent turnover in two months. 185
The Eighth, too, had suffered severely, losmg 211 heavy bombers (19.5 percent
of its force) in January and 299 (20.2 percent of its force) in February.l86 The
Eighth also lost 172 fighter akcraft in combat and 190 fighter pilots to combat or
accidents for the first two months of the year. 187

Spaatz, however, thanks to resources of men and materiel reaching him, not
only sustained such losses but actually increased his strength on hand. His com-

338

The Luftwaffe Engaged

mand had not brought the Luftwaffe to earth, but had substantially weakened it.
In those two months a measure of confidence returned to the Eighth, which,
thanks to increasing numbers of long-range escort-fighters, was no longer afraid
to fly deep into Germany. This restoration of spirit, the attrition of the Luftwaffe,
and the damage to Germany's air industry, although not decisive in themselves,
were three large steps toward the accomplishment of Pointblank.

In comparison with the steady strides forward on the operational side of the
war, Spaatz and USSTAF remained enmeshed in disputes concerning the trans-
portation plan and air command arrangements. The latter, at least, gave some
hope of speedy resolution, while the former would drag on, not completely
resolved, almost until the invasion.

339

Chapter 10

The Luftwaffe Defeated
(March-April 1944)

A concentrated effort against oil, which would represent the
most far-reaching use of strategic air power that has been
attempted in this war, promises, I believe, more than any
other system; a fighting chance of ending German resistance
in a shorter period than we have hitherto thought possible.'

— Spaatz to Arnold, March 6, 1944.

In the three months before the invasion of Normandy on June 6, 1944, the
AAF gained daylight air superiority in the skies above occupied Europe and
Germany and began a campaign against the Axis oil industry, the success of
which contributed greatly to preinvasion air preparations. Neither of these tasks
proved easy. The Germans opposed each step with their usual dogged resistance,
and disputes among the British and Americans threatened to misdirect the
employment of Allied air power, dissipating its force and jeopardizing the
accomplishment of the goals before it. Spaatz, as the senior AAF officer in the
European Theater oif Operations, played a key role in these events by his super-
vision of the U.S. air effort and by his participation as the chief AAF representa-
tive in Europe in the contentious negotiations that worked out Allied air
command arrangements (See Chart 6, Chain of Command, Allied Expeditio-
nary Force, April 7, 1944.) and U.S. strategic air forces contributions to preinva-
sion bombing.

Air Command Arrangements for Overlord Are Settled

In the beginning of March, the Allies settled the air command arrangements
for Overlord. Tedder served as go-between as the British Chief of the Air
Staff, Portal, and the American Supreme Commander, Eisenhower, wrestled to

341

Chart 6

Chain of Command, Allied Expeditionary Force
April 1, 1944

Air Ministry

War Office

Admiralty

Administration Logistics Support

ETOUSA

General Eisenhower

U. S. Naval Forces in Europe

Admiral Stark - 12th Fieet

Administration Logistics Support

ANCXF

Admiral Ramsay

BR.

Supreme Commander AEF

General Eisenhower

Deputy Supreme Commander AEF

Air Chief Marshal Tedder

21 Army Group

General Montgomery

BOMBER
COMMAND

Air Chief Marshal
Harris

USSTAF

Lt Gen Spaab

Fifteenth

Eighth

LtGen

Twining

Doollttle

AEAF

Air Chief Marshal Leigh-Mallory

ADGB

Air

Marshal

-i

Hill

U.S.

Assault
Force G

Commodore
Douglas-
Pennant

Assault
Force J

Commodore
Oliver

Assault
Forces
R Adm

Talbot

Follow Up
Force L
R Adm
Parry

BRITISH

1st

2d ARMY

dnd

ARMY

ARached

LtGen

Troops

Crerar

LtGen

Dempsey

Assault
Force O
R Adm
Hall

Assault
Force U
R Adm
Moon

Follow Up
Force B

Commodore
Edgar

Service
Force
R Adm
Wilkes

2d
Canadian
CORPS

Lt Gen .
Simonds

idlan I

IDC •

CORPS

LtGen

Crocker

CORPS

LtGen
O'Connor

12
CORPS

LtGen
Ritchie

30
CORPS

LtGen
Bucknall

Airborne
Troops

LtGen
Browning

1st
A/B Div
Maj Gen
Ure)uhart

6th
A/B Div

Maj Gen
Cole

SAS
TRS

Mulberry A

U. S.
FIRST
ARMY
and
Attached
Troops
LtGen
Bradley

VIII
CORPS

Maj Gen
Middleton

CORPS

Maj Gen
Gerow

VII
CORPS

Maj Gen
Collins

A/B
TROOPS

XIX
CORPS

Maj Gen
Corlett

2dTAF

Air
Marshal
Coningham

2Gp

AVIVI
Embry

84
Comp
Gp

Brown

34th
Wing

Gp Capt

Lousada

83
Comp
Gp
AVM

Broadhurst

101st
A/B Div

Brig Gen
Taylor

82d
A/B Div

Maj Gen
Ridgway

2d
MB Brig

Brig Gen
Howell

Ninth
AF

Ll Gen
Brereton

IX
TAC
Air Comd

Maj Gen
Quesada

IX
Bomber
Comd

Brig Gen

S. E.
Anderson

Air Dep
Comd

Brig Gen
Ridiardson

XIX
TAC
Air Comd

Brig Gen
Weytand

IX
TCC
Comd

Brig Gen
Williams

IX
Engr
Comd

Brig Gen
Newman

Operational Direction
Administrative Direction

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

reconcile their differences. Portal, following Churchill's dictates, sought to pre-
serve some autonomy for RAF Coastal, Fighter, and Bomber Commands,
whereas Eisenhower wished for complete control, particularly of Bomber
Command. By March 9, Portal produced a draft agreement incorporating ele-
ments of both positions. Eisenhower described it as "exactly what we want,"2
and a day later informed Marshall, "All air forces here will be under Tedder's
supervision as my agent and this prospect is particularly pleasing to Spaatz."3

Spaatz wrote to Arnold in a similar vein, "I feel that this is a logical, work-
able plan and, under the conditions which exist, cannot be improved upon."4
Tedder would coordinate the operation of the strategic forces in support of the
invasion, and Leigh-Mallory, under Tedder's supervision, would coordinate the
tactical air plan. Eisenhower accepted the right of the Combined Chiefs or the
British Chiefs to impose additional tasks on the strategic forces if necessary.
Finally, once assault forces had established themselves on the Continent, both
parties agreed to undertake a revision of the directive for the employment of the
strategic bomber force.^

The British then passed the draft agreement to the Combined Chiefs. In their
covering memos, the British stated that when the air plan for support of
Overlord met the approval of both Eisenhower and Portal, acting in his capac-
ity as the agent of the Chiefs for the Combined Bomber Offensive, "the respon-
sibility for supervision of air operations out of England of all forces engaged in
the program, including the United States Strategic Air Force and British Bomber
Command, together with any other air forces that might be made available,
should pass to the Supreme Commander."^ Eisenhower and Portal would jointly
supervise those strategic forces not used by the invasion in accordance with
agreements they had previously reached. The British Chiefs added that, at pre-
sent, they had no plans to use the reservations inserted into the agreement, and,
if they did, they would immediately inform the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff.^

The U.S. Joint Chiefs balked at once. This proposal did not give Eisenhower
unquestioned control of the strategic air forces. The British protested that the
Supreme Commander himself found the plan acceptable — to no avail. Even
Eisenhower had second thoughts and insisted on untrammeled control of the
strategic bombers for the invasion period. Once again, he thought of resigning if
the matter continued to drag on ad infinitum.^ On April 7, barely two months
before the invasion, the Combined Chiefs agreed that the strategic air forces
would operate under the Supreme Commander's "direction." This was appar-
ently less ambiguous than allotting him "the responsibility for supervision." At
the same time, the Combined Chiefs approved, with a few exceptions on targets,
the air plan developed for the invasion. Formal direction of the strategic air forces
passed to Eisenhower on April 14,9 confirming the informal command structure
already in place.

344

The Luftwaffe Defeated

The Dispute over Strategic Targeting

Simultaneously, the strategic air forces, through their representatives on the
Joint Planning Committee for the Overlord air plan, spent much of March
arguing the merits of Zuckerman's transportation plan versus USSTAF's oil
plan. The strategic air forces would come into the Supreme Commander's hands
only after approval of the air preparation plan. Until the airmen could agree on a
plan, the formalization of the air command structure would hang fire.

For practical purposes, however, the strategic air commanders had no inten-
tion of actually employing their veto. Spaatz and, by now, even Harris accepted
the necessity of some strategic support for the invasion. Moreover, Eisenhower
would surely override any veto by appealing to the CCS, who would defer to him
in any matter directly touching on the success of the invasion. Their veto power
gave the strategic air commanders leverage in obtaining a command system and a
plan for air employment more in keeping with their own ideas than might other-
wise have been possible. Although their positions were not invulnerable,
Ejsenhower would find it difficult and very disruptive to replace them with more
malleable commanders, who would probably lack their expertise and prestige.

By late February, Spaatz and others had recognized that the Combined Bomber
Offensive had progressed to a point, thanks to the attrition of the Luftwaffe's
fighter forces inflicted in January and February, at which time the destruction of
targets other than the German aircraft industry was not only feasible but desir-
able. Spaatz thus ordered the formation of a USSTAF planning committee to
consider future actions. He did so partially in response to the transportation plan,
which the AEAF had presented to him in February — a plan that USSTAF
regarded as unsound. He laid down three guiding principles for the conmiittee:
(1) the plan must provide for an- supremacy at the time of the invasion; (2) the
plan should take into account a possible early collapse of Germany prior to the
invasion; and (3) if Germany did not collapse, the plan should nevertheless
make a maximum contribution to the success of Overlord.10

With pressure for adoption of the transportation plan gaining momentum
every day, Spaatz urgently required a viable alternative on which to base his
opposition. He pushed the planning committee to complete its work; they pre-
pared a final draft in thirty-six-hours, n presenting to Spaatz on March 5, a
"plan for the Completion of the Combined Bomber Offensive."

Quickly dubbed the oil plan it called for a "re-clarification" of Pointblank
directives and, after examining ten discrete target systems, selected three
German production programs — ^rubber, bomber aircraft, and oil. To those three,
it added the already accepted targets of German fighter production and ball bear-
ings. Oil received top priority followed by fighters and ball bearings, rubber, and
bomber aircraft. The plan emphatically rejected railroad transport as a strategic
target. Such a system had too many targets, had built in too much noncritical
civilian traffic and long-term industrial traffic that could be suppressed or

345

SPAAiy AND THE AlR WAR IN EUROPE

diverted before military traffic would be significantly reduced, and its destruc-
tion would take too long to have a significant military effect. In contrast, the oil
plan required fifteen days' visual bombing for the Eighth Air Force and ten for
the Fifteenth Air Force.l2

The plan assumed that flie destruction of only fourteen synthetic oil plants
and thirteen refineries would account for more than 80 percent of production and
60 percent of readily usable refining capacity. These losses would reduce the
total German supply of fuel by 50 percent, thereby cutting materially "German
military capabilities through reducing tactical and strategical mobility and front-
line delivery of supplies and industrial abihty to produce weapons and supplies."
Furthermore, the plan contended that the Germans, under fire, would immedi-
ately reduce consumption of oil products in order to conserve their stocks. 13 This
postulate, although logical, could not be verified by intelligence before the
attacks. USSTAF insisted that the immediate cut would have great effects in the
battle for the beachhead, but the oil plan's critics countered by claiming that it
did not guarantee a significant impact on German fighting ability before the
invasion assault. Almost everyone agreed that the plan had long-range potential
devastating to the Nazis. Nonetheless, factors that improved the chances of the
inraiinent invasion appealed more to Eisenhower than schemes that promised
important but delayed benefits.

The oil industry's configuration added to its suitability as a target system.
Ploesti, the enemy's major source of natural petroleum, was vulnerable to the
increasing power of the Fifteenth Air Force. Once operations there ceased, the
synthetic oil plants of Germany would become the enemy's chief source of sup-
ply. These plants, most of which were well within bomber range of Britain, con-
stituted a compact target system. Their destruction would produce dramatic
results before the cross-channel attack and leave an adequate reserve of unused
American force avaUable for containing the aircraft industry or striking at other
targets of opportunity,

The synthetic oil plants also presented a practical bombing problem, which
was not as important in early 1944, when strategic arnnen had only minimum
disposable force, as it would become in the winter of 1944-1945, when they had
enormous bomber fleets. For technical and logistical reasons the Germans had
chosen to build their synthetic oil plants away from urban areas. These plants
could only be bombed if they could be located by visual means. The American
H2X radar's resolution or return was so inaccurate that it could only locate a city
area. Although synthetic plants were huge, they were considerably smaller than
a city. Hence, bombing oil plants meant using the very few days of visual bomb-
ing weather to hit targets outside German cities. In the winter of 1944-1945 syn-
thetic oil targets absorbed all visual bombing days. The Americans were left
with litfle choice but to resort to H2X-assisted raids on targets within German
cities for the majority of their bombing effort, with calamitous results for the
German civilian population.

346

The Luftwaffe Defeated

Upon receiving the plan on the evening of March 5, Spaatz and his staff, as
usual, began their discussion before dinner and continued it into the wee hours.
Walt W. Rostow, then a first lieutenant in the Enemy Objectives Unit (EOU) of
the Office of Strategic Services, which served as USSTAF's unofficial target
intelligence section, recorded in 1981, "Despite the effort to emphasize, within
the plan, the will to complete the attacks on the Pointblank systems. General
Spaatz quickly appreciated that it was to all intents and purposes an Oil Plan."
Spaatz then "explored at length the issues at stake, especially the capabilities of
the Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces with respect to the number of targets
involved. He then ordered the plan completed for prompt presentation to Portal
and Eisenhower."i5

In sending the plan to Eisenhower, Spaatz stated his own views: "I consider
that the plan provides for the optimum use of Strategic Air Forces between now
and the time for close support in the immediate tactical area. Our calculations of
the possible results are considered to be conservative." He added that the plan's
results were "pitched in terms of so lowering the German fighting efficiency on
existing fronts that the German ability safely to move strategic reserves will be
impaired; and in the months following D-Day, the capacity of the German groimd
annies effectively to continue resistance must inevitably be exhausted."i6

The oil plan offered a strategically based rebuttal of the transportation plan.
Another plan, drawn up by the EOU, challenged the transportation plan on tacti-
cal grounds. EOU's plan called for the bombing of french supply dumps and
bridges rather than rail marshaling yards. Both plans provided rallying points for
the critics of Zuckerman's plan. The counterattack mounted by these critics
brought Tedder fully into the field in support of the transportation plan because
he might lose face if the Allies rejected it. He believed that the plan offered a
partial solution to the air command difficulties by providing a set of targets
requiring the coordination and cooperation of the strategic and tactical air forces.
Tedder wrote Portal that in order to derive full use of Allied air power, he
needed a target system based "on one common object toward which all available
air forces can be directed. . . . Concentration against one common system, by
both day and night, is essential." 17 Tedder's reasoning was, of course, apparent
to the adherents of both plans. The oil plan allowed a non-centralized air com-
mand system under which the strategic air forces would operate without close
cooperation with the tactical air forces. The transportation plan required a uni-
fied air command in order to yoke both the strategic and tactical air forces into a
coordinated attack on a complex, wide-spread, resilient target system.

The dispute between the adherents of the transportation plan and its oppo-
nents, who criticized it on strategic and tactical grounds, continued until mid-
May 1944. During a series of meetings held throughout March the transportation
plan's detractors mobilized increasing opi>psition. Field Marshal Alan Brooke,
Chief of the Imperial General Staff, the equivalent of the American Chamnan of

347

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and others questioned the plan's effectiveness, as did
segments of the British Air Staff and Ministry of Economic Warfare. Spaatz, on
the day of the AAF's first major raid over Berlin, wrote Arnold enthusiastically:

We do, however, feel sure that a new range of tactical possibilities in operation
are open to us, and that it would be a misuse of our force and of the opportuni-
ties we have created not to push strategic bombing to its ultimate conclusion, in
that period available to us. A concentrated effort against oil, which would rep-
resent the most far-reaching use of strategic air-power that has been attempted
in this war, promises more than any other system, a fighting chance of ending
German resistance in a shorter period than we have hitherto thought possible."

Arnold began cudgelling his own superior, Marshall, to support the oil plan.
In a memo dated March 13, he explained, "In view of the recent progress made
against the GAP, the ball-bearing industry and Berlin, and the imminence of
Overlord, it is evident such a plan is required." After denigrating plans based
"upon only cold, mathematical-like tables of performance data [the transporta-
tion plan]," Arnold concluded, "The tremendous force available to us must not
be permitted to waste its substance on any but potentially decisive operations."20

These pleas did not change Marshall's determination or that of the War
Department to leave the major decisions concerning the military policy of the
invasion to the invasion commander, Eisenhower. On March 16, the AAF Chief
of Staff, Maj. Gen. Barney Giles, told Spaatz that because Portal, Harris, and,
above all, Eisenhower had not committed themselves to the oil plan, the Joint
Chiefs of Staff were unlikely to take action on it. He pointed out that the most
recent CCS directive on strategic bombing already gave Spaatz the authority to
start attacks against the systems he had selected. Then Giles asked for new ini-
tiatives from Spaatz:

What concerns us most here is whether or not you are going to be able to sell
Eisenhower on the necessity for letting you go ahead with your Plan without
insistence that you be diverted prematurely. I feel that if Eisenhower makes an
issue of a system or of a date he will be backed up by the U.S. Joint Chiefs of
Staff — so that places it right in your lap.^'

In order to "sell" Eisenhower, Spaatz would have to "sell" Tedder, who had
already told Portal, "I am frankly skeptical of the Oil Plan, partly because we
have been led up the garden path before, partly because the targets are in diffi-
cult areas . . . and partly because I am not sure of the real vulnerability of the
new synthetic oil plants."22 On March 16 the Joint Bombing Committee met
again. Tedder began the meeting completely in favor of the transportation plan,
but the united opposition of the RAF Assistant Chiefs of Staff for Plans, Bomber
Operations, and Intelligence caused him to waver and he, with Portal and
Eisenhower, referred the transportation plan to the British Joint Intelligence
Committee for review. Spaatz noted optimistically, "Hoped by all concerned

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The Luftwaffe Defeated

here that Tedder will repudiate AEAF Plan of his own accord," an action that
would avoid hard feelings all around.23 Tedder, however, did not abandon the
transportation plan, even in the face of the Joint Intelligence Committee Report,
which supported the oil plan. The latter report, according to Tedder, was based
on unsubstantiated and invalid assumptions .24

Meanwhile, Eisenhower had reached the end of his tether. If a meeting
scheduled for March 25 did not decide between the competing plans, he stated,
"I am going to take drastic action and inform the Combined Chiefs of Staff that
unless the matter is settled at once I will request relief from this command."25

At the March 25 bombing policy conference which would decide between
the competing plans, Spaatz, Tedder, and Eisenhower were joined by Portal,
Harris, Leigh-Mallory, and various intelligence officers and experts on Axis oil.
During the preceding week Spaatz and Tedder had prepared and circulated briefs
detailing their positions and had marshaled last-minute agreements to attract fur-
ther support for their proposals. Apparently, Tedder persuaded Portal to back the
transportation plan. Harris, too, gave the plan lukewarm support. He opposed the
oil plan because he disagreed with the concept of designing a strategic bombing
strategy around a single-target system. Choosing such a "panacea" diverted his
forces from area bombing, which he thought was the most effective method of
conducting the bomber offensive. In addition, British bomber operations in
March demonstrated the night bomber's surprisingly high capability for the pre-
cision bombing of marshaling yards while simultaneously revealing an alarming
rise in the effectiveness of the German night-fighter force, which reached its
apogee in the winter of 1943-1944 and inflicted "prohibitive" casualties. 26
These two factors undercut Harris's original objections that he could not bomb
precision targets and that city-busting raids offered a more decisive alternative.

Spaatz, not to be outdone, took advantage of Baker's visit to London — they
visited each other's headquarters monthly and coordinated bombing operations
and policy — to use his friend's close ties with the British and his expertise to try
to win converts to the oil plan. On the morning of March 25, Spaatz and Eaker,
who had just stepped off his plane, went to lobby both Eisenhower and Tedder.
After discussing air command arrangements in Britain and the proposed direc-
tive for air support of Overlord, Eisenhower asked for Baker's views on the oil
versus transportation debate. Although he declined to comment on the oil plan
because he had not studied it, Eaker told Eisenhower that the Luftwaffe must
receive top priority and recommended that no attacks on communications lines
south of the Rhine should occur before D-day. His experience in Italy, said
Eaker, had shown him that communication attacks, unsupported by sustained
friendly ground action to pressure the enemy and force him to consume supplies,
had little effect. The two AAF generals then spent an hour with Tedder going
over the same subjects,27 but they did not change his mind.

That afternoon Portal, chair of the bombing policy conference called on
Tedder to present the transportation plan. During the presentation and the ensu-

349

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

ing discussion three salient points emerged. First, all present agreed that the
bombing of Luftwaffe targets, including ball bearings producers, had top prior-
ity, and, therefore, the meeting would consider the allocation to a specific target
system of only the effort remaining after bombing the highest priority system.
Second, Tedder believed that only an all-out attack on the transport-action sys-
tem would sufficiently disrupt enemy movement before and after D-day to give
the invasion the greatest chance of success. Third, Eisenhower asserted that "the
greatest contribution that he could imagine the air forces making" was the hin-
dering of enemy movement and "that everything he had read had convinced him
that, apart from the attack on the G.A.F., the Transportation Plan was the only
one which offered a reasonable chance of the air forces making an important
contribution to the land battle during the first vital weeks of Overlord." In fact
he did not believe that there was any other "real alternative. "28

Then the group examined the oil plan. Spaatz and F. L. Anderson, the only
Americans present besides Eisenhower, presented their case. Several factors
affected the manner of their exposition. Spaatz, congenial, even convivial, in his
mess or at ease, usually performed woodenly at set-piece conferences,29 as he
did at this one. He had already circulated his views in his brief and so he con-
fined himself to reiterating three of its conclusions: (1) strategic attacks on the
railways would not affect the course of initial battle or prevent movement of
German reserves from other fronts, whereas the oil plan might do both; (2)
attacks on the rail system would not, in an acceptable length of time, weaken
enemy resistance on all fronts simultaneously, which the oil plan would do
while it also hastened the postinvasion success of Overlord; and, most impor-
tant, (3) attacks on rail targets would not provoke a strong reaction from the
Luftwaffe, whereas attacks on oil targets would.30 This spare, straightforward
presentation aided the advocates of the transportation plan. A presentation of
EOU's tactical plan would have strengthened his case.

As Rostow has pointed out, other organizational, bureaucratic, and personal
factors also affected the presentation. Spaatz, because he commanded a strategic
force, chose not to present the tactical plan, which would require the participa-
tion of forces not imder his control. Although he harbored genuine, continuing
doubts as to the invasion's chances of success in achieving a foothold on the
Continent, he would accept almost any plan Eisenhower backed because he did
not want it said that he had not done his utmost to support the attack. A member
of his staff, Carl Kaysen, recalled that a week or so before the meeting Spaatz

told his staff, "I won't take the responsibility. This [expletive deleted in

original] invasion can't succeed, and I don't want any part of the blame. After it
fails, we can show them how we can win by bombing. "31

Anderson followed Spaatz 's short discourse with the observation that
although the oil plan could not guarantee a .decisive influence on the initial
stages of Overlord, it could, within six months, have a devastating effect on the
enemy. Conversely, USSTAF doubted that the transportation plan would ever

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The Luftwaffe Defeated

have a decisive effect on the enemy. A British oil expert from the Ministry of
Economic Warfare, Oliver Lawrence, commented that if USSTAF attacked its
twenty -seven targeted oil installations within a three-month period, the Germans
would have to cut their current military consumption by 25 percent. Lawrence
added that the Germans had large reserve stocks in the west, so they might not
immediately cut back operations in France, but they would certainly feel the
pinch in the west four or five months after the plan's start.

Portal immediately seized on Lawrence's comments to administer the coup
de grace to the immediate adoption of the oil plan stating that they "showed con-
clusively that the oil plan would not help Overlord in the first few critical
weeks." He softened the blow by strongly suggesting that, once the initial inva-
sion crisis had passed, the oil plan had "great attractions." Eisenhower agreed.
This ended the meeting's consideration of Spaatz's alternative to the transporta-
tion plan.32

Talk then turned to the use of strategic bombers. Harris doubted that he
could carry out precision attacks against all twenty-six targets allotted to him in
the time period before D-day. Despite a rising rate of casualties, he wanted to
continue his attacks over eastern Germany for as long as he had enough hours of
darkness. Eisenhower, conceding that the transportation plan would cause
Bomber Command very litfle change in its programs, said, "The more important
question was whether the 8th and 15th Air Forces could achieve their part in [the
transportation plan]." Spaatz replied that one-half of his visual bombing attacks
would have to strike Luftwaffe targets and the other half would have to hit a tar-
get system capable of producing "at least some enemy fighter reaction, and so
attrition." He had chosen the oil plan over the transportation plan precisely
because the former would guarantee constant air battles and consistent attrition
of the Luftwaffe's fighter force.

Portal disagreed. He believed that the Luftwaffe would defend the railways
once it realized the Allies had begim an all-out campaign against them. Spaatz
emphasized the importance of the location of the targets chosen; his forces must
fly well into Germany in order to generate the maximum amount of air fighting,
and for tactical reasons some of the transportation targets ought to be in the
same area as Luftwaffe targets. Tedder agreed, anticipating that he would have
no problem coming up with targets to fit Spaatz's requirements. Portal then
raised another problem — ^the large numbers of civilian casualties almost certain
to result from bombing the marshaling yards in or adjacent to French towns. He
reserved to the British government the opportunity to consider the possible con-
sequences. 33 This caveat, which few at the time remarked on, would eventually
delay complete execution of the transportation plan for several weeks until
Churchill could satisfy himself that the bombing would not redoimd to Britain's
discredit.

The bombing policy conference ended with Portal and Eisenhower giving
Tedder, not Leigh-Mallory, instructions on coordinating the execution of the

351

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

plan with the air commanders involved.34 At this time Portal and Eisenhower
also stated their intention to put in place the air command arrangements on
which they had previously agreed, subject to final approval by the Combined
Chiefs of Staff.35 From that point on, Eisenhower, using Tedder as his executive
for air, began to exercise de facto control of the strategic bomber forces.36 The
decision that Tedder coordinate the execution of the transportation plan had the
character of a compromise. Eisenhower accepted Leigh-Mallory's preinvasion
plan but did not require that Spaatz, who questioned Leigh-Mallory's capabili-
ties, place himself under the man.

Thus concluded what a British official history termed "the historic occa-
sion."37 Eisenhower chose the transportation plan over the oil plan, and the air
command arrangements agreed on between Eisenhower and the British went
into effect. Critics have disputed the wisdom of the Supreme Commander's
choice ever since. Much ink and emotion have flowed over the benefits derived
from the transportation plan. On tactical grounds its critics maintain that a cam-
paign of bridge busting and bombing of supply dumps would have consumed
less force with equal results. 38 On strategic grounds critics bemoan the "national
disaster"39 of the delay in the oil campaign, which, when executed, severely
restricted Germany's ability to wage war.

How did Spaatz react to this conference — an event Eisenhower biographer
Stephen E. Ambrose described as "a crucial moment in his [Spaatz's] life"?40
Did he complain bitterly to everyone of the obtuseness of his plan's opponents?
No, neither his character nor his thirty years' service as a Regular Army officer
fitted him for the role of chronic malcontent. As in the Mitchell court-martial
nineteen years earlier, he presented and defended a position in which he be-
lieved passionately. Once Eisenhower had reached a decision, however, Spaatz
supported it with grace and, in fact, left the meeting not displeased, but cheered
that the command arrangements acceptable to him had prevailed. In a letter to
Arnold, Baker, who had dirmer with Spaatz that evening, said of Spaatz's reac-
tion;

I have never seen him quite so jubilant and overjoyed. He had won out com-
pletely on the command set up. The strategic British and American Air Forces
were not to be put under Leigh-Mallory. The communication plan had won
out over the oil plan, but Tooey was not too displeased about this, since all
had firmly agreed that the German Air Force was to be an all-consuming first
priority.""

The day after the meeting, in his weekly "Eyes Only" summary for Arnold,
Spaatz commented:

I believe decision reached was justified based on all factors involved, which are
predominantly the absolute necessity to insure the initial success of Overlord.
I feel satisfied with the command set-up as now being established. ... I feel the

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The Luftwaffe Defeated

time has arrived now when the most essential thing is the full out coordination
of the air effort in support of Overlord.''^

Spaatz's actions and words after the meeting betray little sense of defeat or

angst at the thought of forfeiting what he considered an excellent chance to hit
Germany in its most vital organs. Postwar information gathered by the Allies
reveals that the anti-oil campaign was decisive once it began in earnest in the
summer of 1944. Spaatz, in March 1944, might have had a hunch that the oil
campaign would yield immediate crucial results, but he had no proof. He
accepted the transportation plan because he would only have to divert, at most,
half of his effort, much of it on days the Eighth could not bomb Germany using
visual means in any case. He could employ the remainder of his force with a free
hand to continue increasing the Luftwaffe's already ruinous attrition rate. The
latest version of the transportation plan also assigned RAF Bomber Command
twenty-six rail targets in France, thus ensuring Harris's participation and remov-
ing a specter that had troubled Spaatz since the plan's inception. In early
February he had remarked to Zuckerman, "What worries me is that Harris is
being allowed to get off scot-free. He'll go on bombing Germany and will be
given a chance of defeating her before the invasion while I am put under Leigh-
Mallory's command."43 It is also possible that Spaatz had not given up on the
oil plan. If he could demonstrate that bombing oil targets could produce a vio-
lent air reaction by the Germans, then selecting oil targets would clearly fall into
the purview of his directive to destroy the Luftwaffe.

Spaatz may have lost a round on points but he had not lost the fight. On
March 31 he stepped back into the ring with memos to Portal and Eisenhower
titled "The Use of Strategic Bombers in Support of Overlord," in which he
accepted the proposition that French railways required heavy attacks. But, after
noting that neither the oil plan nor the transportation plan had, as yet, a qualita-
tive measure of effectiveness, he rejected an attack on German railways and sug-
gested that oil targets would be just as easy to bomb and more effective in the
long run:

The effect from the Oil attack, while offering a less definite input in time, is
certain to be more far-reaching. It will lead directly to sure disaster for
Germany. The Rail attack can lead to harassment only. In weighing these two,
it appears that too great a price may be paid merely for a certainty of very
little."

Spaatz then offered the possibility of simultaneously executing both the oil
and transportation plans. Eighth Air Force fighter-bombers could bomb both
French railway targets and synthetic fuel plants in the Ruhr. RAF Bomber
Command could also make daylight attacks against French rail targets or
bomb synthetic fuel plants in Stettin or, if they wished, the Ruhr at night. In
Romania, the Fifteenth Air Force might bomb transportation targets, and the

353

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Russians might advance far enough to send their limited-range planes against
Ploesti. To Spaatz, bombing the transport lines around Ploesti was the key to
hampering German miHtary operations in the Balkans and the southern USSR,
restricting the flow of refined and crude petroleum from Ploesti, and contribut-
ing to the general dislocation of the German rail system. If the Soviets could
take or neutralize Ploesti, the Germans would be extremely vulnerable to air
attacks on the synthetic fuel plants, Hitler's only remaining significant source of
oil. "These possibilities," in Spaatz's opinion, "therefore, lend weight to the
advantage of early attack upon the synthetics in order to obtain the earliest pos-
sible threat. That impact might well be far earlier than currently estimated."45

Finally, Spaatz recommended the following target priorities in order of
importance for his two air forces:

For the Eighth:

1 . The Luftwaffe and ball bearings,

2. The nineteen rail targets already selected in occupied countries, and

3. The thirteen major synthetic oil plants.

For the Fifteenth:

1. The Luftwaffe and ball bearings,

2. Rail transport in Romania and selected targets in southern France,

3. Synthetic oil plants in southern Germany, and

4. Political targets in the Balkans.'"

At the end of March, the transportation plan was in; Spaatz was persevering in
his push for oil; and Leigh-Mallory was out, reduced to the same status as
Spaatz and Harris, with Eisenhower, acting through Tedder, in command. Spaatz
had achieved a position satisfactory to himself on several issues. The strategic
bombers would remain under strategic commanders. He also expected U.S. rep-
resentation within the AEAF to become more vigorous with the replacement of
the lackluster Butler by the ambitious Brig. Gen. Hoyt S. Vandenberg, Spaatz's
personal friend. Vandenberg, a former member of the prewar Air Corps Plans
Division and former Chief of Staff of the Twelfth Air Force and of the
Northwest African Strategic Air Forces, received his second star in order to have
the requisite rank for the new assignment.

Spaatz and Eisenhower had earlier agreed on Butler's transfer. On March 1,
Eisenhower cabled Marshall that he found Butler "not [emphasis in original]
suitable for his present assignment."47 On March 6, Eisenhower, presumably in
response to Marshall's and Arnold's request for further information, added,
"The difficulty with General Butler is that he is completely negative,"48 with
nothing constructive to offer either ally. The Supreme Commander then sug-
gested Vandenberg. "The importance of the American contingent of this staff is
obvious, and it must be headed by a strong, able type whose word and opinions
will carry some weight. "49 Marshall, who rubber-stamped almost all of
Eisenhower's persoimel requests, promptly complied. Vandenberg, leaving his

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The Luftwaffe Defeated

post as AAF Deputy Chief of the Air Staff, arrived in London on March 24,
where he immediately saw Spaatz. With him came another AAF general, Brig.
Gen. Frederic H. Smith. Jr., the son-in-law of Admiral Ernest J. King, Chief of
Naval Operations. Smith's marital connections gave him greater influence and
importance than his rank might suggest. He would serve as Vandenberg's
deputy and Chief of AEAF Operations.

At their initial meeting and at another three days later concerning the role
and responsibilities of the Deputy Commander, Allied Expeditionary Air Force,
Spaatz clarified his reasons for aslcing Eisenhower to appoint Vandenberg.
Vcindenberg pointed to the dual nature of his roles: (1) serving as a loyal subor-
dinate to his commander, Leigh-Mallory, and (2) "guarding the operational use
and fulfilling the administrative requirement of the American component,"
Spaatz responded that Vandenberg's top priority ought to be "safeguarding the
interests of the American component" and gaining Eisenhower's concurrence in
this matter. Spaatz added that with Eisenhower's agreement, he meant to route
all matters of major policy concerning the Ninth Air Force through Vandenberg.
Vandenberg would "inform" General Brereton to direct through him all matters
requiring decisions by higher authority. The two generals then consulted with
Eisenhower, who concurred in their decision, and with Tedder concerning the
position of AEAF and the other air commands in England. Vandenberg finished
his rounds by going off alone for dinner with Leigh-Mallory at AEAF Headquar-
ters.50

By placing his own man in the deputy commander slot and making him the
de facto commander of the entire U.S. contingent in the AEAF, Spaatz tightened
his control over the nonstrategic AAF elements in Britain. He eliminated Butler,
who, in addition to his other failings, had supported the transportation plan.51
He also subordinated Brereton, a congenital maverick who had visions of
playing an independent role in the tactical sphere of operations, to a member
of the Amold-Spaatz AAF ruling faction. Brereton, too, had committed the sin
of supporting the transportation plan.52 Vandenberg's selection had the further
advantage of making available to Leigh-Mallory an efficient, energetic officer
familiar with strategic operations. In the long run, Vandenberg's appointment
would improve the effectiveness of the AEAF as an Allied and a combat head-
quarters.

A week before the new man's arrival, Spaatz and Leigh-Mallory had clashed
again over the role of the Ninth Air Force's fighters. On March 10, Leigh-
Mallory, eager to implement the transportation plan and to initiate greater train-
ing in ground-air tactics and cooperation for his forces, had ordered that, except
for two groups of P-5 1 aircraft, the Ninth Air Force would "operate exclusively
under the Allied Expeditionary Air Force . . . released from its commitment to
assist U.S. Vlllth Air Force Pointblank operations under arrangements made
by that Force."53 Leigh-Mallory added that the Ninth's medium-bomber attacks
would be planned to coincide with the Eighth's deep-penetration flights. Spaatz

355

The Luftwaffe Defeated

strenuously objected that the loss of the fighters would deprive him of the much-
needed services of five recently activated P-47 groups, some 300 to 375 aircraft
which, thanks to a newly developed 150-gallon drop tank, had achieved an
escort range of 475 miles in February. They were able for the first time to escort
to objectives just beyond an arc drawn from Hamburg to Frankfurt. The relative
shortage of P-51s plus new drop tanks made the P-47s the backbone of the
Eighth's escort fighters for the winter of 1943-1944.

In his reply to Leigh-Mallory, Spaatz pointed out that the former's instruc-
tions violated previous agreements:

It is my understanding that all three types of U.S. fighters are at the disposal of
the Eighth Air Force to assist ... in Pointblank operations. Further, inasmuch
as I have been made responsible for the training of the Ninth Air Force, it will
be my responsibility to determine how much diversion from Pointblank will
be allowed for training.

Spaatz did reaffirm, however, his commitment to release Ninth Air Force
fighters to the AEAF "whenever possible. "54

Three days later, Spaatz protested again to Leigh-Mallory and appealed to
Eisenhower. Spaatz agreed that the Ninth's medium bombers could fulfill their
Pointblank obligation by timing their tactical strikes in conjunction with the
Eighth's strategic missions. He then drew Leigh-Mallory 's attention to the cur-
rent operations directive of the Combined Chiefs of Staff, which unequivocally
gave support of the strategic air forces as the present primary mission of the
Ninth Air Force. To Eisenhower, Spaatz wrote one blunt paragraph:

I think this is a matter of utmost importance in our operations. Unless the
Eighth Air Force operating out of U.K. can be assured of the availability of all
long-range fighters, including P-47's, their deep penetrations will result in
greatly increased heavy bomber losses, and we will be losing many opportuni-
ties to deal punishing blows to the German Air Force.'^

The matter obviously required a decision from higher authority. On March
20, after a regular commanders' conference, Spaatz insisted to Eisenhower56 that
they meet with Tedder and Leigh-Mallory to resolve the issue. Eisenhower ruled
in favor of Spaatz;57 the Ninth Air Force remained undivided. The incident, like
earlier ones, did little to help the relationship between the two men and their
organizations. The AAF official history, not known for criticism of its own, noted
of the situation:

The failure to achieve cooperation between USSTAF and AEAF, coupled with
other differences over the training of Ninth Air Force units and over the control
of the strategic air forces themselves, created an atmosphere of distrust and sus-
picion between the two headquarters, which was an exception rather than the
rule in Anglo-American relations in the European theater."

357

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe
Operations

This bureaucratic and policy trench-fighting in March 1944 had no effect on
operations. Both Allied air forces and the Luftwaffe suffered brutal and unprece-
dentedly high losses as the skies of occupied Europe served as a battlefield by
day and by night in the continued struggle for mastery of the air. As mentioned,
the German night-fighter forces during March reached such a level of effective-
ness that RAF heavy-bomber losses became prohibitive. As a result, RAF
Bomber Command temporarily discontinued night attacks over Germany. The
month culminated in the disastrous Nuremberg raid on the night of March
30-31, in which it lost 96 out of 795 bombers — the greatest number of Allied
heavy bombers ever lost on a single mission.59 The mission went so awry that
the citizens of Nuremberg never even knew that an RAF force had been directed
toward their city. The Eighth Air Force also suffered its worst single day's loss
on March 6, when the Reich's air defenses downed 69 out of 730 bombers during
the Eighth's first major attack on Berlin.60 For the month. Bomber Command
lost 278 heavy bombers, while the Eighth lost 232 fighters and 299 heavy
bombers (plus 41 heavy bombers written off as not repairable). In addition, the
Eighth had 3,111 bombers with repairable damage.61 The Fifteenth Air Force
reported 99 bomber losses, most incurred on non-PoiNTBLANK missions.62 The
German fighter force, too, suffered astronomical casualties, losing 511 pilots
(21.7 percent of its force) and writing off 56.4 percent of its aircraft, its worst
percentage loss of the war. 63 Aircraft the Luftwaffe could replace, but experi-
enced pilots it could not. Luftwaffe fighter casualties, the vast majority incurred
in daytime combat, reflected not only the intensity of the fighting but changes in
American tactics and a surge in the number of American long-range escort fight-
ers. By the end of March, USSTAF had taken a large step toward its goal of day-
light air supremacy over Germany and Europe.

The operational confidence gained during Big Week, fueled by over-opti-
mistic intelligence reports of damage inflicted, led Spaatz and his subordinates
to change both bomber and fighter tactics. Between March 3 and March 9, the
Eighth launched five major attacks, none with fewer than 500 heavy bombers,
on Berlin. Spaatz reported to Arnold, "The operations during the past week had
the major purpose of forcing the German fighter force into battle. Three attacks
were made without any attempt at deception, the route followed on each attack
being exactly the same."64 More important than the direct routing of heavy
bombers was the more aggressive employment of U.S. fighter forces.
Four developments contributed to this change:

1. The freeing of the U.S. Hghters from the restrictions of close escort,

2. The arrival of large numbers of U.S. long-range fighter aircraft,

3. The development of the relay fighter escort system, and

4. The increased strafing of German ground targets by U.S. fighter aircraft.

358

The Luftwaffe Defeated

Upon their arrival and throughout the first three months of 1944, Spaatz and
Doolittle had insisted that the Eighth go after the Luftwaffe at every opportunity.
Maj. Gen. William Kepner, head of VIII Fighter Command, said in July 1944,
"The minute Spaatz and Doolittie came here they directed that I take such steps
as I felt necessary to lick this German Air Force. If it meant getting out and
scouring the skies, even . . . thinning down the escort, that would be okay with
them."65

On January 21, in one of his first meetings with the Eighth's subordinate
leaders, Doolittle announced the new theme,66 which he based on his experience
in the Mediterranean.^"? He emphasized that although "the role of protecting the
bombardment formation should not be minimized," fighters "should be encour-
aged to meet the enemy and destroy him rather than be content to keep him
away ."68 Spaatz agreed with this view. A year earlier in North Africa, when he
had also confronted a situation of air parity or slight inferiority, Spaatz had high-
lighted certain principles on air employment. His third principle addressed close
escort of bombers: "Do not give close support to Heavy Bombers [emphasis
added]. This was not followed in early operations, causing heavy losses in
fighter units, particularly of P-38's."69 Upon his return to Washington, in
February 1944, AAF Chief of Staff Maj. Gen. Barney Giles reported the tactical
changes to the Air Staff, noting that Doolittle had instructed his fighters "to
attack enemy fighter formations even though such formations are not pressing
attacks on bomber formations."70 Doolittle's order freed the long-range escort
fighters from the restrictions of close escort heretofore applied. Before that time,
standard procedure had tied U.S. fighters to bomber formations, which they
were forbidden to desert to pursue German fighters.^l

Prewar and early wartime field manuals had reinforced the use of close
escort. FM 1-5, "Employment of Aviation of the Army," in both its April 1940
and January 1943 incarnations, stated,

A pursuit force may be employed to furnish close or immediate protection for a
particular formation engaged in an important air operation. The only method by
which pursuit forces are able to provide close protection for aircraft in flight is
by accompanying those aircraft and by engaging any and all enemy aircraft
which threaten the security of the formation.'^

Here the use of the word "engaging" rather than "attacking" seems to imply sur-
render of the initiative to the enemy's fighters. The manuals went on to state that
the need for close support depended on the effectiveness of the enemy fighter
forces and was required when the defensive fire power of the escorted aircraft
was inadequate. Somewhat ambiguously the manuals noted, "All aircraft in
flight possess a measure of inherent security, and most aircraft possess consider-
able defensive power."73 That clause limited provision of close escort to essen-
tial missions against developed air defenses. Even so, if a plane had sufficient
defensive firepower, as the B- 17 and B-24 in theory did, it might not ever need

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

escort (which, until January 1944, it could not get on deep-penetration raids in
any case).

AAF Field Manual 1-15, "Tactics and Technique of Air Fighting," April 10,
1942, made the task of close escorts clear: "Their mission precludes their seek-
ing to impose combat on other forces except as necessary to carry out their
defensive role."^^ when it addressed recommended tactics for escorts, the man-
ual stressed their defensive nature: "Forces in special support counterattack
immediately when hostile fighters make direct attacks on the defended forma-
tion. When possible, withdrawal from combat will be made when a threat against
the defended formation has been removed."75 At no time did either FM 1-5 or
FM 1-15 refer to any type of escort other than close escort. Medium and loose
escort, both employed by the Twelfth Air Force in the Mediterranean, appar-
ently became useful to the AAF through combat experience. It would seem that
Eaker and his fighter commander, Maj. Gen. Frank O'D. Hunter, hampered by
insufficient numbers of escorts, poorly trained groups, and inadequate range for
the fighters they did possess, had erred chiefly in following "the book" too
closely. As FM 1-15 acknowledged, "Distance from the supported force will be
influenced by relative speeds, escort strength, and visibility conditions."^^
Spaatz, Doolittle, and Kepner had the "escort strength" their predecessors
lacked, and could thus place their fighters in loose escort. The doctrine of ulti-
mate pursuit introduced by Spaatz and Doolittle, however, stood official doc-
trine on its head. It turned the escorts into aggressors, which attacked rather than
counterattacked and did not withdraw from combat but pursued from the tops of
the clouds to the tops of the trees.

By the end of January, the Eighth abandoned pure close escort, substituting
a system based on the doctrine of "ultimate pursuit," which allowed U.S. fight-
ers to follow the enemy, wherever he might be, until they destroyed him in the
air or on the ground.'^ By the end of February, the escorting fighter groups
spread out in formations twenty-five to thirty miles wide and frequently sent a
squadron or more directly ahead to sweep the routes in front of bomber forma-
tions.78 If no enemy aircraft attacked the bombers or hovered nearby, two-thirds
of the fighters were permitted to search both flanks and above and below the
bombers for enemy fighters. As a result, combat took place at all altitudes, and
small formations of U.S. fighters returned from Germany at a low level, which
encouraged them to shoot up targets of opportunity en route.^^ Luftwaffe Maj.
Gen. Adolph Galland, commander of the German day-fighter force, recorded the
effect of the new U.S. tactics in his postwar memoirs: American fighters

were no longer glued to the slow-moving bomber formation, but took action
into their own hands. Wherever our fighters appeared, the Americans hurled
themselves at them. They went over to low-level attacks on our airfields.
Nowhere were we safe from them, and we had to skulk on our own bases.
During take-off, assembling, climb and approach to the bombers, when we
were in contact with them, on our way back, during landing, and even after that
the American fighters attacked with overwhelming superiority.*"

360

The Luftwaffe Defeated

Coincident with the arrival of Spaatz and Doohttle, large numbers of long-
range P-38 and P-51 fighter aircraft appeared in the theater, while the P-47,
already present in large numbers, increased its escort range by one hundred
miles. (See Maps 9 and 10 and Table 4, which illustrate increases in range and
number of escort fighters.)

These increases in numbers and range helped the Americans refine their
escort technique. The escort ranges represented only a fraction of the fighters'
rated capabilities. But several factors — the necessity to provide for an emer-
gency combat reserve for each plane; the fuel consumed by delays in takeoffs,
landings, and forming up; and less than optimum weather conditions — combined
to limit their range to, at best, three-eighths of their rated maximum. Escort
imposed further range restrictions because of the speed difference between the
bombers and their "little friends."

On penetration, the bombers, usually cartying their full wartime emergency
weight overload, averaged 150 mph (indicated air speed). The fighters, throttled
back for optimum gas consumption, averaged at least 100 mph (indicated air
speed) faster. For example, P-47s that were not flying escort duty conducted
sweeps well beyond Berlin — far beyond their escort range. To maintain stations
with the bombers, the fighters had to weave back and forth, so that side-to-side
mileage had to be subtracted from their straight-line range.

To maximize the amount of escort available to medium- and long-range mis-
sions, the Eighth Air Force developed a relay escort system. In this system, a
single fighter group, instead of providing escort to a single bomber formation all
the way to and from a target — an impossibility given its range — would fly
straight to a prearranged rendezvous point, meet the formation, escort it 150 to
200 miles to another rendezvous point, hand it over to a second fighter group,
and then fly home.81

This system minimized the fuel consumed in weaving back and forth,
extended the fighters' range, and provided escort all the way to and from the tar-
get. As the deep-penetration raids flown in 1943 had shown, if bombers did not
have escort all the way, the Luftwaffe would simply wait until they had flown
beyond their escort and then attack. At first glance, this system had the apparent
disadvantage of using several times more fighters than necessary for a given
mission, but this was not the case. The relay system maximized escort through-
out the entire mission. During the first half of 1944, before it had converted all
but one (the 56th Fighter Group) of its fighter groups to P-51s, the Eighth
employed three types of fighter aircraft, each with a different range. The relay
system allowed the P-47s to escort the shallow-penetration leg of the mission,
the P-38s to escort the medium-penetration section of the mission, and the P-51s
to provide deep-penetration and target support. ^2 This system proved of special
value in February and March when the shorter range P-47s formed the bulk of
available escort aircraft. Overlapping the P-47, P-38, and P-51 relays allowed
the long-range fighter groups to double the bombers' protection for a few min-

361

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

utes or enabled one group to leave the bombers five minutes early, drop down to
low altitude, and sweep all parts of western, central, and southern Germany. 83

Until the end of March 1944, the RAF Spitfire squadrons of Leigh-
Mallory's AEAF supplemented the fighters of the U.S. Eighth and Ninth Air
Forces by providing the escort for initial penetration and final withdrawal legs of
the heavy-bomber missions. The RAF's contribution allowed the Americans to
extend the range of their own escort fighters during the early months of 1944
and to provide fighter cover all the way to the target. By the end of March, how-
ever, the increase in the number of available American long-range escorts, the
decline in the efficiency of the Luftwaffe fighter force, and the Germans' tactic
of concentrating their fighter defenses over Germany itself permitted the
Americans to dispense with the RAF's assistance. Leigh-Mallory, who had
had to delay his ground support training programs for both his U.S. Ninth Air
Force and British 2d Tactical Air Force while their fighters supported the
Eighth's deep-penetration missions, was probably overjoyed to regain full use of
some of his force.

In any case, German ground controllers almost never managed to get all of
the fighters available to them massed for a single blow, thus the escort seldom
had to deal with overwhelming numbers of attackers. The Germans depended on
carefully timed assaults by intact formations to knock down the heavy bombers.

Table 4

Eighth and Ninth Air Force Fighter Escort Missions
January-April 1944

Month P-38 P-47 P-Sl

January 597 4,011 295

February 1,038 7,032 1,030

March 1.468 8.717 2^97

April* 1,962 6,483 3,281

^April's figures, unlike those for January, February, and March, do not include
hundreds of missions flown by Ninth Air Force P-47 fighter groups.

Compiled from Fieeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary.

364

The Luftwaffe Defeated

Maj. Gen. Adolph Galland,
Commanding General,
Luftwaffe Day Fighter
Forces.

Fighters attacking in formation could mass their firepower, downing several air-
craft on each pass. A relatively few escorts, even if they shot down no enemy
fighters, could disrupt German formations and timing, causing them to lose
much of their effectiveness. Even in the worst case, the Germans would have
time for only one or two passes against the B-17s and B-24s before some of the
escorts arrived to disrupt them. It took a brave, determined, and skilled pilot to
make a successful attack on a heavy-bomber formation alone.

The relay system led directly to the increased strafing of German ground tar-
gets by U.S. fighters. Sometime in February, individual fighter pilots on their
own began to fly close to the ground on return relay flights and to strafe German
aircraft, facilities, and other targets of opportunity. 85 To encourage this practice
and to invite the pilots to focus on Luftwaffe fields and facilities, the Eighth
began to record official "kills" for planes destroyed on the ground. Finally, by
March all fighters were routinely ordered to descend to low altitude and conduct
fighter sweeps on their return trips.86

Although given a unique twist by its application to the relay system, the
practice of pursuit aircraft strafing ground targets while returning from other
missions had a certain measure of doctrinal approval. In April 1940, FM 1-5 had
ruled:

The attack of surface objectives by pursuit may be combined with the perfor-
mance of other missions of a higher priority. Opportunities may be presented

365

Spaatz and the Am War in Europe

for the attack of appropriate targets by pursuit forces returning from missions
without having expended all their ammunition. In such cases the attack of
appropriate surface objectives as a part of a specific mission or as a general
procedure is normal."

This clause in the FM 1-5 of April 1940 probably reflected U.S. analysis of the
aggressive and freewheeling tactics employed by the German Condor Legion
in Spain and by the Luftwaffe in the Polish campaign of 1939, when aircraft
apparently used every opportunity to strafe columns of retreating, disorganized
enemy military personnel and civilian refugees, neither of whom presented a
significant antiaircraft threat. FM 1-5 of January 1943 rescinded the entire
clause following U.S. experience in Tunisia and British experience in the
Western Desert. Unlike the Poles and the French, Germans both at and behind
the front in North Africa had the ability to put up deadly amounts of light anti-
aircraft fire. Such volumes of fire made it extremely costly for fighters to
attack appropriate ground targets, such as personnel and light vehicles. The
manual forbade the use of fighter aircraft for ground attack missions unless (1)
no other aircraft were available, (2) fighters were not needed to gain or main-
tain ak superiority, and (3) fighter aviation did not need to be conserved for
future employment in its normal role.88 The writers of the January 1943 FM 1-
5 apparently envisaged fighter groimd attack as a tactic of attrition used only
in extraordinary circumstances.

Reich Marshal Hermann Goering, Luftwaffe Commander in Chief, with German
pilots.

The Luftwaffe Defeated

In effect, Doolittle, Spaatz, and Kepner created a system that simultaneously
employed fighters primarily as escorts and secondarily as attackers of counterair
targets on the ground. Because the Germans soon supplied their airfields with
liberal amounts of light flak, ground strafing became a battle of attrition on both
sides. By then, however, the Eighth Air Force had established air superiority
over Germany and could afford some losses. Given Spaatz's and Doolittle's
counterair experiences in North Africa, Sicily, and Italy, the doctrinal underpin-
nings of their tactics, although interesting, appear to have had no discernible
effect on the development of their relay /ground attack system.

In the relay system, as elsewhere, Ultra and other signal intelligence
greatly aided the U.S. fighters' efforts. In March Ultra intercepts revealed the
damage done by the low-level fighter attacks. On March 8, a Luftwaffe intercept
stated, "The enemy has recognized our own tactics of taking off and getting
away from the airfield with all serviceable aircraft before attacks on our ground
organization. In the event he has recently put aside a part of the escorting force
to attack these aircraft and has achieved successes in this connection. "89 Sixteen
days later, as Allied fighter pressure increased, the command organization of the
Luftwaffe's home fighter forces reported repeated attacks on aircraft landing at
bases in the home war zone. The report further noted American tactics: "They
imitate the landing procedures of German fighters or effect surprise by ap-
proaching the airfield in fast and level flight. The difficulty of distinguishing
friend from foe often makes it impossible for flak artillery to fire on them."90
With such direct encouragement, the Eighth had decided by April to launch pure
fighter sweeps in weather unsuitable for bombers to keep up the pressure over
western and central Germany. In addition to ground attack sweeps, the
Americans began to launch "free sweeps" toward German fighters in suspected
concentration areas in order to disperse them before they could mount attacks on
the U.S. bombers.9l

Tactical signal intercepts gave further impetus to the new sweep tactics.
RAF "Y" Service, a tactical intercept organization, cooperated fully with the
Eighth. Upon detecting through in-the-clear transmissions of German ground
controllers large concentrations of German fighters assembling to attack the
bombers, "Y" Service vectored groups out on sweeps into the German forma-
tions.92 By the end of March, although the Germans had ceased to use radio tele-
phones, British intelligence had worked out new methods of timing P-51
sweeps. The British intelligence official history claims that these new methods
"contributed a good deal to the Eighth Air Force's success in its policy of delib-
erately seeking out German fighters and forcing them to accept combat. "93

Attacking German ground targets took a heavy toll of American fighter
pilots, who suffered five times more casualties in strafing than in air-to-air com-
bat .94 By the end of March, Spaatz reported that USSTAF was 500 fighter pilots
short of its goal of 2 pilots per planers to prevent individual pilots from being
pushed to the breaking point.

367

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

The increasing intensity of the U.S. daylight heavy-bomber offensive and
the new tactics of the fighter escorts posed an insoluble problem to the
Luftwaffe's day-fighter forces. These forces already labored under the self-
imposed handicaps of faulty organization and incompetent higher leadership.
From October 1943 through March 1944, Goering, Commander in Chief of the
Luftwaffe, attempted to cope with the deteriorating air situation by strictly
enforcing a policy of ignoring the fighter escort and attacking the heavy
bombers.96 Maj. Gen. Adolph Galland, who commanded the Luftwaffe day-
fighter force, protested vociferously against this directive, claiming that it
unnecessarily handcuffed his pilots. German pilots under orders to avoid
American fighters were put on the defensive and robbed of the aggressiveness
needed for successful fighter-to-fighter combat.^''

Other German wartime critics advocated attacking the escorts at the earliest
possible point to force them to jettison their drop tanks and reduce their range.98
This apparentiy simple stratagem demonstrated the depth of the German defen-
sive problem. The Luftwaffe did not base substantial numbers of fighters in
France for three reasons: they would be vulnerable to harassing raids from
medium bombers and fighter-bombers, their bases would require additional
manpower for heavy antiaircraft defenses and for ground defense against parti-
sans, and their supply dumps would stretch logistical links as well as offer tar-
gets to air raids. To catch incoming U.S. fighters, German fighters would have
to scramble from western Germany or eastern France. Provided enough of them
avoided and survived the RAF fighter sweeps vectored precisely by radar and
"Y" Service, and provided they distinguished American from hunting British
groups, the German fighters would then have to compel all the Americans to
strip (jettison) their tanks. Otherwise an American group would leave behind
one squadron to deal with the few penetrating Germans and continue onward.
Of course, all Luftwaffe fighter aircraft conunitted to this operation would be
unavailable to attack the heavy bombers over Germany.

If the Luftwaffe had waited until the RAF was out of range to begin its attack
on the U.S. fighters, much of the advantage of forcing the stripping of tanks would
have evaporated. In any case, the Eighth's fighter groups actively sought combat
with the Luftwaffe, whether flying to or departing escort duty. It is difficult to see
what the tactic of forcing the Eighth's fighters to jettison early would have accom-
plished other than to play directiy into Spaatz's and Doolittle's hands by provok-
ing air battles not only within range of all AAF fighters but within the reach of
short-range RAF fighters as well. If the Luftwaffe wished to begin the battle over
France instead of deep over the Reich, all the better. Given the growing technical
inferiority of German aircraft, the relative lack of training and experience of
German fighter pilots, and the superior numbers of Allied fighter aircraft, such a
policy could have only one result: even greater disaster for the Luftwaffe.

To some extent the charges against Goering were typical of the postwar
scapegoating indulged in by German generals. Goering and Hitler presented

368

The Luftwaffe Defeated

obvious, large, and defenseless targets. After March 1944, when the Luftwaffe's
situation had worsened, Goering authorized one fighter group from each fighter
division to attack and divert American escorts.^^ Granting permission for diver-
sionary operations instead of all-out attacks on American fighters did not, of
course, return the initiative to the German fighter pilots, but it showed more
flexibility on Goering's part than his subordinates tended to attribute to him.
Also at the end of March, Goering responded to the pleas of his subordinates by
consolidating the three defensive air commands facing the American bombers.
He gave operational control of three of the most important of the Reich's west-
em air defenses to the Luftwaffe's / Fighter Corps.^^ Before then the / Fighter
Corps, (responsible for northern air defense sectors, coastal areas devoted to
naval operations, the Berlin area, and industrial districts of the Rhineland,
Westphalia, and central Germany), the 7th Fighter Division (responsible for the
defense of southern Germany, especially the industrial areas of Frankfurt-am-
Main, Mannheim, Stuttgart, Nuremberg, Munich, and Augsburg), and Fighter
Command Ostmark, (charged with defending vital Austrian targets such as
Vienna, Wiener-Neustadt, Steyr, and Linz) had operated semiautonomously.
Each had forces inadequate to defend its sector, but there was no central opera-
tional control mechanism capable of forcing the commands to cooperate with
each other. This was an important factor in the Luftwaffe's inability to concen-
trate all of its defensive strength on the attacking U.S. forces. The shortage of
fighters to apply against its opponent was as much a function of the Luftwaffe's
own inefficiency as it was of the heavy losses inflicted by the Americans.

Ever larger numbers of American long-range escorts succeeded in wrecking
the combined interceptor tactics the Germans had developed to combat deep-
bomber penetrations. Before February 1944, the Germans almost always waited
to attack until the escort had left the bombers to return home, which happened
on any deep-penetration raid in 1943. Waiting to attack until the escort left
allowed for basing deep within Germany, and for defensive aircraft to be con-
centrated after the bombers had committed to a specific route and probable des-
tination. Fighters could concentrate without being attacked. During the
Schweinfurt missions and later, German twin-engine fighters had stayed beyond
range of the bombers' defensive armament and shelled them with 210mm rock-
ets, adapted from the German rocket mortar and known by the ground troops as
the "screaming meemie." When the bombers loosened their positions to avoid
rocket explosions, the single-engine fighters would attack the attenuated forma-
tion. In the face of vigorous escorts this tactic did not work. Not only were con-
centration areas liable to attack, so were home airfields. The performance of the
American single-engine fighter escorts so outclassed that of the twin-engine
German heavy fighters as to make the latter virtually helpless. If the Germans
wished to employ their heavy fighters at all, their light fighters had to escort the
twin-engine fighters, much to the detriment of German morale and firepower

369

Spaatz and the Am War in Europe

Men of the 91st Bomb Group being briefed prior to a raid.

directed against the bombers. By the end of March, the twin-engine fighters sel-
dom arose to defend against American daylight raids.

The increasing numbers of American escorts forced the Luftwaffe to modify
its single-engine fighter tactics. As early as mid-December 1943, map exercises
at / Fighter Corps Headquarters had demonstrated that commitment of individ-
ual single-engine fighter groups alone had little chance of success. A single
group would become too involved in fighter-to-fighter combat with the escorts.
On December 29, 1943, / Fighter Corps ordered future attacks on Allied heavy-
bomber formations to employ a wing formation of at least three closely aligned
groups to ensure that at least one group of fighters penetrated to the bomber
stream. 102 These larger formations required longer time to marshal, offered tar-
gets that were easier for Allied air controllers to identify, and proved difficult for
increasingly inexperienced German fighter pilots.

Throughout March and for the rest of the air war against Germany, U.S.
fighter escorts so efficiently accompanied their bombers that large U.S. losses
resulted only when navigational or timing errors by either bombers or fighters
caused them to miss their rendezvous, or when a small contingent of the escorts
was overwhelmed by large numbers of enemy fighters, which then broke
through to attack the bombers.io^ The March 6, 1944, Eighth Air Force mission
to Berlin, which will be discussed in detail below, iUustrates many of the tactical
and operational changes involved in the increased use of escort fighters.

The harsh weather of the winter of 1943-1944 continued imabated in March.

370

The Luftwaffe Defeated

It allowed only two days of visual bombing over Germany — on March 8, when
the Eighth lost 37 of 623 bombers dispatched against the Erkner Ball Bearing
Works in Berlin and on March 18, when it lost 43 of 738 bombers that attacked
airfields and aircraft assembly plants in central and southem Germany. The 80
bombers lost in those two days made them, aside from the 69 of 730 lost in the
March 6 mission on Berlin, the worst two days of the month. A lack of visual
bombing opportunities did not prevent the Eighth from launching full-scale
efforts of 400 or more heavy bombers on fifteen of the month's days.

The Eighth had attempted to launch two large missions against Berlin on
March 3 and 4. Bad weather had stopped both in their tracks, but not before
fighters, which missed the recall, appeared over Berlin on March 3 and a lone
wing of B-17s (the 13th Combat Wing from Curtis LeMay's 3d Bombardment
Division), became the first of the Eighth's bombers to hit the German capital by
pushing through heavy clouds on March 4. These efforts alerted the Germans to
the Eighth's intentions.

On March 6, a total of 730 American bombers, taking three hours to assem-
ble and climb to bombing altitude (24,000 to 27,000 feet), formed up over
England and headed due east to Berlin. German radar spotted them and their
RAF Spitfire escort as soon as they left their bases and tracked them for the
entire mission. American escort consisted of 801 fighters (thirteen Eighth Air
Force and four Ninth Air Force groups). Eleven groups of P-47s (615 aircraft)
provided the second leg of the penetration escort. Three groups of P-38s (86 air-
craft), one of which turned back because of an excessive number of engine fail-
ures, suppHed medium-range escort, and four groups of P-51s (100 aircraft) flew
deep escort. Three groups of the P-47s flew two missions, providing return
escort on their second flight. 10^ For the far reaches of the trip the bombers had
none too many escorts.

Seventy miles east of the Dutch-German border, at the practical P-47 range
limit, the B- 17s of the 3d Bombardment Division grouped in a sixty-mile-long
column of combat wing pairs and ran smack into the middle of a concentration
of perhaps 150 German single-engine fighters. The small number of P-38s oper-
ationally available for that leg of the relay left the bombers underescorted.
German ground controllers, having detected an escort gap in the center of the
column, sent small forces to the head and tail of the U.S. force to distract and
pin the escort, and then threw the remaining 100 fighters at the momentarily
unprotected center. In less than thirty minutes the aggressive German attack
downed perhaps twenty bombers of the 3d Bombardment Division.

The attack singled out the 100th Bombardment Group. In fierce air combat
at 24,000 feet and at 43 degrees below zero the group took a fearful beating. As
it had so often before and would again, the sky over Germany filled with the car-
nage of air battle. Bf 109s and FW190s dived and twisted through the bombers'
formation, whose gunners tried futilely to keep them at bay. At one point an
attacking Bf 109 dived through the formation, apparently enveloped in flames.

371

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Three gunners on three different bombers claitned and were awarded a sure
kill.* After diving below the clouds, the German pilot landed his slightly injured
aircraft at his home field.

As the fight continued, the American pilots, sweating profusely despite the
cold, in leather clothes and restrictive oxygen masks, dared not try any but the
slightest wobble of evasive action for fear of crashing into each other in forma-
tion. Once a bomber spouted smoke or flames and, laboring, fell back from the
safety of the formation, the fighters finished it off like predators stalking a herd.

The crew of a fatally injured bomber had little time to escape before hun-
dreds of gallons of fuel or six thousand pounds of bombs exploded. If the
bomber began to spin, the centrifugal force it generated trapped the crew within
it. Many airmen were crushed and broken by the tail surfaces of their own
bombers when the slipstream grabbed them as they exited and brutally pushed
them to the rear. Anyone who bailed out started a five-mile descent to ground by
falling through other bomber formations, perhaps meeting grisly death on props
and leading wing edges. Soon the sky filled with falling men, loose hatch cov-
ers, ejected shell casings, and spinning pieces of debris. Parachutes — white U.S.
and brown German, either of which could be collapsed by the close passage of
aircraft- — dotted the sky.

The Germans did not have things all their own way. When the slow twin-
engine Bf 110s and Me 210s, made even clumsier by the large racks and rockets
carried under their wings, attempted to close within rocket range of U.S.
bombers, American escorts sliced through their formations killing or scatter-
ing the Zerstdrers (destroyers), leaving the survivors shaken. On March 6, Zer-
storergeschwader Horst Wessel scrambled nine aircraft: two aborted because of
mechanical problems, one was damaged, five were lost in air-to-air combat
(with one pilot killed and four wounded), and the unit's commander landed his
damaged plane at a different airfield. 105 When the single-engine FW 190s and
Bf 109s formed up to assault the bombardment divisions, squadrons of P-51s

* The matter of actual kills versus claims by Eighth Air Force bomber gunners was a matter of
controversy. The number claimed always exceeded the number actually lost by the Germans by a
factor of at least eight or nine to one. In part, these inflated claims resulted from the inability of any
one gunner to be sure that his bullets and not someone else's accounted for a particular plane. The
natural confusion of the battle compounded the inability of the participants to assess enemy casual-
ties correctly and accurately. Nor did the Eighth have a remotely foolproof method of debriefing the
returning crews to eliminate multiple counting. For morale and propaganda purposes the AAF could
not admit that men pointing sticks would have been hardly less effective than .50 caliber machine
guns in killing German fighters. However, the heavily armed bombers certainly had enough deter-
rent firepower to force the Luftwaffe pilots to launch disciplined, coordinated attacks from a respect-
ful distance, which cut down by an unknown, but large, factor the total number of attacks delivered
and losses inflicted during any one raid. In this book, the author used as a rule-of-thumb U.S. fighter
claims, not bomber claims, to approximate actual enemy losses. Any overcount in fighter claims,
possibly one or two in ten, would be cancelled out by the actual losses inflicted by the bomber gun-
ners. For an official discussion of this problem, see Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, pp.
221-224.

372

The Luftwaffe Defeated

struck them first, disrupting their attack formations and pursuing them as they
sought, as ordered, to avoid the escort and close with the bombers.

As the fighters dueled, a P-51 stuck on the tail of an FW 190, shredding it
with bullets from its six .50-caliber machine guns. The German pilot huddled
behind the armor in his cockpit, finally abandoning his ruined aircraft. Back in
England, review of P-5 1 gun cameras clearly showed the German leaving his
plane, which blew up a few moments later. The American pilot gained a kill and
another small brightly painted swastika on the side of his plane. Eighth Air
Force public relations officers passed the film to the press, which recorded for the
American home front the death of another of the Nazi's vaunted fighter planes.

The 2d Bombardment Division, just behind the 3d, saw only two German
fighters in the same defensive area. Over Berlin the Germans concentrated sev-
enty-five twin-engine day and night fighters, escorted by about twenty-five sin-
gle-engine fighters. They attacked the leading elements of the 1st Bombardment
Division, the first division over the city, and attempted to saturate the defending
escort. They were the only heavy opposition and they ceased as the 1st left the
target area.

One of the bombers lost over Berlin that day carried to earth with it the
Commander of the 4th Combat Wing, Brig. Gen. Russ Wilson. In all, enemy
fighters accounted for 41 bombers, 4 more landed in Sweden, and the remaining
24 fell victim to antiaircraft fire or accidents. Six more heavy bombers had sus-
tained enough damage to be not repairable. The totals amounted to 75 heavy
bombers lost or not repairable, 347 heavy bombers damaged, and 1 1 escort
fighters lost. Nor had the bombing been accurate; most of the 1,648 tons of
bombs and 2,448,000 propaganda leaflets fell on areas other than their primary
targets, the industrial suburbs. USSTAF admitted, "Generally poor results were
obtained in Berlin area."l06 Spaatz reported to Arnold that the Eighth had hit
none of its primary targets. 107 Perhaps its crews were tired or rattled by their
losses. An Allied intelligence report aptly summed up the day: "Thus, on this
occasion, due no doubt to skillful handling, a good appreciation of our inten-
tions, and good flying weather, the Luftwaffe gave few of the expected indica-
tions of rigor mortis."108 On the return trip American fighters claimed 1 German
aircraft destroyed and 12 damaged on the ground. 1^9 Ten hours after takeoff the
bombers landed back in England.

A comparison of this raid with the Schweinfurt raids of August 17, 1943,
and October 14, 1943, reveals how the air war had changed. One indication of
the intensity of bomber versus fighter combat is the number of fighters claimed
by bomber guimers. The numbers claimed had no relation whatever to actual
German losses, but they did indicate the frequency of attack, the activity of the
guimers, and the ferocity and duration of the attack perceived by the bomber
crews. During the August 17, 1943, Regensburg-Schweinfurt mission (Eighth
Air Force Mission no. 84) 346 bombers lost 60 of their own and claimed 288
German fighters destroyed, 37 probably destroyed, and 99 damaged. HO In fact.

373

The Eighth Air Force Unleashed. American daylight strikes on Hitler's Europe were
unrelenting in the months before the Normandy invasion. Clockwise from above: B-17s of the
381st Bomb Group run up for a mission. Top to bottom, the P-38 Lightning, the P-51 Mustang,
and the P-47 Thunderbolt were the three principal escort types on which U.S. bombers
depended. German flak (below) acquires the altitude of a bomber formation over Kassel,
Germany. Each burst scattered some 1,400 metal fragments, any of which could cripple a
bomber. A pair of B-17s (opposite, below) maneuver with H2X radar domes fully deployed.
The H2X radar dome replaced the standard B-17 belly turret and was used to identify and
bomb objectives through cloud cover. A gun camera registers the beating given a German
flak tower (opposite, left, above) by an Eighth Air Force fighter in the low-level sweeps that
ceaselessly harassed German defenders. Spotters (opposite, right, above) man the plotting
table at the control center of the 65th Fighter Wing at Saffl-on-Walden, Essex, in England.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

The Germans lost 34 fighters shot down, 12 damaged beyond repair, and 25
damaged.111 On October 14, 1943 (Eighth Air Force Mission no. 115), the 291
attacking American bombers again lost 60 of their own number and claimed 186
German fighters shot down, 27 probably destroyed, and 89 damaged.n^ xhe
Luftwaffe actually lost 31 destroyed, 12 written off, and 34 damaged. 113 On
March 6, the 730 American bombers lost 69 but claimed only half of the number
of Germans as in the earlier two contests: 97 German fighters destroyed, 28
probably destroyed, and 60 damaged. A far larger force had suffered a 9.5 per-
cent loss rate (half of that of the two earlier missions) and suffered far less contact
with enemy fighters. Antiaircraft fire accounted for one-third of the bombers lost
in the Berlin raid, a much higher percentage than in the Schweinfiirt raids, that
reveals the decline in German fighter effectiveness.

As to escort statistics for the three raids, in August 1943, VIII Fighter
Command dispatched 240 short-range P-47s; they claimed nineteen kills, three
probables, and four damaged. In October, 196 P-47s newly outfitted with small
drop tanks, escorting their bombers as far as Aachen, claimed thirteen kills, one
probable, and four damaged. In the Berlin raid, however, the P-47s, whose range
had just reached its maximum in February 1944 with the employment of new,
larger tanks, claimed thirty-six kills, seven probables, and twelve damaged. The
P-38s, which had an ineffective day, claimed three kills and one damaged. The
P-51s, which defended the bombers over the target and during deep stretches
when desperate Luftwaffe pilots could no longer wait for them to depart and had
to attack before they themselves ran out of fuel, claimed fourty-three destroyed,
one probable, and twenty damaged. One hundred P-51s bore the brunt of the
battle and, in losing only five of their number, achieved an 8-to-l kill ratio. H'*
The claims of the American fighters were many times more accurate than those
of the bombers. Each American fighter came equipped with gun cameras, which
verified their scores by actually picturing bullet strikes on German aircraft.

The war diary of the Luftwaffe / Fighter Corps, however, only acknowl-
edged that eighteen of its fighters had been destroyed and thirty-nine had been
more than 60 percent damaged. The / Fighter Corps claimed that ninety-five
bombers and fifteen American fighters had been definitely destroyed and ten
bombers probably destroyed. 1 15 Obviously, aircraft combat claims were subjec-
tive. The Germans had lost heavily enough that they offered no concentrated
opposition over the return route, even though they had sufficient time to land,
refuel, and rearm. Some of them managed to pick off several stragglers.n^

Two subsequent raids on March 8 and 9 met less opposition, even though
the weather on March 8 allowed visual bombing and, therefore, excellent condi-
tions for Luftwaffe takeoffs, landings, and air-to-air interceptions. The Americans
lost 37 bombers and 18 fighters, while their fighters claimed 79 destroyed, 8 prob-
ables, and 25 damaged, plus 8 destroyed, 4 probably destroyed, and 7 damaged
on the ground. 11"^ In this attack, few twin-engine fighters presented themselves,
presumably because they had suffered severely two days earlier. The March 9

376

The Luftwaffe Defeated

Eighth Air Force heavy bombers hitting the outlying factory area of Berlin.

mission, conducted in complete cloud cover all the way to, over, and from
Berlin, encountered only 15 interceptors. The Germans did not wish to expend
their force in questionable takeoff and landing conditions. For the week, the
Eighth wrote off 153 heavy bombers lost attacking Berlin, only 25 fewer than
during Big Week.HS

By the end of March 1944, the Eighth had written off 349 heavy bombers —
23.3 percent of its force. 1 19 Ominously for the Germans, so heavily had the
Eighth been reinforced that this figure represented a sortie loss rate of only
3.3 percent—a drop from both January and February. 120 The AAF official his-
tory claimed that "by April 1, 1944 the GAF was a defeated force."i2i

The events of April 1944, a black month for the Eighth, tend to refute that
claim. The weather in April, as in March, proved poor. Nevertheless, the Eighth
launched strikes of more than 400 heavy bombers on fifteen of the month's
days, thirteen of the attacks on targets inside Germany; 122 nine of those strikes
employed, for at least some of the groups involved, visual methods of sighting.
The first raid of the month, on April 1, set the tone for the entire month — it was
a fiasco. Of 440 heavy bombers dispatched, only 165 bombed targets, and some
of those bombed the town of Schaffhausen in neutral Switzerland, angering the
Swiss and causing both the AAF and the U.S. government a great deal of
expense and embarrassment. Half of the force ran into heavy weather and turned
back. The remainder scattered widely throughout southwestern Germany and
bombed targets of opportunity; some bombed 120 miles south of their assigned

377

Spaatz and the Am War in Europe

objectives. Luckily, the weather played no favorites and prevented the Germans
from taking full advantage of the Eighth's scattered formations — only 12
bombers failed to return. The Germans may also have chosen to conserve their
fighter forces depleted in March's air battles.

On April 22, the Germans initiated a new tactic by infiltrating the bomber
stream as it approached its bases to land and shooting down fourteen late-
returnees as they tried to touch down in the dark. This tactic, fortunately not
repeated, sent a chill throughout the Eighth, which feared that the Germans had
finally begun to take advantage of the heavy bombers at their weakest moments
— when they milled about, out of formation, in the air over their congested air-
fields waiting to land in the evening or to form up in the morning. These peri-
ods, sometimes hours long, were clearly visible to the Germans on their radar
equipment.

On April 29, the Eighth lost sixty-three heavy bombers over one of the
Reich's most heavily defended targets, Berlin. In this raid, as in others, the heav-
iest losses were taken by groups that failed to meet their escorts. 123 Brig. Gen.
Orvil A. Anderson, the Eighth's operations officer, had an immediate first
impression that the April 29 mission was "the poorest operation . . . I've seen
during the year . . . I've been here." Calling the mission "poorly executed all the
way through," Anderson said, "It can go down on the records as one of the
dumbest ones we've done. From the point of execution it just didn't click —
nothing clicked."l24 The last major raid of the month had proved more costly
and just as poorly managed as the first.

The Eighth embarked on a more successful tack when it initiated the prac-
tice of flying fighter sweeps in weather unsuitable for bombers. On April 5 and
16, hundreds of fighters attacked airfields in western and central Germany.
Spaatz, reporting to Arnold on previous sweeps, said, "Eighth Air Force fighters
inaugurated a series of sweeps against airdromes, transportation, and Rak tow-
ers, which will be increased in scope and should prove very demoralizing to the
Hun."i25 A week later, Spaatz instructed the AAF Public Relations Office in
Washington:

In order to destroy the Luftwaffe it is essential that emphasis be given to the
destmction of planes on the ground as well as in the air and that our pilots be
encouraged in strafing operations by official and public credit for their accom-
plishments. . . . Recommend that Public Relations policy in US be adjusted to
support present need for emphasis on strafing.'^

In an account of April 5, Spaatz emphasized to General Giles that properly con-
ducted fighter sweeps inflicted real attrition on the Luftwaffe by destroying its
aircraft on the ground and demoralizing personnel. Spaatz added.

Inasmuch as the pilots are briefed to shoot up any moving target within
Germany, [emphasis added] 750 or 1000 fighter aircraft roaming deep into

378

The Luftwaffe Defeated

Germany is evidence to the Gennan people of the GAF's weakness and no
amount of Goebbels' propaganda can counteract this impression. It is my plan
to keep this type of attack going.'"

The rise in the number of claims of enemy aircraft damaged or destroyed on
the ground by Eighth Air Force fighters amply illustrates the increasing use of
the counterair sweep; from 1 plane in the last two weeks of January to 40 in
February, to 113 in March and 712 in the first twelve days of April.128 This tac-
tic was not employed without cost. Combined with fighter attacks in support of
preinvasion operations, it sent fighter losses up from 232 in March to 338 in
April to 475 in May.l29 Many of the best of the Eighth's fighter pilots lost their
lives or spent the rest of the war in prisoner-of-war (POW) camps because of the
intense light antiaircraft fire they encountered. Although they were hated by
their pilots, these missions increased Luftwaffe attrition. 130

In April 1944, the Eighth Air Force wrote off as lost or not repairable 422
heavy bombers,l3l more than in any other month of the air war over Europe.
This represented a loss of about 25 percent of the heavy bombers on hand in tac-
tical units, an increase of 1.3 percent over March's figures.i32 Despite the addi-
tion of 6 new heavy bombardment groups, 133 which raised the Eighth to a total
of 39 heavy bombardment groups and 1,872 heavy bombers, the sortie loss rate
climbed to 3.6 percent from March's 3.3 percent.l34 The heavy-bomber losses
of the Fifteenth Air Force jumped from 99 to 214,135 many of those the result of
PoiNTBLANK missions. German losses remained high, too. Some 447 Luftwaffe
fighter pilots, 20 percent of the total force, would never fly combat again, nor
would 43 percent of their fighter aircraft. 136 The Luftwaffe's home fighter com-
mand lost 38 percent of its pilots.l37 These figures had declined from the previ-
ous month, but the loss of trained pilots could never be made good.

Morale Problems

All the work of the fighters flying escort and conducting ground attacks did
not prevent the loss of hundreds of U.S. heavy bombers to enemy fighters. In
March, the morale among American heavy-bomber crews began to buckle, as
thirty-seven crews chose internship on the Continent. In April, fifty-two crews,
or one of every eight planes lost, chose to land and present themselves for intern-
ment in either Sweden (twenty planes) or Switzerland (thirty-two planes). 138 In
contrast, from December 30, 1943, to February 29, 1944, only five crews had
landed in neutral countries. 139 Most of the crews interned during April in
Sweden had participated in exceptionally deep missions into Poland. They might
have despaired of achieving a safe landing in far-away England and selected the
easier course. That excuse seems questionable, however, in light of the fact that
the Eighth's crews had bombed some of the same targets before, yet had chosen

379

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

to return to their bases. Of course, some planes, many heavily damaged, may
have survived to land on neutral territory because the Luftwaffe fighter force
had lost its ability to pick off those that had fallen out of formation on their
return flight. Despite these extenuating factors, too many crews voluntarily, for
whatever reason, did not return to their bases.

Another symptom of poor morale was displayed by Eighth Air Force crews
sent back to the United States on thirty days' leave at the end of their combat
tours. In early April Arnold wrote to Spaatz: "Reports reaching me from trust-
worthy sources, as well as my own personal observations, lead to the conclusion
that the behavior of returned combat personnel does not always reflect credit
upon the AAF." Arnold concluded with the admonition, "Whatever the method,
however, it is imperative that immediate and adequate measures be taken to
improve the attitude, conduct, and military bearing of AAF personnel being
returned to this country."' 40

The air crews were sunk in pessimism; they had worked and fought to
exhaustion to send out a full effort almost every other day for weeks. Their
reward, given the high loss rates, was apparently a far better than even chance of
ending up killed in action or being taken prisoners of war in Germany rather
than returning to the States. As overwork, exhaustion, and high losses bred
depression, so did changes in the crew rotation policy initiated by Arnold and
introduced by Spaatz and Doolittle. The heightened pace of bomber operations
meant that a bomber crew, after three and one-half to four months of training,
could complete a tour in as little as two months. The AAF could not afford such
waste.

On January 30, Doolittle introduced a policy of retaining selected crew
members after they had completed their twenty-five-mission tour, anticipating
by almost two weeks a similar change in rotation policy throughout the AAF.i^l
In mid-February, Doolittle explained to his commanders his reasons for doing
so: (1) the AAF had completed its expansion program, it no longer needed expe-
rienced crews to be returned to the United States to form new units; (2) the com-
ing cross-channel invasion meant as many as two missions a day, making a tour
of twenty-five missions impractical; (3) greatly increased fighter support had
lowered the loss rate, making it possible for more crews to complete their tour;
and (4) increased experience raised the effectiveness of the force. Doolittle
added a final exhortation:

This Air Force is now approaching the most critical phase of the war with
Germany. During the next few months it is mandatory that we secure complete
air superiority over the German Air Force in this Theater. In order to accom-
plish this end in the time allotted, we must adopt every expedient to improve
the effectiveness of the Air Force and to keep it at a high level of operational
efficiency.'"^

380

The Luftwaffe Defeated

In March, Doolittle sought to convince his combat crews that when they fin-
ished a tour they were not "through with the war. "1^3 He notified them that
"hereafter relief of combat crew personnel from regular participation in opera-
tions will not take place upon completion of any specified number of sorties."
He added, "Combat crews have also been informed that they are relieved from
duty only to provide time for suitable rest and recuperation. At the end of this
period, they are considered to be again available for combat assignment." To
give the crews a goal to strive toward, Doolittle further ruled that combat crews
would be eligible for relief after thirty sorties. '44 ]n practice, unit commanders
routinely relieved crews after thirty missions, but the threat of indefinite assign-
ment lingered to the detriment of morale.

On March 13, Spaatz and Doolittle saw for themselves how brittle morale
had become when they visited the 100th Heavy Bombardment Group at Thorpe
Abbotts. The 100th had lost fifteen bombers on the March 6 Berlin raid. During
dinner in the officers' mess a drunken young second lieutenant swayed up to
Doolittle, poked him in the chest, and announced, "You think we don't know
what you're here for? Well, let me tell you we do. You're here to improve our
morale and if there's anythin' goin' to ruin our morale it's havin' a bunch of
generals around here tryin' to fix it." Spaatz was not amused. 1^5 The Air
Surgeon, Maj. Gen. David N. W. Grant, visited England at the end of March and
found Spaatz "disturbed over the effect on morale of the discontinuance of
returning air crew members to the U.S. upon the completion of 25 missions."146

A British announcement at a regular RAF press conference on April 12,
1944, threatened to snap the Eighth's already taut mood. RAF spokesman Air
Vice-Marshal Richard Peck, Portal's principal public information deputy, stated
that Luftwaffe fighter strength had increased by 200 to 300 machines since
November 1943, with the whole of the increase directed to the western air
defenses of the Reich. This, he added, brought Germany's fighter defenses to
their numerically strongest state of the war; only the weather had been responsi-
ble for the light opposition that U.S. -British bombers had met on some occa-
sions. "The onslaught against the German Air Force on the ground and in the air
has certainly succeeded in reducing the reinforcement of the enemy's air
defenses to a point far below what we had planned," said Peck, but "it has not
prevented some continued strengthening."i47 Naturally, the British papers head-
lined the news, which may have confirmed suspicions harbored by top AAF
officers, such as Doolittle and Fred Anderson, that members of the British press
had embarked on "an anti-American bombing effort."l48 Both had complained
earlier that the British press seemed out to "belittle" the American effort, and
they suspected a "sinister movement" to discredit the AAFM^

Spaatz, whose own intelligence estimates showed a 300-fighter decrease in
the Luftwaffe since January, objected mightily to Peck's statements and insensi-
tive timing. On the previous day, April 11, the Eighth had suffered its second
worst casualty total of the war, losing sixty-four planes, including nine interned

381

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

in Sweden. The 3d Bombardment Division sustained particularly high casualties
because it had conducted an unescorted raid aimed at Poznan, well inside
Poland. The Germans, free to employ their twin-engine fighters, handled it
roughly. This, or the worsening weather over the primary target, had led the 3d
to bomb Stettin and Rostock, targets far short of Poznan, and to return early. 150
The bombers may have unloaded on German targets because Eighth Air Force
policy forbade the use of H2X bombing methods over occupied countries —
reflecting the attitude that any collateral civilian casualties inflicted by relatively
inaccurate bombing-through-clouds techniques ought at least to be German and
that any bomb dropped on Germany would do some harm, no matter how
infinitesimal, to the enemy war effort.

Spaatz conducted both a front-door and a back-door campaign to ameliorate
the effects of the RAF statement. He and his staff at Park House that evening
decided not to try to conduct a coimtercampaign in the British press. 151 They
probably recognized that any such effort might backfire. Instead, Spaatz wrote a
stinging letter to Portal but did not sign it or send it through official channels,
which, of course, kept it out of official records. Spaatz gave a copy of the letter
to U.S. Ambassador John G. Winant, a trusted friend. He informed Winant of
the possible consequences of Peck's statement. 152 Winant, whose son, a heavy-
bomber pilot, had been shot down over Germany in October 1943 (this event
had been reported in the British press only two hours after it occurred),i53 lost
no time in taking the letter to Churchill, who, with equal celerity, sent it unoffi-

Air Vice-Marshal Richard
Peck, Air Chief Marshal
Portal's principal RAF
public information deputy,
1944.

The Luftwaffe Defeated

cially to Portal.i54 The method of transmission through the American ambas-
sador and the Prime Minister imderlined the seriousness of Spaatz's protest:

The effects of statements of the kind made by the RAF spokesman on our
bomber crews and fighter pilots could reach the point of being very serious
morale problem. Such ill advised statements, not substantiated by facts, dis-
crediting American effort, certainly are disastrous to British-American relation-
ships.'"

The next day, April 14, Portal, without disavowing Peck's statement, apolo-
gized:

I am extremely sorry that any statement should have been made which could
result in discouraging the crews engaged in the combined bomber offensive
against Germany. I am still more sorry that anything should be said which
could be interpreted as discrediting the efforts of the Allied Air forces, and par-
ticularly of the American 8th and 15th Air Forces, to destroy the German
fighter force."*

A few days later Archibald Sinclair, the British Secretary of State for Air,
replied abjectly to Winant:

The Prime Minister has drawn my attention to a statement made by an officer
of the Royal Air Force. ... I was very distressed to hear from [Churchill] and
from Portal [who had heard it from Spaatz] that this statement had made a most
unfavorable impression on officers of the USAAF and that you were much con-
cerned about the effect which it produced.'"

These expressions of concern, however, could not wipe out the doubts cre-
ated in the minds of the Eighth's flyers. Portal and Spaatz agreed to put their
staffs to work on a statement documenting the reduction in German aircraft
manufacturing capacity since November. Portal proposed to follow up that doc-
ument with a press handout on the same subject and suggested that in the future
the two headquarters should coordinate their statements.l58

Spaatz agreed to these palliatives while attempting to reinforce them on his
own. On April 17, he invited three high-powered American correspondents, Ed
Beattie, Wes Gallagher, and Helen Kirkpatrick to lunch. He asked them to help
coimteract Peck's statement, telling them that he had no desire to "sell" anything
to the people back home or to "boast" of USSTAF's accomplishments. Instead,
he desired "that all crews be made aware of the overall effect of the work they
are doing. The crews must be made to know and believe that these losses have
been worthwhile." Later that evening he had dinner with Robert Sherwood, head
of the London Office of the American Office of War Information, the U.S. gov-
ernment's official public relations and propaganda agency. The two agreed to
ensure the accuracy of any information on bomb destruction released to the
crews.159

383

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

A week after Peck issued his statement, Spaatz inspected the 355th Fighter
Group at Duxford. He talked to the group commander, who had lost five planes
that day, and learned, not surprisingly, that the group was "most skeptical as to
the truth of information we have been giving them that Germany's fighter force is
being knocked down." Next, Spaatz discussed the problem with the Commander
of the 1st Bombardment Division, Brig. Gen. Robert B. Williams, "who said
other group commanders have expressed their doubts . . . that the true story is
being given to them."i60 Spaatz concluded that "our most important job just
now is keeping up the morale of these boys who are doing the fighting, and only
by convincing them with facts can we prove to them that the results obtained are
worth the effort they are putting into the job."i6i

The next day, April 20, Spaatz showed Doolittle and a group commander
from the 1st Bombardment Division advance copies of the joint AAF-RAF press
release. They approved, but the group commander said that "it will be hard to
make the crews believe anything just now — they're dubious of anything they
read."l62 On April 22, USSTAF handed out a combined RAF-USSTAF press
release, with no quantifiable effect. Two days later, the Eighth lost forty
bombers in raids over central Germany, fourteen of which landed in
Switzerland. Spaatz continued his inspections and other gestures, such as send-
ing autographed bottles of scotch to new fighter aces. One can only speculate if
these or any of his actions helped. No substantive evidence has yet turned up to
prove that they did. At least Spaatz recognized the problem and did what he
could to solve it. In the end, the noticeable drop in casualties in May did as
much as anything to keep morale from breaking.

The Oil Plan Is Salvaged

At the end of March, Spaatz had informed both Portal and Eisenhower of his
continued support for the oil plan, and during April, he managed to gain the par-
tial acceptance of oil as a high-priority target. He had recognized as early as
May 1942163 that the bombing of the Romanian oil fields and refinery complex
at Ploesti was the logical first step in his campaign and a prerequisite for the
bombing of the synthetic oil plants. 1^4 xhe elimination of the 25 percent of
German petroleum production derived from the Romanian fields would wipe out
all reserves in the Axis oil network and make oil hydrogenation plants even
more valuable targets. Spaatz, however, had difficulties with the British when it
came to freeing the Fifteenth Air Force from its other responsibilities to neutral-
ize Ploesti. The latest Combined Bomber Offensive directive pertaining to the
Fifteenth, issued by Portal on February 17, limited its targets to "cities, trans-
portation targets and other suitable objectives in the Balkans and in the Satellite
countries of southeastern Europe whenever weather or tactical conditions pre-
vent operations against 'Pointblank' objectives or in support of land operations
inltaly."i65

384

The Luftwaffe Defeated

Morale visit: Maj. Gen. Lewis H. Brereton, Lt. Col. Slierman R. Beaty, General
Dwight D. Eisenhower, and Col. Herbert B. Tatcher inspecting a Ninth Air Force
medium bomber group, April 22, 1944.

As early as March 5, USSTAF had requested clearance from the Air
Ministry for the Fifteenth Air Force to hit Ploesti,i66 which apparently was not
forthcoming. On March 17, after the Fifteenth had informed Spaatz that the
weather for the next few days would be favorable, he twice asked for permission
to proceed with the bombing. In both instances Portal replied that such an attack
did not fall within current directives; he stated that the Fifteenth should direct its
activities toward Sofia, Bucharest, and Budapest. Spaatz then appealed to
Eisenhower, who agreed with him, whereupon Spaatz met Portal once more and
explained that he intended to appeal to Arnold as well. At this point Portal
agreed not to object if the Combined Chiefs of Staff approved. The Air Staff in
Washington told Spaatz that Arnold would raise the subject of Ploesti at the next
CCS meeting in two hours' time.167 Apparently this demarche to the CCS pro-
duced no resuks. Portal, after consulting with Churchill, ruled Ploesti off-limits
on March 18. In any case, the weather closed in, ending the opportunity. In the
meantime, ground operations in Italy consumed the energies of the Mediter-
ranean Allied Air Force and the Fifteenth. The third Battle of Cassino, which
began on March 15 and produced many casualties but little change in the front
lines, ground to a halt by March 23. By then the MAAF had commenced
Operation Strangle, an air campaign directed against Axis rail transportation in
Italy. Unlike Zuckerman's transportation plan for Overlord, Strangle concen-
trated on all aspects of the transportation, system, not just marshaling yards and

385

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Morale visit: Lt Gens. James H. Doolittle and Carl A. Spaatz autographing dollar
bOls at a dinner held to mark the completion of a bomber group's 100th mission,
April 21, 1944.

repair facilities. It proved relatively successful but drew the Fifteenth away from
Balkan and Pointblank targets. '68

This diversion and a new bombing directive issued on March 22 by General
Wilson, the Allied theater commander in the Mediterranean, provoked another
outburst from Spaatz in London. Wilson, seeking to weaken Balkan support for
the Nazis, whose south Russian front seemed hard hit by the Soviets' winter
offensive, ordered the Fifteenth "to act inunediately and in the fullest possible
strength" against the marshaling yards in Bucharest, Ploesti, other suitable
Romanian targets, and Sofia or other Bulgarian targets. Budapest, conversely,
should not be bombed under any circumstances. xhe Fifteenth replied that it
would put a maximum effort over Bucharest as soon as conditions permitted, but
Ploesti, as far as they knew, remained on the restricted list and would have to be
cleared with USSTAF in London. Before Spaatz could send an answer. Portal
instructed Wilson, "... have recently considered whether to add oil installations
at Ploesti to list of bombing targets in Southeast Europe, but after discussing
matters with Chiefs of Staff and His Majesty's Government, . . . have reached
conclusion that this would not be advantageous at present time."l'70

After reading Wilson's orders to the Fifteenth and Portal's decision on tar-
gets, Spaatz wondered just who actually commanded the other half of his orga-
nization. To Arnold, Spaatz complained:

386

The Luftwaffe Defeated

Too many agencies are giving orders to the 15th Air Force. ... It has been my
understanding that the 15th Air Force operates under my instructions, except
when the tactical situation of the ground forces in Italy demands otherwise. I
cannot accept responsibility for the direction of the 15th Air Force unless this
situation is clarified."'

Spaatz objected to the bypassing of his authority by Wilson and Portal and to the
bombing of political rather than economic targets in the Balkans. This stand
placed Spaatz squarely in the U.S. military tradition, with its emphasis on the
destruction of the enemy, as opposed to the British-European military tradition,
which tended not to divorce war from politics and diplomacy.

Arnold assured Spaatz that he would take action with the CCS to tmsnarl
command arrangements. 1^2 He also reviewed his conception of USSTAF's
place in the European war in a message to Portal and complained that the
Fifteenth Air Force appeared to have been directed to help the battle in Italy
rather than to support USSTAF's priorities. Arnold added,

Over and above clarifying operational channels we are concerned that undue
diversion from the primary mission of the Fifteenth US Strategic Air Force may
result. Although we recognize that there are many attractive targets in the
Balkans we desire that the higher priority of Pointblank targets in possible
weather conditions be observed."'

Arnold followed up that message with a protest to Field Marshal John Dill,
head of the British Military Delegation in Washington. Arnold expressed his,
Marshall's, and King's concern about the bypassing of Spaatz.l74 Portal replied
on March 25, before he attended the transportation versus oil plan conference
that day. He stated that he regretted any difficulties regarding command chan-
nels, citing his objections at the Cairo Conference to the formation of USSTAF.
At no time had he meant to give strategic direction to the Fifteenth through
Wilson rather than Spaatz. He would correct the circumstances that led Spaatz to
think otherwise. As for using the Fifteenth in the Balkans, Portal responded, "In
my opinion and in that of the other British Chiefs of Staff, the situation in
Rumania and Bulgaria now ranks as a strategic emergency though it is the
Germans and not we who are threatened."l'75 He therefore asked Arnold to agree
to authorize "a few heavy attacks on Balkan targets." Bucharest, according to
Portal, could be attacked a few times without loss to Overlord.

Through a more confidential channel. Portal gave further reasons for his
decisions. The ban on bombing Hungary was a political decision imposed by the
British government, which was in communication with anti-German elements in
the Hungarian government. The British did not want to compromise a possible
anti-German uprising. The Germans, however, forestalled any further Hungarian
wavering by deposing the government of Admiral Miklos Horthy and installing
their own puppet regime; following this development. Portal hoped to have the

387

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

bombing ban on Hungary removed. However, he still objected to bombing
Ploesti on military grounds — it would require more visual bombing days tlian
would likely be available, and it would detract from the Fifteenth's responsibili-
ties to Pointblank and Italy. Portal believed that greater damage could be done
to Romanian oil exports by bombing not the oil refineries in Ploesti but the mar-
shaling yards in Bucharest,

For his part, Spaatz continued on the warpath. He had just learned of a
British proposal to the CCS that would allow theater commanders to direct
strategic air force attacks against political-strategic objectives "when they con-
sidered such action desirable." Spaatz viewed this proposal as threatening to the
entire Pointblank offensive because it gave the theater commanders power to
replace his attacks on German "industrial and military systems," the effects of
which were measurable, with area bombing, the effects of which were not, in
order to break down German morale. Not only would such a proposal increase
the theater commanders' power at Spaatz's expense, "it will probably nullify my
control of Combined Pointblank operations at critical times with no balanced
judgments [with] regard to issues involved." Spaatz urged Arnold to advocate
that the CCS "adopt a policy of resisting all but genuinely necessary demands
for diversion of effort." Spaatz added that he did not regard Overlord as a
diversion and that he was of course prepared to come under Eisenhower's con-
trol to support it. 177

On the other side of the Atlantic, Arnold sought to achieve a solution to the
Fifteeth's command problems. The CCS, with Arnold's agreement, approved a
cable to Portal authorizing him "to capitalize on favorable opportunities for

Morale visit: Lt. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz and Brig. Gen. Robert B. Williams (far right)
chatting with a member of the 381st Bomb Group, April 19, 1944.

388

The Luftwaffe Defeated

heavy attacks on important political and military targets in Southeast Europe."i''8
This wording allowed the British to pursue political targets and the Fifteenth to
go after military targets, specifically oil. Arnold cabled to Portal his agreement
that the bombing of certain Balkan targets would not only aid Overlord but
would do more damage to the German cause than other targets already on the
priority lists. However, Arnold saw that the priority of Balkan targets might vary
with the course of the war, and he maintained that any such bombing had to be
tied to PoiNTBLANK. Fortunately, the weather would hardly ever be favorable
over both Balkan and Pointblank targets at the same time. Balkan targets
could, therefore, be bombed, provided careful supervision limited the diversions
from Overlord and coordinated the bombing effort. Arnold concluded with a
remonstrance:

In order to get full effectiveness from the United States units and equipment
Spaatz must be informed at all times of what is expected of his units. The
USSTAF is building up an extremely powerful force of bombers and it must be
used efficiently. I appreciate your assurances of maintaining the channel of
command."'

Portal agreed with Arnold on all points. He promised to work closely with
Spaatz and not to authorize diversions "unless really important results can be
expected. "18"

Thereupon, Portal added Balkan and Hungarian political targets to the Fif-
teenth's strike list. His refusal to target Ploesti stemmed from the confrontation
over the oil versus transportation plans going on in London at the same time the
dispute over command channels erupted. Because Ploesti represented 25 percent
of total Axis production, it was the single most lucrative target in any oil cam-
paign. It made little sense for the Allies to damage Ploesti, forcing the Germans
back on their synthetic production, and then ignore the remaining highly vulner-
able plants in Germany proper. A successful raid on Ploesti would put a high
trump in Spaatz 's hand and might well allow him to gather enough support to
carry the day for oil. Thus Spaatz adamantly pressed for a strike on Ploesti, and
Portal just as adamantly resisted it.

On April 2, the Fifteenth struck ball-bearing targets in Steyr, Austria. For
the next two days it hit marshaling yards in Budapest and elsewhere in the
Balkans. On April 5, it went after Ploesti's marshaling yards, but actually hit
oil targets — each refinery complex had its own commercial railway yard, and
"sloppy" bombing of the yards inflicted damage on the oil centers. As the AAF
official history states, "It was thought wise to begin the undertaking surrepti-
tiously under the general directive which called for bombing transportation tar-
gets supporting German forces who were facing the Russians." With some
satisfaction the history notes, "Most of the 588 tons of bombs, with more than
coincidental inaccuracy, struck and badly damaged the Astra group of refiner-
ies near by,"l8l

389

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Twice more, on April 15 and 26, hundreds of U.S. heavy bombers returned
to Ploesti, where they inflicted "incidental" damage to oil refineries. These raids
alerted the Germans. By the time the Fifteenth obtained Portal's official permis-
sion to blast Ploesti, in May 1944, they had greatly intensified their artificial
smoke screen, antiaircraft artillery, and fighter defenses. As a result, H2X bomb-
ing and a much greater expenditure of effort were required to achieve the accu-
rate delivery of the required amount of high explosives on target. 1^2 But German
imports of finished oil products, mostly from Romania, fell from 186,000 tons in
March to 104,000 tons in April to 40,000 tons in June.l83 The April raids obvi-
ously had inflicted great damage.

Even as the Fifteenth Air Force began its clandestine oil offensive, setting
the stage for attacks on synthetic plants, Spaatz continued to seek a way for the
Eighth to begin one as well. Although approved by Eisenhower, the transporta-
tion plan had at least temporarily failed to gain Churchill's endorsement. When
Churchill and the British War Cabinet reviewed it on April 3, they blanched at
an attached Bomber Command estimate predicting 80,000 to 160,000 French
civilian casualties from the bombing of marshaling yards.l84 Churchill, who
well remembered the disastrous effect of the decision to bombard the French
fleet in July 1940, regarded these figures with apprehension. 185 He wrote to
Eisenhower,

The Cabinet today took rather a grave and on the whole an adverse view of the
proposal to bomb so many French railway centres, in view of the fact that
scores of thousands of French civilians, men, women, and children, would lose
their lives or be injured. Considering that they are all our friends, this might be
held to be an act of very great severity, bringing much hatred on the Allied Air
Forces."*

After consulting with Tedder, Eisenhower replied on April 5 that the loss
projection of civilians was "grossly exaggerated"; that senior airmen agreed that
the only viable air target, other than the Luftwaffe, was transport; and that the
French people were "slaves" with the biggest stake of all in the success of the
invasion. 187

Churchill did not agree. That evening the Prime Minister began a month-
long series of Defence Committee meetings during which he questioned the
necessity for the transportation plan. In the meantime he wished to limit trans-
port attacks to those with estimated civilian casualties of no more than 100 to
150 per raid. 188 With the full execution of the transportation plan on hold,
Spaatz and USSTAF perceived an opening for the implementation of the oil
plan.

Even as Spaatz prepared to reopen the oil plan with Eisenhower, another
diversion threatened to occupy his force's efforts. In mid-April, British concern

over V-1 launch sites intensified. On April 15, the day after Bomber Command
and the Eighth Air Force came under Eisenhower's direction, the air leaders met

390

The Luftwaffe Defeated

to decide which transport targets to attack in relation to the Luftwaffe and
Crossbow. Tedder (q)ened with a statement that a directive for the use of the
strategic effort had been agreed upon. Air Vice-Marshal Norman H. Bottomley,
Deputy Chief of the RAF Air Staff, immediately disputed him, pointing out that
Portal had not approved any such directive because the Prime Minister had not
cleared the plan for political reasons. In his response. Tedder noted that all but
two of USSTAF's targets had been cleared.

Discussion turned to Crossbow. Tedder suggested four priorities for
USSTAF: (1) the Luftwaffe, (2) Crossbow, (3) transport targets in France, and
(4) transport targets in Germany. Spaatz noted that such a ranking "greatly preju-
diced" USSTAF's chances of destroying the nineteen transport targets assigned
to it in France. Tedder said he would accept that price if it meant neutralizing
Crossbow targets.i89

On the afternoon of April 19, Tedder phoned Spaatz's Deputy for Opera-
tions, Fred Anderson, to give him a new bombing directive. Crossbow had pri-
ority even over the destruction of the Luftwaffe. The British War Cabinet and
the British Chiefs of Staff, alarmed by recent intelligence showing a dramatic
increase in V-1 launch sites, declared the security of the British Isles at risk and
invoked the escape clause in the air agreement. 190 This may have been the final
straw for Spaatz, whose forces Tedder proposed to divert from Pointblank for a
target system chosen solely for British domestic political considerations.

That evening, Spaatz took his dissatisfaction to Eisenhower, who had retired
to his house and the two had a stormy meeting. The Supreme Commander's
"obvious agitation" before Spaatz's visit was described in a diary belonging to
his naval aide who was on the scene. Eisenhower had just received word of a
breach of security by one of Spaatz's general officers, Maj. Gen. Henry J. F.
Miller, West Point 1915, and Commanding General of the Ninth Air Force's Air
Service Command. On the night of April 18, Miller became drunk at a large
London hotel and proceeded loudly to take bets that the invasion would come
before June 15.191 Eisenhower brought the incident up as soon as Spaatz
entered. Spaatz showed his displeasure by walking to the phone and calling the
Ninth's chief of staff. Brig. Gen. Victor H. Strahm. He ordered Strahm to arrest
Miller and confine him to quarters. 192 Eisenhower subsequently removed Miller
from his post, reduced him to the permanent rank of colonel, and returned him to
the United States, where he soon retired. 193

Spaatz, too, had emotional issues to discuss. He strongly protested Tedder's
decision to give Crossbow overall priority. As he told Tedder later that evening,
if the rocket sites so upset the British, they should send the RAF to get them. 194
Eisenhower supported Spaatz's basic position: Pointblank had priority over
Crossbow. 195 Spaatz also reopened the oil plan debate.

Earlier that day Spaatz had decided to ask Eisenhower for permission to
bomb oil targets during the next two days with suitable visual weather condi-
tions.196 Spaatz based the decision on several factors. Discussions that morning

391

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

with his staff had developed a consensus that German fighter opposition had
appreciably lessenedJ^? On April 18 and 19, two strikes of more than 775 heavy
bombers each, directed against Berlin and Kassel respectively, had lost a com-
bined total of only 15 bombers.l98 Spaatz and USSTAF wanted to experiment
with the oil targets to see whether striking them could continue to force attrition
on the Luftwaffe. 199 Spaatz personally still believed that oil should have priority
second only to the destruction of the Luftwaffe.200 Finally, the morale of his
command needed boosting.201 If oil bombing proved as successful as he sus-
pected it would be, his men would see that their efforts were effective. If Spaatz
could not gain Eisenhower's approval, he feared that the entire AAF strategic
effort in Europe might fail, or at least fail to keep the Luftwaffe out of the air
over the invasion beaches.

Apparently, Eisenhower was hard to convince. At one point in the meeting
Spaatz may have threatened to resign if he could not have a greater voice in the
employment of his force. 202 Such an act would probably have completely
soured Allied air relationships at a critical stage prior to Overlord. Spaatz had
done his best to keep his disputes with the RAF out of the public eye. A more
flamboyant airman would have had less respect from the British and might have
been harder to deal with than Spaatz, who, in every case except this, had proved
himself a loyal and self-effacing subordinate. Spaatz's departure and his reasons
for it could not have been concealed any better than Patton's notorious slapping
incident. The press would undoubtedly have given the story top play, bringing
air strategy arguments out into the open and exposing them to public criticism.
In any case, convinced either by the logic and vehemence of Spaatz's arguments
or by his promise to give up his command, Eisenhower gave him verbal permis-
sion to take the two days he needed.203 it must have seemed a small price to pay
given the possibly disruptive consequences of strictly adhering to the transporta-
tion plan. During the meeting Eisenhower may also have taken Spaatz to task for
his laggardly performance on behalf of the transportation plan. As of April 19 the
Eighth had not bombed a single one of its assigned rail targets.

Furthermore, Eisenhower and Spaatz both knew that the weather seldom
granted the bomber force visual access to targets deep in Germany and on the
French coast during the same day. Eisenhower kept no record of the meeting,
and Spaatz's diary merely lists the points under discussion, giving little hint of
any conversation or emotions. He laconically noted.

Received permission from Eisenhower to use two days of visual target weather
to attack oil targets for purpose of determining Gemian's willingness to send up
defensive fighters against our bombers — must find some way to force them into
the Air so that the strength of the German Air Force can continue to be
decreased. . . .

As the official AAF history states, "Somehow it seemed important to the two
U.S. leaders not to go on record as taking the initiative in opening this new
offensive. "205

392

The Luftwaffe Defeated

General Dwight D. Eisenhower, Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary
Force, in the cockpit of a B-26, April 11, 1944.

On the morning of the next day, April 20, Spaatz went to Tedder's office
where the two reached a decision on Crossbow's priority. At first Tedder
insisted that the bomber force make the V-1 launch sites their primary objective.
At Spaatz's urgings he agreed to a compromise. On the first suitable day the
Eighth would bomb Crossbow, and on the next two suitable days it would attack
oil targets.206 Jhat very day Spaatz and Doolittle sent 892 B-17s and B-24s
against Crossbow targets in France. The Luftwaffe offered no opposition, and
the Eighth lost 9 bombers to antiaircraft fire. 207 On April 21, Spaatz and
Doolittle, on board their own B-17, watched their bombers form up for the first
oil attack. The weather turned foul; strong winds and clouds extended to 30,000
feet, causing the entire mission to abort. Even Spaatz, despite high hopes, admit-
ted that he was glad the Eighth had canceled the mission rather than attempt it in
impossible circumstances.208 Not until May 12 would the right combination of
weather over bases and targets allow the first blow against oil. Meanwhile, the
Eighth conducted nine Crossbow missions, sending out 2,941 sorties and losing
33 bombers to flak or the junk heap of non-repairable aircraft.209 Two days after
his meeting with Eisenhower, Spaatz sent the Eighth over its first transportation
target — Hamm, Germany, the largest rail marshaling yard in Europe. This action
may have fulfilled his bargain with the Supreme Commander.

In March and April 1944, the battle of air attrition between USSTAP and the
Luftwaffe fighter force continued over German-occupied Europe. In the first
week of March a single raid on Berlin lost 69 heavy bombers; in the last week of
April a mission to the same target lost 63. The number of the Eighth's bombers
attributed lost to enemy fighters climbed from 178 in March to 314 in April.2l0
The fierceness of these battles reflected the AAF's and Spaatz's policy of forc-

393

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

ing combat at every opportunity. New techniques — employing long-range
escorts on deep-penetration sweeps and encouraging aggressive tactics and atti-
tudes against the enemy in the air and on the ground — ^paid dividends in March
and April 1944, as the Luftwaffe fighter force had an almost 100 percent
turnover of aircraft and a 40 percent turnover of pilots.2i l By the end of April,
despite its own losses, USSTAF had defeated the Luftwaffe fighter force. In
May, the Eighth lost 100 fewer bombers to enemy fighters than in April; in June
it lost 200 fewer than in April. By the beginning of May Luftwaffe fighter forces
could no longer mount continuous heavy opposition to the Allied strategic
bombing campaign, nor did they retain the strength to interfere with the impend-
ing cross-channel invasion.

Spaatz contributed greatly to the defeat of the Luftwaffe. He put his whole
authority behind the decision to employ aggressive, loose-escort tactics, which
freed the fighters to seek out the enemy but left the bombers more vulnerable.
The heavy losses his forces suffered did not cause him to flinch from his objec-
tives. Years later, he recalled that after a mission with heavy losses Eisenhower
asked him whether the air forces could continue to take such losses:

I said, "What's that got to do with it?" [Eisenhower asked] "Are we getting
control of the German Air Force?" I said, "If we have to take these losses to
control them, then we have to. . . . You can't have a war and worry about that.
What you have to worry about is whether you're winning or not."^'^

In addition, Spaatz drove his senior commanders to use their forces to the
fullest. On March 2, Spaatz informed Doolittle and Twining:

Our effort requiring the enemy to oppose us on our terms must be pushed
relentlessly every day it is humanly possible to operate over Germany. Standard
operational limitations which have been wisely used in the past will not be
applicable to the present emergency situation. Greater risks are justified, and
infinitely greater demands on personnel are mandatory. Further, for the imme-
diate fiiture it is even desirable to invite an opposition when we have fighter
escort, rather than ... to evade it.^'^

Doolittle later recalled that, once, after he had canceled a mission, Spaatz told
him "If you haven't got the guts to run a big Air Force, we'll get someone
else."2l4

Spaatz never doubted that he could overcome the Luftwaffe, tmdermine the
German economy, and guarantee air supremacy over Europe and the invasion
beaches provided he had suitable weather, replacement of his losses, and free-
dom to use his force. Meteorological conditions provided just enough usable
weather. Arnold not only made good the losses but increased the force. And
Spaatz, steering carefully through the labyrinthine disputes over command, con-
trol, and policy, maintained his close working relationships with Tedder and
Eisenhower, piu^sued his chief objectives: the Luftwaffe and oil targets.

394

Chapter 11

Final Preparations
for the Invasion
(May-June 1944)

Your concern over the reaction of the G[erman] A[ir]
F[orce] when Overlord is launched is shared by me. He
[the enemy] is undoubtedly attempting to ration his forces
to the greatest extent possible at this time in order to main-
tain an adequate force against a threat of invasion from the
West. I have stressed in all my conferences with Eisenhower,
Tedder, and others that a continuation of Pointblank oper-
ations is vital in order to maintain wastage of the GAF. The
primary purpose of these Pointblank operations to date
has been the depletion of the GAF. At this time it is the sole
purpose. Targets selected are those which we anticipate
will force the GAF into the air against us.'

—Spaatz to Arnold, May 10, 1944

The Oil Plan Is Implemented

In the five weeks before the AUied landings at Normandy, the AAF contin-
ued to execute its main tasks: the elimination of the Luftwaffe, the neutralization
of V-1 launch sites, and the interdiction of the German transportation system in
France. In the days just preceding and during the assault phase of Overlord,
USSTAF put aside these tasks to provide maximum direct support of the inva-
sion. Spaatz contributed substantially to the attainment of the Allies' and the
AAF's goals.

The Eighth Air Force entered May with 39 operational heavy-bombardment
groups, to which the Fifteenth added another 20, for an authorized front-line
strength of 2,832 B-17s and B-24s. Spaatz used this force in a manner calculated

395

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

to provoke combat with the Luftwaffe so as to inflict fatal attrition upon it.
Despite the fact that German day fighters shot down 100 more American heavy
bombers in April 1944 than in any other month of the war,2 USSTAF Head-
quarters had perceived a weakening in the enemy's fighter reaction. The nonex-
istent Luftwaffe reaction to missions flown against Crossbow and transportation
targets in late April and the first week of May confirmed speculation.

This decline produced not cheer but apprehension within USSTAF and sus-
picion that the Luftwaffe meant to conserve its forces for action against the
expected invasion. On May 6, at an Allied air conference held at AEAF Head-
quarters, Stanmore, Spaatz admitted his fear that the Germans "were conserving
their effort against the threat of invasion" and that they might leave the home-
land undefended in order to bring all their fighters to bear on the beachheads.3
Spaatz probably based his assessment on reports received from the RAF's Air
Intelligence Branch (AI). On April 30, AI noted that the Luftwaffe had main-
tained its strength and predicted a German air strength of 1,950 aircraft spread
from Norway and northern Germany to southern France, with 750 immediately
available to oppose the invasion. Estimated strength increased throughout the
month. On May 25, AI placed total German strength in the west at 2,350 planes;
the 900 immediately available included 500 bombers and 220 single-engine
fighters.4 But AI, in information gleaned from Ultra, attributed this situation to
a conservation policy stemming from a shortage of pilots. In February, for
example, decrypts indicated Luftwaffe intentions to use aircraft from flying
schools and training units in case of emergency.^

Spaatz believed that attacking oil targets would nullify the Germans' inten-
tion to conserve their aircraft and pilots and force the Luftwaffe up to protect its
sources of fuel. On May 12, weather conditions finally permitted a full-scale
visual attack on several crucial synthetic oil-producing plants. Aside from two
costly strikes on April 29 and May 8 over Berlin, which usually produced heavy
German reaction, this attack attracted the heaviest opposition in three weeks.
Fifteen combat wings — 886 heavy bombers plus 735 escorting fighters left
Britain to bomb their targets. The leading division, the 3d, which was under-
escorted because one of its assigned fighter groups had mistakenly rendezvoused
with a trailing division, saw its remaining escort swamped by a large force of
German fighters, which, in forty minutes, downed 32 bombers before they could
reach their targets. This smgle massed blow accounted for most of the 46 bombers
lost. The other two bombardment divisions lost only 2 bombers to enemy fighters
and 12 to antiaircraft fire.6 The Eighth wrote off an additional 9 bombers as unre-
pairable^ (See Map 11, Greater German Synthetic Oil Plants.) The American
escort lost 4 P-47s and 3 P-51s, claiming in retum 61 German aircraft destroyed
and 1 1 damaged in the air as well as 5 destroyed and 2 damaged on the ground.
German records confirmed the accuracy of those claims, counting 28 pilots dead,
26 injured,^ and 65 aircraft lost. 9 Surviving bombers dropped 1,718 tons of
bombs, through ground haze and low clouds, on synthetic oil plants at Zwickau,

396

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Merseburg-Leuna, Brux, Lutzkendorf, Bohlen, and Zeitz, while, coincidentally
and unknown to the Allies until after the war, destroying at Merseburg-Leuna, a
building engaged in heavy-water experiments for Germany's atom bomb pro-
gram.io Albert Speer, Nazi Minister of Armaments and War Production, spoke
of USSTAF's work that day in his postwar memoirs:

I shall never forget the day the technological war was decided. Until then we
had managed to produce approximately as many weapons as the armed forces
needed, in spite of their considerable losses. But, with the attack of nine hun-
dred and thirty-five daylight bombers of the American Eighth Air Force upon

several fuel plants in central and eastern Germany, a new era in the air war
began. It meant the end of German armaments production. ' '

A week later Speer reported to Hitler, "The enemy has struck us at one of our
weakest points. If [he] persist[s] at it this time, we will soon no longer have any
fuel production worth mentioning. Our one hope is that the other side has an air
force General Staff as scatterbrained as ours!"l2

Commitments to Crossbow and Overlord and the weather delayed the
next oil mission until May 28, when 400 heavy bombers attacked plants at
Ruhland and Magdeburg and restruck Merseburg-Leuna, Zeitz, and Lutzken-
dorf. The next day the Eighth sent 224 B-24s to bomb the synthetic plant at
Politz, while the rest of the force bombed aircraft industry targets deep in eastem
Germany and Poland. A combined total of 66 bombers and 19 fighters were lost
in the two raids. American escorts claimed 100 destroyed, 2 probably destroyed,
and 11 damaged in the air and 21 destroyed and 22 damaged on the ground.i3
Only the month's three raids on Berlin and the previous oil raid met opposition of
similar intensity.

These oil strikes proved two of Spaatz's contentions: First, the enemy would
come up to resist them, but would not defend V-1 launch sites or marshaling yards.
Second, the bombing of the German synthetic oil plants would have immediate
and serious consequences for the German war economy. Ultra intercepted an
order, dated May 13, showing that the previous day's mission had greatly alarmed
the Germans. This order, from the Luftwaffe Operations Staff in Berlin, stripped
heavy and light antiaircraft guns from the Eastem Front and from the fighter-
manufacturing plants of Oschersleben, Leipzig-Erla, and Wiener Neustadt for the
protection of hydrogenation plants at Zeitz and Politz. !■* A history of USSTAF
and Ultra called this intercept "one of the most decisive and timely pieces of
intelligence received in this war."i5 it gave proof that the Germans regarded oil
as the target system of paramount importance — even above the production of
fighter aircraft. A week later the Allies intercepted an order directing the German
armed forces to convert an even higher percentage of their motor transport to
power supplied by highly inefficient wood fuel generators. 16 When he learned of
these messages, Tedder dropped his opposition to the oil plan and is reported to
have remarked, "I guess we'll have to give the customer what he wants."!'

398

Final Preparations

The flrst oil raid: Bomb damage to a synthetic oil plant in Bohlen, Germany, May
12, 1944.

After the war, captured documents from Speer to Hitler revealed the dra-
matic and almost instantaneous effect of May's bombings. On June 30, Speer
reported the state of production of aviation fuel to Hitler. In April, the Luftwaffe
consumed 156,000 tons of the 175,000 tons of aviation gasoline manufactured
by the synthetic plants; the average daily production in April was 5,850 tons.
The attack of May 12 reduced that average to 4,821, but production had recov-
ered to 5,526 tons per day by May 28, when the Allies completely knocked out
the plant at Leuna. The May 29 attack stopped all production at Politz, and the
two strikes combined dropped daily production to 2,775 tons. The total output
for May of 156,000 tons fell 14,000 tons short of essential planned consumption.
In June, thanks to more attacks, production rose above 3,000 tons on only two
days.18 On June 7, Ultra deciphered the following message, dated June 5, from
the Luftwaffe Operations Staff,

As a result of renewed encroachment into the production of a/c [aircraft] fuel
by enemy action, the most essential requirements for training and carrying out
production plans can scarcely be covered with the quantities of a/c fuel avail-
able. In order to assure the defense of the Reich and to prevent the readiness for
defense of the G.A.F. in the east from gradually collapsing, it has been neces-
sary to break into the strategical reserve."

Portal sent a copy of this decryption to the Prime Minister, saying, "I regard
this as one oFihe most important pieces of information we have yet received."

399

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Portal also recommended a concentrated bombing attack on synthetic oil targets
by all Allied strategic bombers as soon as they could be spared by the invasion.
Piecemeal attacks spread over a long period by small forces, warned Portal,
would only allow the enemy time to increase his flak and smoke defenses.
Churchill replied, "Good."20

Even as the Eighth Air Force staggered the Germans under punishing round-
house blows, the Fifteenth Air Force continued pounding Ploesti. As a result of
Spaatz's visit to the MAAF and the Fifteenth at the end of April, USSTAF
finally obtained Portal's approval of oil as a legitimate target.2l Spaatz per-
suaded Portal that the Fifteenth had grown so large that for tactical reasons it
should hit other important targets, such as refineries, near the Ploesti marshaling
yards.22 No longer obliged to conduct on the sly its missions against oil, the
Fifteenth sent almost 500 heavy bombers to Ploesti on May 5 and followed with
700 on May 18, 460 on May 31, and 300 on June 6. Results were, for the most
part, excellent. It also bombed small crude oil targets in the Balkans while the
RAF kept up a heavy mining campaign in the Danube River.23 A postwar exam-
ination of captured German records reveals that, at the time of the Fifteenth's
bombing of Ploesti and other Balkan petroleum targets, German imports of fin-
ished oil products had fallen from 186,000 tons in March 1944 to 104,000 in
April and 81,000 in May. By August, when the Russians occupied the gutted
ruins of Ploesti, German oil imports had dropped to a mere 1 1,000 tons. 24 On
June 4, Eisenhower's headquarters publicly proclaimed the existence of the oil
offensive.25

Churchill Delays the Transportation Plan

By May 1 , five weeks after the transportation plan had been endorsed by
Eisenhower, it had not been endorsed by Churchill, who remained worried about
the potential political side effects of killing and maiming French civilians.
Spaatz, too, worried. He believed that, although actual casualties might vary
widely, the Germans would greatly exaggerate their number for propaganda pur-
poses.26 On April 22, after discussion with his personal staff and Bedell Smith,
Spaatz met with Eisenhower on the subject,27 bringing the draft of a letter with
him in which he spelled out his objections and proposed an alternative:

I would feel seriously remiss in my duty if I did not bring to your attention the
serious implications involved with these attacks. Many thousands of French
people will be killed and many towns will be laid waste in these operations. I
feel a joint responsibility with you and I view with alarm a military operation
which involves such widespread destruction and death in countries not our ene-
mies, particularly since the results to be achieved from these bombing opera-
tions have not been conclusively shown to be . . . decisive ^

400

Final Preparations

Spaatz then pointed out the necessity for all air forces to give direct support
to Overlord, but he observed:

The use of these forces in a manner which involves so much destruction to our
Allies on the continent may far outweigh the advantages gained by the attacks
as planned. We must evolve a scheme of employment of our Air Forces which
better achieves the basic aim of maximum direct assistance to Overlord.

He suggested considering the possibilities of cutting rail and road lines at
points outside town centers and of attacking concentrations of German troops,
their supply and ammunition depots, and their tank parks.29

Eisenhower replied that he had examined the problem and understood the
political repercussions in a postwar Europe, but he argued that the primary con-
sideration was the absolute necessity of wirming the war quickly.30 Although
not completely convinced by Eisenhower's rejoinder, Spaatz acquiesced to
Eisenhower's wishes.3l

The next day Ambassador Winant lunched with Spaatz at Park House. The
two discussed their concern over the bombing of populated areas in occupied
territory but agreed that they had faith in Eisenhower and would abide by what-
ever he decided.32 Spaatz accepted the continuation of the transportation plan
but did what he could to mitigate its consequences for French civilians living in
harm's way. He emphasized to his subordinates the importance of being careful
in all operations against French targets: only the best lead bombardiers would be
used, no indiscriminant bombing and no H2X bombing would be permitted.
"The crews must be impressed with the need for air discipline in order to avoid
needless killing "33

The Prime Minister, whose political senses were perhaps more acute than
those of the U.S. generals, delayed his final decision. On the night of April 19,
Churchill still doubted that any suffering caused by the transportation plan justi-
fied its results. He raised the possibility of attacking synthetic oil targets,34 but
Portal and Tedder repeated their opinion that such a tactic could not succeed by
D-day. Even after the British Chiefs of Staff asked for a speedy decision, Churchill
demurred, although he admitted that the longer the decision remained in ques-
tion, the stronger the case for the transportation plan became. 35

On April 26, the Prime Minister agreed to put the matter before the War
Cabinet. Portal drew up a list of targets, the bombing of which would cause no
more than 100 civilian casualties each. At a meeting the next day, the Cabinet
agreed to revise the transportation plan to include only attacks that would inflict
no more than 150 civilian casualties each. Churchill was to visit Eisenhower and
then send a message to Roosevelt for a definitive American opinion.36

On April 29, Churchill suggested to Eisenhower that USSTAF, perhaps in
conjunction with the Air Ministry, produce a plan for employing heavy bombers
which would sacrifice no more than 100 French lives per attack. If it failed to
inflict sufficient damage to the key portions of the French rail system, the full

401

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

transportation plan, whatever its cost to civilians, would be strengthened.^'
Slowing or delaying the movement of German ground units toward the beach-
head had to have priority over other considerations.

Eisenhower remained adamant. To abandon the transportation plan at this
juncture was unthinkable. He wrote to Marshall, "There is no other way in
which this tremendous air force can help us during the preparatory period, to
get ashore and stay there. The Prime Minister talked to me about bombing
'bases, troop concentrations and dumps.' "38 Churchill's reference to dumps and
troop concentrations echoed Spaatz's letter on civilian casualties to Eisenhower;
such similarity of phrasing points to close collaboration between Spaatz's head-
quarters and Churchill's staff. On April 22, Doolittle, for instance, attended a
dinner at 10 Downing Street where he was prepared to discuss and support
USSTAF's views on the oil plan.39 In the space of a week, both Churchill and
Spaatz, using virtually the same language, proposed to Eisenhower that the use
of American heavy bombers in the transportation plan be restricted.

On May 2, Eisenhower sent Churchill a more detailed reply, written for the
most part by Tedder,'^ which patiently reviewed the rationale behind the trans-
portation plan — it was intended to weaken and confuse the rail network at a crit-
ical time, rather than to choke it off entirely. Next, Tedder and Eisenhower took
note of the March 25 meeting and of USSTAF's alternative suggestions, which
they had "fully and sympathetically considered" but rejected because "they do
not, themselves, in any way constitute a plan by which our air power can, in the
final stages, effectively delay and disrupt enemy concentrations." After noting
that a limitation to 100 to 150 casualties per mission would "emasculate" the
transportation plan, the reply concluded with Eisenhower's typical reaction
against any challenge to his wishes: "The 'Overlord' concept was based on the
assumption that our overwhelming Air Power would be able to prepare the way
for the assault. If its hands are to be tied, the perils of an already hazardous
undertaking will be greatly enhanced."41

That night the War Cabinet considered the reply. Churchill spoke of the haz-
ards of interfering with Eisenhower's plans for political reasons, yet said he had
not realized "that our use of air power before 'Overlord' would assume so
cruel and remorseless a form."42 Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden feared the
adverse reaction of the western Europeans. Support for the transportation plan
came from the British Chiefs of Staff. Alan Brooke, Chief of the Imperial
General Staff, supported the plan more vigorously than he had before because of
the effort already expended on it. Finally, the Cabinet agreed that the I*rime
Minister "should consider further the air plan for support of 'Overlord' "43

On May 3, the British Defence Committee met for the last time on the sub-
ject. Before the meeting Tedder had convinced the Prime Minister of South
Africa, Field Marshal Jan Smuts, who happened to be in London for a meeting
of the British Commonwealth, of the necessity of the transportation plan. Smuts,
who had been instrumental in establishing the RAF as an independent service in

402

Final Preparations

1917, held great influence over Churchill and pressed him on the plan before the
meeting 44 but any waivering he might have induced in Churchill did not start at
the subsequent Defence Committee meeting. The transportation plan, said
Churchill, "will smear the good name of the Royal Air Force across the world."
Churchill asked whether the plan could be implemented at a cost of less than
10,000 dead. Tedder expressed his hopes of keeping the number of French dead
below that number, although he could make no guarantees. The committee then
considered a suggestion from Lord Cherwell, Churchill's chief scientific
adviser, that bridges might be better alternative targets than rail centers. Tedder
rejected the suggestion out of hand. In the end, the committee instructed Tedder
to report its discussion and conclusion to Eisenhower, after reviewing the trans-
portation plan to ensure no more than 10,000 French casualties.45

On May 7, Churchill informed Roosevelt of the British government's con-
cern over the "slaughter" of French civilians, which might "leave a legacy of
hate." He noted "the great differences of opinion in the two air forces — not
between them but crisscross about the efficacy of the 'railway plan' as a short-
term project." Then he asked for Roosevelt's opinion;

It must be remembered, on the one hand, that this slaughter is among a friendly

people who have committed no crimes against us, and not among the German
foe, with all their record of cruelty and ruthlessness. On the other hand, we nat-
urally feel the hazardous nature of 'Overlord' and are in deadly eamest about
making it a success. Whatever is settled between us, we are quite willing to
share responsibilities with you.''*

Roosevelt replied on May 11,

However regrettable the attendant loss of civilian Uves is, I am not prepared to
impose from this distance any restriction on military action by the responsible
commanders that in their opinion might militate against the success of
'Overlord' or cause additional loss of life to our Allied forces of invasion."

This ended the matter. Having received no support from the Combined Chiefs of
Staff or the President and having been opposed by Eisenhower, Churchill
allowed the transportation plan to proceed without interference. Happily, civil-
ian casualties from rail center attacks before D-day proved to be less than half of
those predicted; approximately 4,750 were killed.48

Whereas Churchill had opposed the transportation plan on political grounds,
Spaatz attempted to overturn it on practical grounds. He had already gained
Eisenhower's permission for two days' visual bombing of oil targets; these mis-
sions demonstrated the effectiveness of the oil plan as a strategic alternative. In
addition, by late April and early May, he began to offer a tactical alternative to
the transportation plan. He pushed for an interdiction campaign directed first
against the Seine and Loire River bridges, important rail junctions, and open
stretches of track, and then against ammunition and fuel dumps, ordnance

403

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

depots, and other military establishments large enough to offer a suitable tar-
get.49 He chose not to present those plans on March 25 because he did not want
to appear to overstep his authority. Churchill's opposition to the transportation
plan, however, kept alive the possibility of a replacement. Thus Spaatz sought to
substitute his oil and interdiction campaign.

The details of USSTAF's interdiction campaign, which the Enemy Objectives
Unit had prepared in mid- and late February ,50 circulated throughout the Allied
air establishment and beyond. This was apparently done sub rosa or by word of
mouth, perhaps with Spaatz's approval. Churchill, at one point, advocated the
adoption of portions of the plan to Eisenhower. Lord Cherwell kept suggesting
bridge attacks. By May, additional information supporting the interdiction advo-
cates' position had become available with the completion of Operation Strangle,
a campaign conducted by Allied air over a period of almost two months in Italy
against all types of targets along whole sections of track rather than one type of
target. By the end of the operation, May 12, it had switched primarily to attacks on
bridges, because they had proved to be better targets.51

On trips to Italy at the end of April, Spaatz and Anderson had the chance to
review Strangle's results first hand and brought back enthusiastic reports of its
success in bridge breaking. Experts had predicted that the tactic would require
the expending of huge numbers of bombs and had thus deemed it unrewarding.
Strangle had demonstrated that it was entirely feasible with modest numbers of
bombs and that it was, moreover, a highly effective block to enemy move-
ment.52 RAF Air Intelligence joined USSTAF in backing bridge attacks. AI
reports of bridge attacks in Italy during February and March, based on photo-
graphic reconnaissance and high-grade signal intelligence, testified to the tac-
tic's "not unimpressive" effect.53

Given this evidence and Churchill's ongoing political concem, a concern that
certainly percolated to Spaatz's headquarters, the experimental bombing of the
Vernon rail bridge over the Seine on May 7 assumed special significance. It
occurred when Churchill, who had run out of time in fighting the transportation
plan, needed some hard evidence to quiet its advocates. Spaatz also had to provide
a demonstration of the effectiveness of his alternative tactical proposal. Their
chance came when Montgomery's 21 Army Group Headquarters requested the
destruction of several bridges by the air force to interfere with the enemy's ability
to ship reinforcements to the Normandy area. This request dovetailed neatly with
Spaatz's effort to introduce bridge-bombing operations. By mid-April, his chief of
intelligence had already passed along to Brig. Gen, Frederic Smith, Vandenberg's
deputy at AEAF, a "suggestion" to bomb bridges. Smith and four other brigadier
generals prepared a plan to bomb those spanning the Seine River between Paris
and Rouen.54

On May 3, at a target meeting, Leigh-Mallory rejected Smith's bridge plan,

but suggested that, if it were technically possible, the Eighth's heavy bombers
destroy several bridges and other likely communications sites.55 This suggestion

404

Anthony Eden, British
Foreign Secretary,
1941-1945,

British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and his War Cabinet. Standing from left to
right: Archibald Sinclair, Albert Alexander, Lord Cranborne, Herbert Morrison,
Lord Moyne, David Mergesson, and Brendan Bracken; seated from left to right:
Ernest Bevin, Lord Beaverbrook, Anthony Eden, Clement Attlee, Churchill, John
Anderson, Arthur Greenwood, and Kingsley Wood.

SPAAra AND THE AlR WAR IN EUROPE

merely confimed Spaatz's low opinion of Leigh-Mallory. Spaatz wired Arnold,
"Extremely heavy program of attack against communications and other preci-
sion targets submitted by AEAF for Overlord. Preparations may compromise
PoiNTBLANK if approved and weaken Overlord if not completed. "56 Spaatz did
not object to targeting the bridges; he objected to doing so with the least-effi-
cient aircraft available for the job — heavy bombers. Their use not only would
divert them from Pointblank and Crossbow but also would produce high fig-
ures of bomb tonnage versus bridge destruction, confirming Zuckerman's,
Leigh-Mallory 's, and Tedder's opinion that bridge breaking did not offer an
effective alternative to transportation targets. Operations in Italy had shown the
superior effectiveness of the fighter-bomber for the task.

After the meeting of May 3, USSTAF attempted to reverse Leigh-Mallory' s
decision to allocate the bridges to heavy bombers. Thirty-five years later. Smith
recalled that on May 4 he received a call from Fred Anderson requesting that he
stay late in his office where a captain of the Horse Guards, the unit that guarded
the Prime Minister, would pick up a copy of the bridge-bombing plan Smith had
proposed at the May 3 meeting. The Guards officer duly arrived and. Smith
believed, whisked the plan off to Churchill, who pressed Leigh-Mallory to
reverse his stand.57 If Smith's memory and surmises were accurate, they give
ample evidence that Spaatz's and Churchill's people, at least on this occasion,
cooperated closely in trying to determine the details of preinvasion bombing
operations. (See Map 12, Normandy Transport Network.)

On May 6, at another target conference, Spaatz, Leigh-Mallory, Tedder, and
many of their deputies once more reviewed the target priorities of their respec-
tive organizations. After committing the Eighth Air Force to a limited program
of airfield bombing, termed "preinvasion post-holing" because of the cratering
of the runways caused by high-explosive bombs, Spaatz brought up the subject
of bridges. He quoted a report from Italy on fighter-bomber effectiveness.
Leigh-Mallory attempted to cut off discussion by announcing that "bridges were
a difficult target and he did not want to see a waste of effort at this time." Then
the 21 Army Group Planning Officer, Brig. Gen. Charles Richardson, spoke up,
stating that the ground forces wanted the destruction of eight bridges. "This," he
said, "would be of more decisive value than pin-pricking on rail communica-
tions." Coningham lent support to bridge bombing, which he wanted done on an
experimental basis first, because it would hamper road movement as well as rail
movement and, in the invasion area itself, would compel the enemy to rely more
heavily on motor transport than rail. Leigh-Mallory, perhaps bowing to Spaatz's
and Coningham's arguments or perhaps feeling the pressure from 10 Downing
Street, agreed to experimental attacks on bridges over both the Seine and the
Meuse. He added diversionary attacks on the Meuse to deceive the Germans. He
also excused the Eighth from participating.58

Little did Leigh-Mallory realize the alacrity with which the AAF would pur-
sue this initiative. General Smith immediately selected the Seine bridge at

406

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Vernon, called his roommate Brig. Gen, David Schlatter of the Ninth Air Force,
and told him to go ahead.59 Just before noon the next day, a flight of fighter-
bombers from the 365th Fighter Group, specially trained in low-level bombing, left
England for France. Twelve planes and escorts attacked the bridge at Vemon, and
another twelve with escorts attacked additional bridges. Within a few minutes and
under the gaze of German Field Marshal Irwin Rommel, who happened to be
there,^ the P-47s, with only six tons of bombs, destroyed the bridge and a nearby
ammunition factory, at the cost of two planes lost and five damaged. The flight
leader reported "the most intensive light flak they had yet encountered. "61 Another
flight damaged three more bridges at Oissel, Orival, and Mantes-Gassicourt the
same day.62 This brilliant piece of beginner's luck was the most accurate bridge
raid of the campaign in northwestern Europe; the typical bridge cut took 173 tons.63

The next morning. May 8, every major figure in the bombing plan controversy
found a set of post-attack aerial photographs on his desk showing the bridge lying
at the bottom of the Seine. Like the Ultra intercept on German oil, they removed
all doubt about the cost-effectiveness of attacking bridges with fighter-bombers
rather than heavy bombers.^^ On May 10, Leigh-Mallory, after assessing the raid's
effectiveness, ordered his tactical forces to begin cutting the bridges over the
Albert Canal in Belgium and along the Meuse. Because of security considerations,
the AEAF did not bomb the Loire bridges until D-day .^5 Tedder ceased his oppo-
sition. ''^ As its advocates had claimed, pre-D-day bridge-breaking also proved eas-
ier on the French civilian population than bombing marshaling yards. Less than
1 ,000 French civilians died as a result of it.67

Almost as an afterthought the British and the Americans finally asked an official
representative of General Charles de Gaulle's Free French govemment-in-exile its
opinions on the matter of killing French civilians. Churchill, who had little love for
the stubbom French general or his govemment, opposed the consultation, saying:

It is therefore in my opinion not necessary that a psychological effect should be
obtained by a French transport expert being consulted by the Target Committee.
His presence would only constitute a complication, and a suggestion to de Gaulle
of this kind would only give another opportunity of obtruding himself.'*

Nonetheless, on May 16, Eisenhower sent his chief of staff, Bedell Smith, to call
on the Commander of the French Forces in Britain, Maj. General Pierre Joseph
Koenig. After Smith explained the situation, Koenig grimly replied, "C'est la
guerre [This is war]." He added, "It must be expected that people will be killed.
We would take twice the anticipated loss to be rid of the Germans. "69

Preinvasion Operations

The King of England, his Prime Minister, the Supreme Allied Commander,
and most of the senior officers responsible for the planning and execution of
Overlord met for a formal presentation of the invasion plan on May 15 at the

408

Final Preparations

Headquarters of 21 Army Group, at St. Paul's School in London. After Eisen-
hower spoke, each of the major commanders delineated the tasks assigned to his
troops. Spaatz, as usual, performed woodenly in public, reading from a prepared
text. It bored Alan Brooke and Leigh-Mallory, but Patton commented that,
"Bradley and Spaatz made short and good speeches."70 Spaatz left the descrip-
tion of the Combined Bomber Offensive and the invasion air plans to Harris and
Leigh-Mallory respectively, instead concentrating on the battle against the
Luftwaffe. He claimed that German fighter and bomber production had declined
by about 50 percent since January 1 . He also touched on the transportation plan,
informing his listeners that the Eighth Air Force had struck eighteen of its
twenty-two assigned targets. In concluding, he repeated his favorite theme — ^the
attrition of the Luftwaffe: "In addition to the destruction of the transportation
and airdrome targets assigned the 8th Air Force prior to D-day, the 8th will con-
tinue its operations into Germany with the primary objective of further depletion
of the German Air Force in being."7i

General Montgomery probably made the day's most impressive presenta-
tion. Always the master of the set piece, be it a battle or a briefing, Montgomery
strutted through the ground invasion plan. In the course of his talk he produced
maps showing phase-lines of the anticipated advance, which indicated the cap-
ture of Caen by D-day plus three or four days. Those present were all profes-
sional military men who understood that Montgomery's maps represented only
planning estimates. Nonetheless, the phase-lines and the tenor of his presenta-
tion left the clear impression that he would obtain a large beachhead fairly
rapid!y.^2

The size of the beachhead was a matter of particular concern to the British
airmen of the 2d Tactical Air Force. Their short-range fighters and fighter-
bombers would be launched from airfields in Britain averaging 130 miles from
the Normandy beachhead. Thus their time directly over the beachhead itself
would be severly restricted. Consequently, they deemed the establishment of
landing strips and airfields in Normandy a matter of the first importance. The
airfields had to be able to accommodate the storage and management of neces-
sarily huge quantities of ordnance and fuel. A large initial beachhead would
allow a greater proportion of the British tactical air force to move to advanced
stations on the Continent. The 130-mile gap was much less important to the
American airmen, all of whose fighter aircraft had drop tanks that extended their
range.

On May 20, the intelligence staff of Eisenhower's headquarters (SHAEF, G-
2) reported that the bombing of the railway marshaling yards had yet to produce
as intended. Rail traffic in France had dropped by only one-third — or to the
point where the more enthusiastic transportation plan proponents had predicted
that German military transport would begin to suffer.73 Leigh-Mallory, however,
was able to supplement the plan because Tedder had just lifted the ban on straf-
ing trains — a ban the Allies had heretofore observed because they had difficulty

409

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

distinguishing civilian from military trafficJ^ He therefore ordered a series of
fighter sweeps against moving trains. These so-called "Chattanooga Choo-Qioo"
missions on May 21, 25, and 29 and June 2, 3, and 4 damaged hundreds of loco-
motives, cut the rails in numerous places, and forced the Germans to bring in
train crews of then* own nationals to man the trains along dangerous lines after
the French crews deserted in large numbers. Daylight traffic almost completely
halted.

The bridge campaign also continued. From May 1 1 through May 26, Allied
aircraft attacked bridges in Belgium and northern France. On May 24, the ban
on the Seine bridges, imposed because of security considerations, was removed,
and by D-day, June 6, all Seine River rail and road bridges below Paris were at
the bottom of the river or otherwise unusable, all at the cost of about 220 tons of
bombs per bridge.75

While the medium bombers and fighter-bombers of the AEAF downed
bridges and shot up trains, the Eighth Air Force lent its efforts to pre-D-day
preparations. On April 22, it's bombers inaugurated their part in the transporta-
tion plan by striking the largest railroad marshaling yard in Europe, at Hamm,
Germany. Hamm was the rail gateway to the Ruhr, Germany's largest industrial
area, and the Eighth's bombs left it crippled for the rest of the war.^^ On May 1
and 11, its fighters participated in the "Chattanoogas" while its heavy bombers
conducted large-scale raids on French rail center targets. In the two weeks
before the invasion, USSTAF delivered the bulk of its tonnage on transportation
targets. In missions on May 23, 25, 27, and 30 and June 4, it delivered more than
13,000 tons of bombs. Of the twenty-three rail centers assigned to it, the Eighth
damaged fifteen so severely that they needed no additional bombing. It also
inflicted great damage on the remaining eight.''^

RAF Bomber Command participated more heavily against rail centers than
USSTAF, dropping 46,000 of 71,000 tons expended. Spaatz's initial fear that
Bomber Command would get off scot-free while he had to tie himself to the
transportation plan never materialized. German rail transport was reduced by
another one-third from the beginning of January 1944.78

The authorities and participants, both Allied and German, have continued to
dispute the relative effectiveness of the various methods employed against rail
traffic. Tedder and Zuckerman naturally claimed that the transportation plan was
the most important contributor to its decline.^? The official AAF history, in con-
trast, quoted just as many sources with the opposite opinion and concluded with
a statement by the AAF Evaluation Board: "The pre-D-day attacks against
French rail centers were not necessary and the 70,000 tons involved could have
been devoted to alternative targets."^ The fact remains that the pre-D-day air
campaign imposed severe and damaging injuries to the German military's mobil-
ity and logistics, which undoubtedly hurt the German effort on D-day and after.

In conjunction with its interdiction campaign. Allied air power also sought
to neutralize all 100 usable enemy airfields within a 350-mile arc from the

410

Final Preparations

planned invasion beaches. The British wanted the airfields within 130 miles of
the invasion area singled out in order to put the Luftwaffe at the same opera-
tional disadvantage as their own aircraft operating from British bases. The
Eighth, which flew its first antiairfield mission of the campaign on May 9, exe-
cuted the lion's share of this phase of pre-D-day preparations. Of the airfields
within 130 miles of Caen, the left flank of the invasion. Bomber Command had
responsibility for 8, AEAF for 12, and USSTAF for 20. The Eighth and the
Fifteenth also had responsibility for neutralizing the 59 fields more than 130
miles but less than 350 miles from Caen. Large missions by the Eighth on May
23, 24, and 25 and missions by the Fifteenth damaged many but when it became
evident, probably from Ultra sources, that the Luftwaffe had not begun to
occupy its advanced bases in France, the Allies discontinued then- attacks.^'

As air preliminaries for the invasion proceeded, Leigh-Mallory laid the
groundwork for the final phase of preinvasion activities. In the week before the
invasion he would have control of all assisting air forces. On May 23, less than
two weeks before D-day, scheduled for June 5, he inaugurated a series of daily
morning Allied Air Commanders' Conferences on projected operations and the
allotment of tasks between the various forces involved. ^2 Tedder, Spaatz,
Doolittle, Harris, and senior AEAF officers attended this initial session in the
Battle Room of Advanced AEAF Headquarters in Uxbridge.

Afterwards, in a gesture typical of his obtuseness, Leigh-Mallory com-
plained that the American officers assigned to the Battle Room, from which he
planned to conduct and monitor the daily combat activities of the Allied air
forces over the beachhead, were not carrying out procedures "according to his
ideas," and he asked Vandenberg that they be transferred elsewhere and replaced
by British officers. Vandenberg acquiesced, but later called Spaatz and, charac-
terizing Leigh-Mallory 's actions as "outrageous," offered to "bring a very fine
fight out in the open." After thinking it over, Spaatz instructed Vandenberg "to
carry on at present, say nothing to upset relations." Once they got the troops
ashore, said Spaatz, the whole question of command and use of the American air
forces would have to be reexamined.83 Not surprisingly, soiu- relations between
Leigh-Mallory and senior American air officers continued until the invasion and
beyond.

By the end of May, USSTAF had still not completed the details of its partic-
ipation in the first day of the invasion. All agreed that its first bomber mission
should drench the invasion beaches just before the assault forces landed.
USSTAF and AEAF parted company, however, on the objectives for the second
mission of the day. On June 1, Leigh-Mallory, Vandenberg, and his deputy.
Brig. Gen. Frederic Smith, all rejected as operationally unsound USSTAF's pro-
posal to strike enemy troop and road movement behind the front lines from an
altitude of 15,000 feet. The bombers would be unable to locate German troops in
the thickly wooded country of Normandy, and they would further congest the
already crowded airspace. AEAF wanted USSTAF to stick to bombing desig-

411

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

U.S. Army Air Forces fighters bringing an engine to its last stop on a "Chattanooga
Choo-Choo" strafing sortie, May 1944.

nated villages and towns in order to block the roads with rubble and impede
German movement.84

That evening during dinner, Vandenberg with Spaatz and Maj. Gen.
Laurence S. Kuter, Assistant Chief of the Air Staff for Plans, who had just
arrived from Washington, agreed that USSTAF's plans for bombing troop
movements could not work. Spaatz, who feared that the Luftwaffe's capabilities
for D-day might have been greatly underestimated, instead, wanted to post-hole
one more time all airfields within fighter range of the beachhead. Vandenberg
demurred on the ground that the bombers would be spread too thin. He advo-
cated bombing only key airfields, Spaatz agreed, Vandenberg would present the
new plan to Leigh-Mallory the next day .85

This proposal fit in well with instructions Spaatz had received earlier in the
day from Tedder. Tedder, still bound by Churchill's desire to minimize French
civilian casualties, required that Spaatz obtain clearance for any targets in
France near a town or city center.86 This dinner session was typical of Spaatz's
modus operandi. He purposely used the relaxing atmosphere of his comfortable
house and table to facilitate compromise and discussion in a convivial setting far
removed from an office or conference room where everyone would be on guard.

The next day, Leigh-Mallory disapproved the key airfields plan, whereupon

412

Final Preparations

Vandenberg suggested that he consult Tedder. This Leigh-Mallory did and
reported back to Vandenberg that not only Tedder but Eisenhower had approved
his own plan to bomb the road choke points between German reinforcements
and the beachheads. Reluctantly, Vandenberg then signed the order for an attack
on eleven French cities.

On June 3, Tedder, Spaatz, and others trekked to Stanmore for the daily Air
Commanders' meeting. Spaatz suggested changes in the employment of the strate-
gic forces. In his view, the plan for strategic air support after the initial D-day
strike was too rigid and it lacked provisions for any counterair effort. He probably
based his appraisal on the need for a counterair effort on the reports emanating
from RAF Air Intelligence. On May 25, AI predicted that approximately 1,600
German aircraft would be engaged against the beachhead by D-day plus four days
and that there would be 1,100 to 1,250 German sorties on the day of the invasion.

On May 30, Ultra identified only ten groups (280 planes) of single-engine
fighters in Germany, because of the transfer of other groups to the west.88
Spaatz proposed withholding a reserve for airfield bombing and the flexible
employment of his force according to the flow of the ground assault, rather than
the execution of a set scheme of attacks on targets fixed before the battle. Leigh-
Mallory ridiculed the suggestion, maintaining that fighters and fighter-bombers
could provide the necessary counterair effort. But Spaatz persisted, believing
that Leigh-Mallory had committed the Eighth Air Force to "using a doubtful
means of delaying enemy ground movements and neglecting a punitive means
of reducing his air efforts."89 Leigh-Mallory would not reconsider his position,
and, as Vandenberg noted in his diary, "a slightly acrimonious air prevailed as
the meeting was adjoumed."90

Later, Spaatz met separately with both Eisenhower and Tedder at Widewings,
where he continued to press his views on the employment of heavy bombers.
Spaatz complained to Eisenhower that the more bombers he had, the more mis-
sions the ground commanders plarmed to send them on.9i Eisenhower sympa-
thized but apparently would sanction no changes in the AEAF's plan.

Early Monday morning, June 5, Eisenhower, despite marginal weather con-
ditions, made his fateful decision to commit his forces to the assault the follow-
ing day, June 6. That evening Spaatz and Vandenberg had dinner at Eisenhower's
house and spent the evening at Vandenberg 's quarters. There they kept track of
the Ninth Air Force's Troop Carrier Command, which had just left its bases to
drop two American airborne divisions behind the invasion beaches. For the rest
of the night the two continued to receive reports on airborne operations and the
lack of German air opposition. They had both worried that the airborne troops,
whose route took them directly over portions of the invasion fleet, might
encounter the same murderous antiaircraft fire from their own forces as they had
during the Sicilian invasion. Around 4:00 A.M., June 6, when the last of the main
drops had ended, Spaatz left Vandenberg's residence and returned to his own
headquarters to follow the invasion from there.92

413

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Each segment of the AAF played its own distinctive part in the operations
on D-day. The IX Troop Carrier Command began the American assault on
Normandy with its airborne drop during the night of June 5-6. The VIII Fighter
Command began patrolling the outer perimeter of the invasion area as the troop
carriers and night bombers withdrew. The Eighth's fighters kept up their patrols
until the troops landed, whereupon they moved to an area just outside the beach-
head to patrol and to attack any legitimate targets. The IX Fighter Command and
the RAF (with their shorter-endurance fighters) covered the beaches and pro-
vided fighter-bomber support. Five groups of P-38s, one from the Ninth Air
Force and four from the Eighth, maintained an all-day umbrella over the inva-
sion convoys delivering the ground assault troops to the beaches. Just before H-
hour* the bombers of the Eighth and Ninth attacked the beach defenses. Low
clouds forced the heavy bombers to employ H2X. The medium bombers of the
Ninth had to come in under the clouds to drop their payloads, exposing them-
selves to heavy coastal antiaircraft fire. Weather interfered with the Eighth's
second mission of the day, and only three groups, approximately 90 aircraft out
of 528 bombers dispatched, released their bombs on road choke points outside
the beachhead. Other Eighth Air Force missions bombed Caen and transporta-
tion targets in a wide arc from Coutances in the west to Lisieux in the east. For
the day, the Eighth and Ninth launched 8,722 sorties and lost 71 aircraft, mostly
fighters, to flak.93

As for the Luftwaffe it could mount barely 100 sorties (70 by fighters) on
the first day of the invasion, and only 175 more completely ineffectual sorties on
the night of June 6-7. In all of France it possessed 815 aircraft, including 325
bombers, 170 single-engine fighters, 45 twin-engine fighters, and only 75
ground attack aircraft.94 As Spaatz stated in late June 1944, "The concentrated
attacks on the Luftwaffe, production, and product, paid the dividends that we
always envisioned, the dividend being beyond expectation. During the entire
first day of the invasion enemy opposition in the air, either fighter or bomber,
was next to nil. "95

The battle for air supremacy over the beachhead never occurred, because the
AAF had already defeated the Luftwaffe over Germany. D-day and the Luftwaffe's
feeble reaction in the following weeks amply proved Spaatz 's oft-repeated con-
tention that the greatest contribution the strategic air forces could make to
Overlord was the smashing of the German fighter force. This offensive achieve-
ment ranked with the defensive victory of the RAF in the Battle of Britain. The
demise of the German fighter force was a turning point in the air war.

* H-hour, the time when the first assault craft would land and release its troops onto the beach,
was 6:30 a.m. for the American invasion beaches (Omaha and Utah) and 7;00 a.m. and 7:30 a.m. for
the British landings. Among the factors dictating selection of H-hour were at least an hour of day-
light before it (for preliminary bombardment) and tide at half-flood (to expose German obstacles)
and rising (to ensure two high tides in daylight for maximum unloading of supplies).

414

Final Preparations

When Spaatz returned to London from the Mediterranean in late December
1943 to form the U.S. Strategic Air Forces in Europe, he had two primary tasks:
to justify and execute the AAF's portion of the Combined Bomber Offensive
against Germany and to ensure the success of the U.S. -British cross-channel
invasion to the best of his ability. These tasks required him to serve two masters,
Arnold and Eisenhower, both of whom had, at times, very different conceptions
of the part they wished him to play.

Arnold had fought for the creation of USSTAF because he beheved that the
American strategic air forces in Italy and England should have a single, able air-
mail to coordinate, control, and command them. Arnold had another objective as
well. As he told Spaatz in late February 1944:

The other, and perhaps equally important, motive behind the formation of the

United States Strategic Air Forces in Europe was my desire to build an
American Air Commander to a high position prior to the defeat of Germany. It
is that aspect particularly which had impelled me in my so far successful fight
to keep your command parallel in stature to Harris' command and, therefore,
parallel to Ike's.

Arnold further felt the need to ensure the AAF a proper share of the victory. He
told Spaatz:

If you do not remain in a position parallel with Harris the air war will certainly
be won by the RAF, if anybody. Already the spectacular effectiveness of their
devastation of cities has placed their contribution in the popular mind at so high
a plane that I am having the greatest difficulty in keeping your achievement (far
less spectacular to the public) in its proper role not only in publications, but
unfortunately in military and naval circles, and in fact, with the President him-
self. Therefore, considering only the aspect of a proper American share in
credit for success in the air war, I feel we must have a high air commander
some place in Europe. Today you can be that commander [emphasis added]."

Eisenhower, in contrast, wanted control of the strategic forces in order to
guarantee the success of Overlord. He required that control as early as possi-
ble — ^far longer than desired by Arnold, who initially conceded only that the
heavy bombers would come under the Supreme Commander during the assault
phase of the invasion. In addition, Eisenhower intended to use his control of the
strategic air forces to implement a plan whose aims, requirements, and methods
of execution raised profound doubts in the minds of many senior airmen, includ-
ing Spaatz.

Spaatz, of course, had his own ideas; he did not meekly follow the dictates of
his powerful superiors. Against Arnold's hopes, he did not do his utmost to main-
tain a position independent from Eisenhower's. He did not object to coming
under Eisenhower's control, provided he was not subordinated to the AEAF and
provided Bomber Command came under equal and parallel control. Spaatz's

415

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

willingness to come under Eisenhower, however, did not mean that he abdicated
his responsibility as a professional airman to employ his units to inflict maxi-
mum damage on the enemy. An examination of Spaatz's actions from New
Year's Day 1944 to D-day, June 6, 1944, shows that he not only served his mas-
ters well but did so while remaining his own man.

From the beginning of his tenure, Spaatz clearly saw that the attainment of
the goals of both Pointblank and Overlord depended on a single factor — the
destruction of the Luftwaffe. Once he had severed Hitler's air arm, he could
pulverize Germany's war economy and ensure air supremacy for the land cam-
paign. Spaatz remorselessly pursued that goal, pushing the men under his com-
mand almost to the breaking point. Doolittle, under the watchful eyes of
Anderson and Spaatz, sent his men and machines into the air day after day. By
March, the Eighth Air Force often abandoned deception tactics and flew straight
to their targets in order to provoke attrition. The primary reason the Eighth made
the long, hard, costly trip to Berlin was not just to bomb Hitier's capital but to
force the Luftwaffe into the air. At last, when their losses in machines and pilots
forced the Germans to adopt a policy of conservation, Spaatz insisted, over the
objections of Tedder and Portal and the resistance of Eisenhower, on launching
the strategic attack on the German oil industry. The absolutely necessary defense
of that target system exposed the Luftwaffe to further punishing attrition.

Spaatz's championship of the oil plan exemplified his ability to fight for and
gain his own goals while not irreparably damaging the teamwork and unity
demanded by successful coalition warfare and interservice cooperation. Spaatz
believed that if he could smash the oil industry, he could quickly and fatally
weaken Germany. He would not allow anyone or anything to permanently divert
him from that goal. First, he presented an alternative to the transportation plan.
When that failed, he sought an opportunity to demonstrate the effectiveness of
his policy. When the Germans showed signs of conserving their fighter force,
Spaatz had the leverage he needed to obtain Eisenhower's approval of a limited
trial of oil bombing. As Spaatz had opined, the actual bombing revealed the
acute sensitivity of the Germans to threats to their oil.

Spaatz did not simply advocate the oil plan. He took risks with his career by
authorizing the clandestine bombing of the Ploesti refineries. Such a move, if
unsuccessful, might have been difficult to explain and could have earned him a
reprimand or worse. But again, by keeping that bombing sub rosa, he allowed
the Brhish to ignore it when they heard of it, which presumably they did soon
after the raids.

Spaatz used variations of this same subterfuge in his unsigned letters to
Portal on morale and to Eisenhower on civilian casualties, and in obtaining per-
mission to interdict bridges. In these instances, the results justified Spaatz's
actions and judgments. That he did not show similar restraint in his dealings
with Leigh-Mallory is understandable. He did not believe that Leigh-Mallory
was competent to perform his duties or, because of his high-handedness and

416

Final Preparations

insensitivity, deal with Americans. Because Leigh-Mallory insisted on having a
headquarters top-heavy with British personnel and tried to interfere with his
relationship with the Ninth Air Force, Spaatz apparently decided that, in this
instance, the rules of Allied unity need not apply. Spaatz continued to question
Leigh-Mallory 's plans until the eve of the invasion.

The efforts of the AAF in this period cost dearly in blood and materiel. From
January 1 through May 31, the Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces lost 2,351 heavy
bombers on combat missions. They wrote off another 254 from accidents and
unrepairable battle damage. The Eighth and Ninth Air Forces lost 983 fighters
and suffered 18,403 casualties (5,427 killed in action, 11,033 missing in action or
interned, and 1,943 wounded). Ninety percent of those men, most of whom were
missing in action or prisoners of war, would not fight against Germany again.
The Fifteenth and Twelfth Air Forces lost 595 fighters and sustained 7,285 casu-
alties (2,780 killed in action, 3,452 missing in action, and 1,053 wounded). The
Fifteenth probably suffered 80 percent of the AAF's personnel losses in the
Mediterranean. This expenditure of resources gained the Allies air supremacy
over Europe. With air supremacy came the freedom to bomb at will any target in
Germany and the freedom invade France without Luftwaffe interference.

The achievement of air supremacy over France and the invasion area and of
air superiority over Germany before D-day was the decisive contribution
of Spaatz and USSTAF to Overlord. Battling for control of the skies on the day
of the invasion might have ruined Allied objectives. By forcing the Luftwaffe to
concentrate its chief defensive effort over Germany, USSTAF left the Luftwaffe
unable or unwilling to oppose the Allied interdiction air campaign in northern
France. The Eighth's contribution to the transportation plan, although not nig-
gardly, amounted to less than one-third of Bomber Command's — 13,000 tons to
46,000 tons.97 For the first three months of 1944, 70 percent of the Eighth's
bombs hit German soil.98 In April, the Eighth Air Force dropped 62.5 percent of
its bombs on Germany; in May, 57 percent of its bombs fell on Germany .99
Given the increase in bombers available to Doolittle in April and May, actual
tonnage on the Reich went up in both months. Thus, preinvasion bombing,
although a diversion, did not greatly damage the Combined Bomber Offensive.
For the first five months of 1944, Crossbow targets received more tonnage —
16,082 tons — than transportation targets.^*'*' This represented a dead loss to the
Eighth's war effort, because Crossbow neither involved Luftwaffe fighter oppo-
sition nor substantially delayed German deployment of V-1 pilotless jet pro-
pelled bombers. Transportation bombing at least aided the invasion.

Spaatz's bridge campaign may have been at least as important as the trans-
portation plan. The bridge campaign consumed only 4,400 tons of bombs and
for the first phase of the invasion greatly reduced the Germans' ability to shift
heavy units rapidly to the invasion beachhead. The units eventually arrived but
battered, piecemeal, and late, which gave the Allied ground forces the time they
needed to consolidate their positions.

417

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

In the first six days of June, the Eighth bombed only tactical targets in
France in support of the Overlord assault. Out of 14,230 tons dropped, the
Eighth dropped 7,018 on the Pas-de-Calais coastal defenses as part of Allied
preinvasion deception efforts, and 4,852 on D-day. Aside from in some mea-
sure keeping Hitler's attention fixed on Pas-de-Calais as the most probable inva-
sion site, this effort probably contributed little to the success of the invasion.
There was no testimony among the German defenders at the Normandy beaches
of any discomfiture attributable to Allied heavy bombers.

USSTAF's preinvasion bombing certainly damaged the Germans, but those
efforts seem small compared with the efforts of Bomber Command and the
AEAF, which by themselves would have sufficed to fulfill the Allies' goals for
preinvasion air operations. If USSTAF had spent that same effort demolishing
the German oil industry, the Allies might have won the war earlier. Spaatz did
everything in his power to keep his bombers over Germany where they could
bomb oil targets and maintain air supremacy.

418

Part Five

The Mortal Blow

From Normandy to Berlin,
June 6, 1944-May 9, 1945

Part Five
The Mortal Blow

During the last eleven months of the war in Europe the Anglo-American
Allies successfully established themselves on the Continent, broke out of their
beachhead to drive across France to the German border, fought an arduous cam-
paign to penetrate the German border defenses, repelled Hitler's last-gamble
counteroffensive, crossed the Rhine River to meet the westward advancing
forces of the Soviet Union, and finally forced the unconditional surrender of the
German state. The Army Air Forces and its senior officer in Europe, Carl
Spaatz, played a large role in achieving Allied victory. Operating under Dwight
Eisenhower's direct control from June to September 1944 and thereafter inde-
pendently, the United States Strategic Air Forces in Europe crushed the already
defeated Luftwaffe while seeking a balance between its strategic mission of
destroying the German war economy and its tactical responsibilities to aid the
advance of the Allied ground armies by all means possible.

Because his dual positions as the commander of both USSTAF and the AAF
in the Eiu-opean Theater of Operations gave Spaatz administrative control of all
AAF units in the theater, he became the de facto leader of almost all U.S. Army
Air Forces fighting the Nazis. Even Ira Eaker, AAF commander of the Medi-
terranean Allied Air Forces, often consulted with Spaatz and tended to defer to
his judgment. The head of the AAF, Arnold, certainly viewed Spaatz as the prin-
cipal U.S. airman in Europe. Arnold did his utmost to support Spaatz with men
and materiel while charging him with the task of enhancing the image and status
of the AAF at every opportunity.

Thanks in part to his close and easy relationships with the Supreme Comman-
der Allied Expeditionary Force, Eisenhower, and the Deputy Supreme Commander,
Tedder, Spaatz balanced the competing and sometimes contradictory demands on
his command's capabilities with an eclat that brought promotion for himself and,
more important, prestige and credit to the AAF.

421

Chapter 12

Summer 1944:
Crossbow, Thunderclap,
and Strategic Bombing
(June-September 1944)

My own opinion of the present situation is that so far the

Germans have been very successful in that all the power of
the Americans and the British is being contained in a nar-
row beachhead by fourteen half-baked . . . divisions,
thereby relieving Germany of the p»ressure of the bombard-
ment to which they have been subjected during the past six
months.'

— Spaatz's Command Diary, June 17, 1944

From June to mid-September 1944, the fighting on the ground between the
Western Allies and the Germans divided into two distinct phases: (1) the landing
and expansion of the beachhead (June 6 to July 24) and (2) the breakout from
the beachhead and pursuit of the defeated Germans to the French-German border
(July 25 to September 10). Whereas the operations of the Allied tactical air
forces had to adapt to the exigencies of the ground situation, the operations of
the strategic air forces developed differently. Spaatz, although subordinate to
Eisenhower until the middle of September, had his eyes on a perspective beyond
that of some ground and tactical air leaders who wished to put themselves into a
position from which they could attack and destroy Germany. Spaatz already had
the means available to attack deep within Germany. He fought to retain his
forces for the Combined Bomber Offensive, while the ground soldiers continu-
ally pressed him to divert his planes to tasks on the front line or relatively close
behind it. They believed that a well-timed, heavy air strike might provide the
final element needed to achieve the decisive breakthrough.

423

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

This argument could never convince a strategically minded airman like
Spaatz. He pleaded that large formations of heavy bombers did not easily lend
themselves to concentration on a single decisive point necessary for the support
of a land attack. The Eighth often launched missions consisting of several hun-
dred heavy bombers, but when they reached their target area, they separated into
component bomb wings (100 to 150 bombers) or bomb groups (40 to 50 planes)
to deliver their ordnance on individual targets. This practice increased bombing
accuracy and avoided possible problems when too many bombers hit the same
target at too close intervals. These problems included dust and smoke clouds
obscuring the target, antiaircraft artillery, and ah congestion disrupting forma-
tions and causing highly spread bomb patterns. In any case, the Army did not
need, except in cases of emergency, the constant support of heavy bombers and
their escorts when the tactical air forces had ample numbers of fighter-bombers
and medium bombers at the beck and call of the ground forces. Spaatz's efforts to
maintain the strategic bomber offensive in the face of diversions to retard the
German V-1 attacks on England, to support the ground forces, and to engage in
morale bombing as opposed to precision bombing over Germany constitute the
theme of this chapter.

Initial Operations

Before the invasion Spaatz had agreed to aid the assault phase of the opera-
tion. For that critical phase the Eighth Air Force ceased its attacks directed
against German industry and devoted its efforts to the bombing program called
for in preinvasion and invasion deception plans. From May 30, when the Eighth
struck aircraft production targets in Germany and then temporarily halted strate-
gic attacks, until June 18, when it resumed missions against industrial targets in
Germany, the Eighth flew exclusively in support of the invasion. In June the
Eighth dropped 44,209 tons of bombs on France, almost 76 percent of its effort
for the month.2

The Germans, too, meant to put their maximum air power into the skies over
the beachhead. To that end, in the four days following D-day they sent more
than 300 single-engine fighter auxiraft in addition to the 170 already in France to
fly ground support for the troops battling the Allies.3 This action, however,
proved disastrous. The Luftwaffe drew its planes from the fighter force defend-
ing the homeland against attacks by AUied heavy-bomber forces and assigned
them to fledgling pilots, who had just replaced the veteran pilots killed or dis-
abled in the spring, were minimally trained for antibomber operations, and had
no ground support training. In their flights to the forward airfields they suffered
an accumulation of losses not only from Allied aircraft, who knew their flight
plans from signal intelligence decryptions,^ but also from their own faulty navi-
gation and from landings on unfamiliar fields.5

The Luftwaffe literally telegraphed its punches to the Allies. Throughout

424

Strategic Operations

this phase of the campaign in the west, the Allied Ultra signal intercept organi-
zation read and distributed the Luftwaffe's messages at least as quickly as the
intended recipients.^ The Luftwaffe Enigma machine was simpler than its army
and navy equivalents in tiiat it possessed one less code-setting wheel or rotor.
Consequently, the Ultra organization had fewer difficulties deciphering the
Luftwaffe's messages than those of the other German armed forces. As early as
2:30 P.M. on June 6, Ultra learned that eighteen fighter groups had left
Germany for France.'' By June 8, it learned that seven more groups had arrived,
and it passed their exact locations on to Allied operational units. Within six days
of the invasion, June 12, Ultra knew that because of the fierce pressure exerted
by the Allies, the Luftwaffe had given up on fighter-bombing, ordering the
removal of bomb racks and the reconversion of their aircraft to their pure fighter
configuration.^ This action, which eliminated the fighters' capacity to deliver
bombs, proved that the Luftwaffe had abandoned its ground support role and had
been forced entirely into defense against Allied air attacks. By the end of the first
week, the Luftwaffe's strength stood at 1,100 machines, its highest of the cam-
paign.

The British Air Ministry greatly overestimated this force at 1,615 aircraft, but
noted a very low serviceability rate, 33 percent for fighters and 16 percent for
fighter-bombers. The average daily fighter effort ranged from 250 to 300 sorties.
RAF Air Intelligence noted that bomber groups operated at only 65 percent of

425

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

establishment.^ Heavy attacks by the Eighth over airfields on June 14 and 15 —
based on information from Ultra intercepts — applied the coup de grace. On
June 16, the Luftwaffe withdrew five shattered groups for refitting in Germany.
Their replacements at the front, also drawn from domestic air defense duties,
fared little better. During the month of June 1944, the total fighter force avail-
able for German home defense fell from 700 to 370.10

The diversion of the Eighth Air Force from the strategic bombing campaign
to the immediate support of the invasion could not have been avoided. It was
unlikely that Eisenhower, who had ultimate control of the heavy bombers and
most of the other high-level Allied commanders, would ever have allowed the
Combined Bomber Offensive to continue unabated while the Luftwaffe and the
German Army rushed units toward the beachhead. Spaatz had accepted this fact
from the day he learned of his appointment to USSTAF. In any case, the
Luftwaffe was unable to use the temporary halt in Pointblank to any advantage.
Instead, Hitler and Goering stripped the homeland of half of its defending air-
craft to send them into the maelstrom over Normandy, where overwhelming
Allied air power quickly dashed them to bits. When the Combined Bomber
Offensive resumed, it found much less opposition.

Operation Crossbow

The first major diversion of the strategic bombing forces, after operations
flown in direct support of Overlord, began within a few days of the invasion.
On the night of June 12-13, the first V-1 robot bomb, designated by the
Germans as Vergeltungswajfe eins (Reprisal Weapon No. 1) and called, among
other names, "flying bomb," "buzz-bomb," or "doodlebug" by the Allies, struck
England. In the next few days, the rate of the attack, directed mainly toward
London, increased. In retrospect, this weapon caused much more alarm among
the English people and their political leaders than was warranted. Nonetheless,
at the time, the V-1, with its near-total unpredictability and unnerving buzzing
sound that shut off just before impact, provoked extraordinary anxiety and led to
extreme pressure on the Allies to reduce the threat.

In all, between June 13 and September 1, 1944, 5,890 flying bombs landed
in England. They killed 5,835 persons and seriously injured an additional
16,762. London suffered 90 percent of all casualties, n Each weapon killed, on
the average, one person and seriously injured almost three more. In contrast,
during the ten-day Battle of Hamburg in July 1943, the RAF and the AAF killed
almost 50,000 German civilians, most as the result of a single fire storm on the
night of July 27-28.12 (See Map 13, Operation Crossbow Network.)

Because the Allied armies had bogged down in Normandy and could not
break out to occupy any launch sites farther up the French coast and because
they needed most of the tactical air forces' efforts for their own support, the bur-
den of coimtering the V-1 fell to the strategic air forces. The British wanted the

426

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

launch sites bombed into inoperability, and they wanted counterterror raids con-
ducted on the German people. Spaatz objected to both solutions; previous bomb-
ings of launch sites had proved ineffective and terror bombing could produce no
predictable result to justify the abandonment of precision bombing.

At first the Allies failed to react, but the firing of 300 buzz bombs on the
night of June 15-16 necessitated some countermeasure. On June 18, Churchill
visited Tedder and Eisenhower at the latter' s headquarters at Widewings in the
London suburb of Teddington. Churchill persuaded them to designate V-1 sites
as the chief targets of the strategic air forces. '3 Eisenhower passed the decision
along to the airmen at the Daily Air Commanders' Meeting and emphasized to
all present the seriousness with which he viewed the situation. He approved the
use of USSTAF and Bomber Command and every other "means practicable for
stopping the pilotless aircraft." i'* At the end of the meeting, Eisenhower told
Maj. Gen. Fred Anderson to carry the word to Spaatz that Crossbow would
"receive first priority over all other targets, either in France or Germany. "l^
Eisenhower followed up his message with a call to Spaatz that afternoon, and
Spaatz promised to set aside a small force for exclusive use against V-1 sites,

Spaatz and Doolittle responded promptly. They had already resumed
Crossbow strikes on June 16 and 18, and on June 19 they stepped up their effort
by sending 703 heavy bombers out to hit V-1 launch sites. During six of the
remaining eleven days of the month, the Eighth sent out Crossbow missions of
at least 125 planes each. In addition to hitting the launch sites, the Eighth broad-
ened its attack to include electrical switching and power stations that supplied
the weapons as well as storage areas. Bomber Command took even stronger
measures, and the Ninth also contributed 1,500 medium-bomber sorties starting
on June 23. For the latter half of June, Allied air power dispatched 8,310 bomt)er
sorties and dropped 23,431 tons of bombs. l"? As AAF official historians acknowl-
edged, "Crossbow Operations during the second half of June indicated that the
Germans had again created for the Allies a diversionary problem of the first
magnitude."'**

From the beginning of this new phase of Crossbow, Spaatz voiced his
objections to the amount of force he had to devote to it and to the targets
selected for it. Like most of the AAF's commanders in Europe, Spaatz believed
that mass bombing of the launch sites accomplished little. The Germans had
hardened the large sites with vast amounts of concrete, making them impervious
to the most powerful bombs. They had, for the most part, abandoned the large
sites to concentrate on small, well-camouflaged positions almost impossible to
spot from the air. Spaatz wished to bomb the electrical system in Pas-de-Calais,
which would stymie the functioning of the large sites and supply areas. The
British, who controlled the V-1 targeting selection from the Air Ministry, incorpo-
rated these proposals into their plans but did not emphasize them. 19 They con-
tinued to expend most of the heavy-bomber effort on large launch sites, with
negligible results. Spaatz asked Arnold to direct the air proving grounds in

428

Strategic Operations

Winston Churchill wearing the uniform of a Marshal of the RAF at an antiaircraft
gun line in Britain.

Florida to begin experiments using war-weary planes loaded with explosives.
Spaatz hoped to fly the planes by remote control to crash into otherwise impreg-
nable targets. At the same time he initiated within the theater a similar program
variously called Aphrodite or Weary-Wilue.20

Finally, he offered two suggestions closer to his true purpose — that of main-
taining the Combined Bomber Offensive. He offered to bomb the German facto-
ries making the V-I's gyroscopes and the large, recently discovered V-1 storage
depots in France.21 The bombing of factories in Germany would serve Spaatz's
twofold purpose of halting the V-1 attacks and of luring the Luftwaffe into the
sky.

On June 29, he hand-carried a letter to Eisenhower expressing his views on
the main tasks facing USSTAF. In it he pointed out that the defeat of the
Luftwaffe had taken place over Germany and not the occupied countries: "I con-
sider the primary tasks of the Strategic Air Forces now to be the denial to the
German ground ... of the means with which to effectively continue resistance
and the continuation of the neutralization of the German Air Force." To accom-
plish these tasks Spaatz asked Eisenhower to make the following policy deci-
sion: "On those days when weather conditions over Germany are favorable for
visual bombing, such operations should have overriding priority over all others."
Spaatz allowed for two exceptions — a major emergency involving the ground

429

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

forces and operations against tlie large installations being prepared to launch the
German rocket-propelled V-2. The V-2 was a supersonic rocket whose advent
the Allies feared perhaps even more than that of the V-1. No defense, save the
destruction of its takeoff platform, could work against the swift, powerful V-2.
Spaatz did not believe that operations against V-1 firing sites could be suffi-
ciently decisive on any one day to justify diverting the strategic air forces from
their primary tasks on the few days of favorable weather over Germany. As for
the use of heavy bombers in support of the ground forces, Spaatz noted, "In the
absence of a major ground force emergency, I do not believe that the results from
the tactical use of heavy bombers will constitute as much support to Overlord as
the use of the same force against critical German targets." Spaatz explained that
the "normal weather cycle" ensured enough unsuitable weather over Germany to
provide a large proportion of the available heavy-bomber effort for employment
against tactical objectives in Normandy .22

Although Eisenhower privately regarded the V-1 as "very much of a nui-
sance,"23 his ranking of air priorities naturally differed from Spaatz's. In a memo
to his chief of staff, Maj. Gen. Walter Bedell Smith, he observed that by Septem-
ber 20 good flying weather over Europe would cease. Therefore, for the next sixty
to ninety days he ranked "direct attacks against Germany" sixth in priority below
normal close support of the ground army, disruption of communication lines,
neutralization of Crossbow, airborne operations, and supply of troops by air.
However, he allowed an escape clause: "In any event there will unquestionably
be sufficient days, when other types of operations are impracticable, to continue
the striking [air] assault upon Germany, and there will be days during the winter
when this can likewise be carried out. "24

When he received Spaatz's letter, June 29, Eisenhower appended it to a
memo for Deputy Supreme Commander Tedder in which he issued a new bomb-
ing directive giving Crossbow top priority with the proviso, "... when we have
favorable conditions over Germany and when the entire Strategic Air Force can-
not be used against Crossbow, we should attack — a. Aircraft industry; b. Oil; c.
Ball bearings; d. Vehicular production."25

Spaatz's resentment of and resistance to the Crossbow diversion continued
into July. When he received an allocation of targets giving the Eighth Air Force
sixty-eight Crossbow targets as compared to thirty for Bomber Command and
only six for the AEAF, he strongly protested to Eisenhower, "If we are to con-
sider all these targets as a high priority obligation, the implementation of our
strategic bombing plans will be seriously hindered. "26 At the forefront of Spaatz's
objections lay the realization that long summer days provided unparalleled oppor-
tunities for his own forces but denied opportunities to Bomber Command, which
could not penetrate deeply into Germany during the short summer nights in north-
em Europe. A short winter's day later could not replace a long sunlit summer's
day, which gave the U.S. bomber formations license to penetrate as deeply as pos-
sible into German-occupied Europe. Spaatz pointed out to Eisenhower:

430

Strategic Operations

Germans preparing to launch a V-1 flying bomb across the English Channel.

It must be borne in mind that the U.S. Strategic Air Force is the only force
presently in a position to make deep penetrations in strength beyond the Ruhr
and therefore must be responsible for the largest share of the strategic task of
denying to the enemy the means with which to effectively continue resistance."

Spaatz also noted that Crossbow would interfere with USSTAF's tactical
target assignments (bridges, POL [petroleum, oil, and lubricants] dumps, and
airfields). Because of the "present restricted operational capabilities" of Bomber
Command and the limited range of the tactical air force, he recommended that
they be directed to maintain a fixed percentage of their force for Crossbow. For
his part, he promised to put in a strong effort against the V-2 launch sites when
he could not fly over Germany. "Such an arrangement," he stated, "should
insure adequate effort against the Crossbow installations and . . . will not force
one command to carry a greater burden than another to the detriment of the other
priority tasks and the war effort as a whole."28

On the same day Spaatz discussed the Crossbow situation with Tedder.
They agreed that current crazy-quilt air command arrangements interfered with
the coordination of the Crossbow campaign. Spaatz used this chance to empha-
size the need to continue operations over Germany in order to shorten the war
and to continue the destruction of the German fighter force. He hoped to strain
the Luftwaffe's depleted daylight fighter force to such an extent that its crack
night fighter force would have to join daylight battles. "If this is not done now,"
Spaatz told Tedder, "the British night bomber force will not be able to operate

431

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

without excessive losses when the nights get longer. "29 Tedder, despite the pres-
sure on him from the British government to bomb Crossbow sites, agreed to
work with Spaatz in persuading Eisenhower to free USSTAF from excessive
commitment to Crossbow.30 Finally, Tedder, Portal, and Eisenhower, at Spaatz's
urging,3i set up a Joint Crossbow Committee to coordinate among the relevant
air agencies but it proved ineffectual, in the opinion of USSTAF.32 In any case,
there was no need for it after the V-1 launch sites were eliminated by ground
forces in late August.

From July and August until AUied ground troops overran the sites around
September 1, Bomber Command, USSTAF, and the AEAF rained bombs on the
entire identified V-weapon target system — from the German experimental
rocket research station at Peenemunde on the Baltic, through the manufacturing
plants at Russelshiem and Ober Raderach, through the power stations and elec-
trical switching sites in France, to the storage areas and launch sites in Pas-de-
Calais. The campaign lasted seventy-seven days. In just two months — July and
August — ^the Allied air forces expended 16,566 sorties and one-fourth of their
total tonnage on Crossbow targets,33 all, however, to little avail. The AAF offi-
cial history admits that the rate of V-1 firings continued "essentially unhin-
dered,"34 and concludes, "The Crossbow campaign of the summer of 1944 must
be regarded generally as having failed to achieve its objectives. Indeed it seems
to have been the least successful part of the over-all effort."35

Reprisal Bombing and Thunderclap

The ineffectiveness of Crossbow raised the specter of another diversion of
the strategic bombing effort. The failure of the rate of V-1 firings to drop by
early July 1944, which was apparent to residents of London, led to demands for
the diversion of the strategic air forces to retaliation or counterterror raids over
Germany. These demands were behind Air Chief Marshal Harris's request to
schedule Bomber Command with the Eighth on a daylight mission over Berlin
on June 21, 1944. Portal informed Churchill that he, Spaatz, Tedder, and
Eisenhower favored the operation. More than 2,000 bombers, including 700
from Bomber Command, would drop 6,500 tons of bombs. "At the lowest," said
Portal, "it will be a pretty good answer to the results achieved in the last few
days by the 'flying bomb'. "36 Operational considerations, such as the effective-
ness of the German night fighter force and the lack of night-time flying hours (at
the time of the summer solstice in European latitudes), also influenced Harris's
decision to participate in a daylight raid.

However, at 1:00 a.m. on June 21, Harris, with Tedder's concurrence,37
scrubbed the mission. Base weather did not look favorable. Harris did not
approve of Doolittle's decision to send only half of his bomber force over the
main target area, which increased the risk of flak to the low-flying RAF. He also
had misgivings because mission plans revealed that the number of escorts sup-

432

Strategic Operations

plied the British might drop from 300 to 150 or less.38 This decision was greeted
with relief by Spaatz and Doolittle, who no longer had to stretch their escort
fighters to cover the bomber formations of both air forces. 39 The Eighth sent
1,000 bombers to the Berlin area: 368 B-24s bombed targets in the vicinity of
the city, and 560 B-17s, using visual bombing techniques, released 1,371 tons of
bombs, 20 percent of them incendiaries, on the military and civilian government
area in the center of the city. This was the ninth release since March 6 by the
Eighth of 750 or more tons on the heart of the city.40

The idea of reprisal raids for the V- 1 , once started, gained a life of its own.
By June 27, USSTAF developed Operation Shatter, which proposed to bomb
100 or more German cities in a single day in order to demonstrate to the German
people (1) their vulnerability, (2) their defenselessness, (3) the full scope of
Allied air power, (4) the fact that no city in Germany was too insignificant a tar-
get, and (5) the decline of the Luftwaffe. The authors of this plan, however, did
not wish the attack to be tarred with the brush of terror bombing. They sug-
gested striking utilities, transportation networks, government buildings, or minor
industries.41

Churchill raised the subject of reprisal raids at his Chiefs of Staff meeting on
July 1, suggesting that the British announce their intention to flatten lesser
German cities in turn if V-1 attacks continued. The British Chiefs agreed to
postpone action to allow for a thorough study. In the meantime, Churchill took
up the policy with Bedell Smith, who approved it, and Tedder, who considered it
ineffective and "wickedly uneconomicaI."42 At the British Chiefs of Staff meet-
ing on July 3, Portal spoke against retaliatory bombing, warning that it gave
"invaluable proof to the Germans that their V-1 policy had succeeded and
amounted to entering into negotiations with the enemy. The Germans would not
alter their plans for the sake of unimportant towns, and such bombing would
divert resources from more important communications and oil targets. The other
Chiefs agreed to further study .^3

At his War Cabinet meeting that evening Churchill ordered his Chiefs to
take up the matter the next day. Portal presented further arguments against the
idea. Fearing that the Germans might resort to counter measures, such as mur-
dering downed air crews from British reprisal raids, he recommended adding V-1
attacks to the list of war crimes for which the Nazis would be held accountable
after the war. "We could not hope to keep pace with the Germans in a campaign
of reprisals," he concluded. The British Chiefs agreed to prepare a report on all
aspects of retaliatory bombing, including the use of poison gas .44 The report,
prepared by the Air Staff and the Ministry of Economic Warfare, took twenty-
four hours and reflected Portal's views. "No threat," he reasoned, "is likely to
deter Hitler in his present fix. Indeed it may well encourage him to order more
F.B.'s [flying bombs] and make still further efforts to increase the scale of
attack." A threat to bomb the towns (1) implied a guarantee not to bomb them if
Hitler stopped his V-1 campaign and (2) opened the door to the Germans on

433

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

negotiations over otlier aspects of bombing. Portal acknowledged, "Actually,
London with its vast production, its communications centres, and the seat of
Government is (under the conditions prevailing in the present war) a perfectly
legitimate target for the sort of 'browning' [night nuisance] attacks which we are
making by instruments on Berlin. "^5 The final report repeated Portal's argu-
ments recommending rejection of the policy ,46 This rejection did not end the
matter. On July 5, the British Chiefs of Staff agreed "that the time might well
come in the not too distant future when an all-out attack by every means at our
disposal on German civilian morale might be decisive." The British Chiefs rec-
ommended to Churchill "that the method by which such an attack would be car-
ried out should be examined and all possible preparations made."47

For the next month a working committee with Air Staff, Foreign Office,
Ministry of Economic Warfare, and USSTAF representatives met to determine
the ideal approach to conductuig a morale attack. On July 22, the committee
issued a preliminary report and concluded that the object of any morale attack
was "to influence the minds of the German authorities in such a way that they
prefer organized surrender to continued resistance." Until final military defeat
was imminent, the Allies should continue the bomber offensive against eco-
nomic and military targets. Any assault should be coordinated with Allied propa-
ganda policy and directed against the High Command, the army, and the civilian
population. Because of its importance as a center of population, industry, com-
munications, and administration, Berlin was selected as the target of the commit-
tee's campaign. The results of such bombing — ^the disruption of governmental
services and communications at a critical juncture, as well as the demoralization
of minor civil servants — would lead to an overall breakdown of public morale.
Berlin had the operational advantage of being free of weather restrictions (its
size made it easy to locate on radar scopes), and it could be attacked on short
notice because both air forces knew the route to and the defenses of the city. The
committee proposed to deliver 20,000 tons of bombs in a four-day and three-
night round-the-clock blitz of the administrative center of Berlin.48 According to
the British, Spaatz was in "general agreement" with the recommendations, but
preferred "that no reference should be made in it to the concurrence of his unof-
ficial representative at the meeting which discussed it."49

Spaatz 's reasons for withholding "official" concurrence were not clear.
Apparently, the plan's focus on population bombing troubled him. On July 21,
after receiving advance notice of the morale committee's report, he discussed the
issue with Eisenhower, who stated, "We will continue precision bombing and
not be deflected to morale bombing."50 Yet on the same day, Spaatz's Deputy
for Operations, Maj. Gen. Frederick L. Anderson, issued a USSTAF policy direc-
tive to both the Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces. Noting Spaatz's oft reiterated
and continuing intention to bomb precision targets, Anderson categorically
denied any intention to area-bomb. But having denied the intention, Anderson
proceeded to authorize the practice: "We will conduct bombing attacks through

434

Strategic Operations

the overcast where it is impossible to get precision targets. Such attacks will
include German marshalling yards whether or not they are located in German
cities."5l As Anderson and Spaatz well knew, bombs dropped on targets in cities
using overcast bombing techniques would cause great collateral damage.
Apparently, it was acceptable to attack German civilians if they lived in cities
with military targets, but not acceptable to make German civilians targets in and
of themselves.

In fact, thanks to four missions against Munich, which bombed through
overcast and carried large percentages of incendiaries, Eighth Air Force records
showed a wartime high for tonnage dropped on "towns & cities" of 9,886 tons
in July 1944.52 Anderson and others in USSTAF did not regard this policy as
hypocritical. They knew they had not aimed these raids at civilians, but rather at
military targets. They judged themselves by their motives rather than their results.

The committee's final draft, submitted to the British Chiefs of Staff on
August 3, placed even greater emphasis on population bombing and gave the
plan of attack on German civilian morale a code name — ^Thunderclap.53 The
operational details called for 2,000 Eighth Air Force bombers to drop 5,000
tons, under visual conditions, on a Th square-mile area of central Berlin, esti-
mated to contain a daytime population of 375,000. A bomb density of 2,000 tons
per square mile would produce approximately 137,500 dead and 137,500 seri-
ously injured. If necessary, the Fifteenth Air Force could participate, and
Bomber Command could follow up with a night incendiary raid.54

The plan continued to percolate through the AAF and RAF staffs. Kuter ques-
tioned it, writing to Anderson, "Since any such attack will feature U.S.A.A.F.
units in the limelight, we should consider whether the recent buzz bomb attacks
have not instilled in the British Government a desire for retaliation in which
American air units will be called upon to share with the R.A.F. Bomber Command
the onus for the more critical features of night area bombing." Kuter reaffirmed
the AAF's policy of attacking military targets. "Our entire target policy has been
founded on the fact that it was uneconomical to bomb any except military objec-
tives and the German productive capacity. The bombing of civilian targets in
Germany cannot be expected to have similar effects to those which might be
expected in a democratic country where the people are still able to influence
national will." Kuter concluded: "It is contrary to our national ideals to wage war
against civilians."

Ironically, a war plan Kuter had helped to author three years earlier called for
the very action he now questioned. AWPD/1 had provided for a massive strategic
bombing campaign against Germany and contained specific suggestions on pos-
sible target systems. It listed four lines of action whose accomplishment would
fulfill the air mission in Europe, including "undermining of German morale by
air attack of civil concentrations." In discussing that action AWPD/1 stated:

Timeliness of attack is most important in the conduct of air operations directly
against civil morale. If the morale of the people is already low because of sus-

435

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

tained suffering and deprivation and because the people are losing faith in the
ability of the armed forces to win a favorable decision, then heavy and sus-
tained bombing of cities may crash that morale entirely. However, if these con-
ditions do not exist, then area bombing of cities may actually stiffen the
resistance of the population, especially if the attacks are weak and sporadic. . . .
It is believed that the entire bombing effort might be applied to this purpose
when it becomes apparent that the proper psychological conditions exist.

In one of its annexes AWPD/1 spoke of Berlin's role in the anticipated air
war. Immediately after strategic bombing had heavily and visibly damaged its
economic targets, "or immediately after some major set-back of the German
ground forces, it may become highly profitable to deliver a large scale all-out
attack on the civil population of Berlin. In this event any or all of the bombard-
ment forces may be diverted for this mission. "55

Spaatz, as Chief of the AAF Staff, Arnold, as Commanding General of the
AAF, Army Chief of Staff Marshall, Secretary of War Stimson, and President
Roosevelt had all endorsed AWPD/1 before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.
Kuter and Spaatz may have objected less to the concept of a campaign or mis-
sion against morale then to the timing of Thunderclap.

In any case, like any good staff officer, Kuter began to prepare a contingency
plan for the remote possibility that the AAF, "even though we are strongly
opposed at this time to such methods," might participate in such an operation.
Kuter selected a dozen smaller cities, "ancient, compact, historic, wide-spread
and of as much industrial importance as possible." The AAF would warn the
cities that one of them would be destroyed (to cause panic in all twelve) and
finally all forces would deliver a concentrated attack on the selected city .56
Arnold may never have seen this plan, but he objected strongly when the British
proposal to attack civilian morale reached his desk. He preferred not to direct the
attack solely at Berlin or the German people. He suggested a six-day-long series
of sweeps by all available fighters and heavy bombers over all of Germany .57

On August 3, the Air Staff presented Thunderclap to the British Chiefs,
who suggested that the War Cabinet's Joint Planning Staff prepare an additional
study regarding a possible assault on the Nazi machinery of repression, particu-
larly the S.S. and the Gestapo. This attack would occur in coordination with, but
not at the same time as, Thunderclap in order to weaken Nazi control of the
people.58 An Air Staff review of a draft of this plan rejected the bombing of
security forces, reiterated the virtues of bombing Berlin, and produced a blood-
curdling analysis of the advantages of Thunderclap, noting: "A spectacular and
final object lesson to the German people on the consequences of universal
aggression would be of continuing value in the post-war period. Again, the total
devastation of the centre of a vast city such as Berlin would offer incontrovert-
ible proof to all peoples of the power of a modem air force." The Air Staff sug-
gested "that such a proof would appreciably ease the task of policing the
occupied areas largely by means of Air Forces. Moreover, it would convince our

436

Strategic Operations

Russian allies and the Neutrals of the effectiveness of Anglo-American air
power." The analysis concluded, "When allied forces had occasion to occupy,
or neutral representatives to visit Berlin, they would be presented with a long
continuing memorial to the effects which strategical bombing had produced in
this war and could produce at any time again."59

The final plan of attack on the German government went forward on
August 17. The Joint Planning Staff, because of the wide dispersion of targets
and doubts as to their exact location, did not predict that the scheme was
"likely to achieve any worthwhile degree of success."60 The RAF Air Staff
had additional concerns: The German government was not vulnerable; the
selected small targets required visual bombing; and the RAF had insufficient
intelligence. In addition, raids on complexes with concentration camps would
produce casualties among the "intemees."6i Churchill agreed that the plan
was impractical. He suggested instead drawing up a short list of war crimi-
nals, 50 to 100 high ranking Nazis, who would be executed if they fell into
Allied hands. Publishing such a list, he speculated, would open a gap between
those named and the people. He observed, "At the present moment, none of
the German leaders has any interest but fighting to the last man, hoping he
will be that last man. It is very important to show the German people that they
are not on the same footing as Hitler, Goering, Himmler and other monsters
who will infallibly be destroyed. "^2

Later in August, SHAEF Headquarters began to discuss Thunderclap.63
On August 24, at the Allied Air Commanders' meeting, Harris suggested that
the Allies threaten in an ultimatum to the Germans to destroy certain towns if
any V-2 rockets were fired into London.64 The suggestion was referred to the
RAF Air Staff which quietly buried it. Spaatz gave Eisenhower his opinion of
Thunderclap, "I am opposed to this operation as now planned. We are pre-
pared to participate in an operation against Berlin, but in doing so will select
targets for attack of military importance." Spaatz added, "U.S. Bombing
Policy, as you know, has been directed against precision military objectives,
and not morale."65 Eisenhower, in his endorsement of Spaatz's letter, noted
that the operation would occur only under a limited set of conditions. He noted
that although he had always insisted that USSTAF bomb precision targets he
was "always prepared to take part in anything that gives real promise to ending
the war quickly." Eisenhower promised Spaatz, "The policies under which you
are now operating will be unchanged unless in my opinion an opportunity
arises where a sudden and devastating blow may have an incalculable result."66

Spaatz expressed stronger views to Arnold, who, unlike Eisenhower, did
not require his subordinates to eschew inter- Allied bickering:

I have been subjected to some pressure on the part of the Air Ministry to join
hands with them in morale bombing. I discussed this matter previously with
[Robert] Lovett when he was here and have maintained a firm position that
our bombing will continue to be precision bombing against military objec-
tive [sic].

437

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

While admitting that a case could be made for bombing Berlin, Spaatz stated
flatly, "I personally believe that any deviation from our present policy, even for
an exceptional case, will be unfortunate. There is no doubt in my mind that the
RAF want very much to have the U.S. Air Forces tarred with the morale bomb-
ing aftermath, which we feel will be terrific."67 Thunderclap's prediction of
137,500 dead and an equal number seriously wounded as a result of American
bombing was apparently too much for him.

Eisenhower had the last word. On September 9, he asked Spaatz to make
sure Doolittle would be ready to bomb Berlin at a moment's notice. Spaatz com-
plied, instructing the Eighth to drop plans to hit military objectives and to be
ready to drop bombs "indiscriminately" on the city when Eisenhower gave the
order. 68 Eisenhower may have been holding Thunderclap as a last card to play
in the faltering drive across France. Only the last-gasp Operation Market-
Garden paratroop drop in Holland, scheduled for mid-September, seemed to
offer hope of a quick breakthrough. Had the paratroopers succeeded in establish-
ing a bridgehead over the Rhine, the moment for launching Thunderclap might
have arrived. Instead, Market-Garden proved a costly failure.

Ironically, the British and the Americans may have missed their opportunity.
One can only speculate on the results of an antimorale raid coming on the heels
of the July 20 assassination attempt on Hitler. For a brief instant before Hitler
savagely and sadistically retaliated against the plotters, confusion reigned. If
nothing else, a raid at that time would have further roiled an already boiling pot.
The Allied breakout from the Normandy beachhead, which would have occurred
at approximately the same time, might have added the final push. Talk of
Thunderclap subsided with the establishment of a stalemate on the Western
Front in September 1944 but would be resurrected under a different set of cir-
cumstances four months later.

Thunderclap and its planning illustrated how confident air power leaders
still were in the bomber fleet as an effective striking force. In the period between
the two world wars, Western air power experts and general public alike sub-
scribed to the view that a massive strategic bombing attack, delivered in a sud-
den stroke at the beginning of hostilities, might quickly end a war between major
powers. This so-called bolt from the blue was intended to totally disrupt daily life
and inflict such horrific casualties on civilians as to compel the recipient power to
capitulate. Yet, long after Chinese, British, and, especially, German civilians had
demonstrated a capacity to withstand the heaviest of aerial bombardments. Allied
air planners still seriously proposed a back-breaking, seventy-two-hour operation
of Thunderclap's magnitude. The estimated casualty figures were more akin to
those predicted in 1935 by the RAF Air Staff — 150,000 casualties in the first week
of the bombing of London69 — than those to be expected in 1944. Even the opera-
tion's code name evoked the image of the prewar bolt-from-the-blue mentality.

438

Strategic Operations

Strategic Bombing in the Summer of 1944

Following the successful breakthrough at St. L6, described later in Chapter
13, the Allies advanced spectacularly through France. They pushed a defeated,
disorganized foe before them, recapturing Paris on August 25 and taking most of
the great port of Antwerp on September 4. A week later an armored reconnais-
sance squadron crossed the 1939 German border. By that time, however, the
Allied armies had literally run out of gas as they forged ahead of their supply
lines. This enforced halt at the German border, combined with the frantic but
successful effort of the Wehrmacht to cobble together a solid defensive line,
turned a war of movement back into a war of position.

Once the ground forces established themselves on the Continent, Spaatz
hoped to return his command to what he considered its primary task — the strate-
gic bombardment of Germany. In June 1944, the Eighth Air Force conducted
only four missions over German industrial targets. On June 18 and 20, it at-
tacked oil targets, losing 50 heavy bombers and writing off 4 more. On June 21,
the Eighth lost an additional 45 heavy bombers in a raid on the center of Beriin.
On June 29, Doolittle's bombers again attacked oil targets. Nevertheless, of the
320 heavy bombers lost by the Eighth in combat in June, at least 55 percent fell
in action against Crossbow sites or in missions against airfields, bridges, and
other tactical targets in France.'^O For the first time, losses of heavy bombers to
antiaircraft artillery exceeded those lost to Luftwaffe fighters.^i That fact indi-
cated three features of June operations: the German transfer of hundreds of
fighters to ground-support roles; the preponderant number of missions flown by
the Eighth against tactical targets defended, if at all, solely by flak; and the
increasing efficiency and number of expanded radar-directed German antiair-
craft artillery batteries. In January 1944, flak had accounted for only 27 bomber
losses;72 in June, the Eighth lost l^h bombers (201) to flak for each one lost to
enemy fighters (80).

Each month from June 1944, in the case of the Eighth Air Force, and July, in
the case of the Fifteenth, until the end of the war in May 1945, USSTAF lost
more bombers to flak than to enemy fighters. From September 1944 to May
1945, the Eighth lost 511 bombers to fighters and 1,263 to flak.73 During the
same period the Fifteenth lost 33 B-17s and B-24s to fighters and 681 to flak.74

The effectiveness of German antiaircraft stemmed, in part, from a reorgani-
zation and vast expansion of the Reich's flak defenses ordered by Hitler in
response to RAF raids in 1943.75 From August 1943 to June 1944, personnel
devoted to the antiaircraft reorganization doubled, to 300,000, including 75,000
secondary school students, 45,000 Soviet POW volunteers, and 15,000
women.76 This increase in personnel enabled the Germans to field larger num-
bers of heavier antiaircraft guns. These heavier 135mm weapons could place
their shells far higher than 88mm antiaircraft guns. Large-caliber weapons elimi-
nated much of the relative immunity to flak that the higher flying B-17 had

439

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

enjoyed over the B-24, whose optimal performance altitude was 3,000 to 5,000
feet lower.

German countermeasures consumed vast quantities of manpower and
materiel sorely needed elsewhere. The thousands of high-velocity artillery
pieces and the thousands of tons of ammunition they either consumed or kept
idle in reserve would have greatly aided hard-pressed German defenders on the
Eastern Front in their efforts to halt the Soviet advance. Because strategic bomb-
ing raids were restricted by weather conditions and shifting priorities, German
flak forces were spread thin to defend many areas. Yet, most defensive flak
forces fought only a few days a month, further accentuating the drain they
imposed on the Reich's economy with long periods of enforced idleness that tied
up needed resources.

Moreover, by October 1944 the Germans, unknown to the AAF, had devel-
oped the ability to track the bombers carrying H2X radar. This ability greatly
aided their range computations.'^'' Even such missions as the November 25,
1944, attack by the Eighth Air Force on the heavily defended Leuna oil plant, in
which 766 bombers dropped their explosive cargoes through thick clouds and
suffered 209 (27 percent) aircraft damaged by flak,'78 did not alert the AAF to its
new vulnerability. A visual attack on October 7 by 142 B-17s of the 1st Bom-
bardment Division on another oil target, Politz, near Stettin, left only 19
unscathed and lost 17, with 30 heavily damaged and 76 slightly damaged. The
lead ships, equipped with H2X, suffered particularly heavy damage.''^ All this,
however, lay in the future. At the end of June 1944, Spaatz still pressed to have
his planes released for missions over Germany.

In July, after Spaatz gained Eisenhower's agreement that the days offering
visual conditions over Germany ought to be used for bombing,80 the Eighth sent
missions into Germany twelve times. So quickly did the weather change over
central Europe that one-half of those missions employed H2X radar bombing
over the target. Four of the missions struck oil targets, while the others attacked
aircraft production, ball-bearing plants, and the experimental rocket station at
Peenemunde.81 Of the 352 bombers lost by the Eighth in July, strategic missions
accounted for at least 212 lost and 35 written off,82 70 percent of the month's
losses. The Fifteenth sent out fifteen strategic missions, thirteen of them directed
all or in part against Axis oil targets. It lost 196 heavy bombers in June and 317
more in July, the costliest month in its history. The Fifteenth's losses reflected
how effectively antiaircraft artillery defenses were being employed by the
Germans at Ploesti and other oil targets. Given the difference in aircraft on hand
between the Fifteenth (1,407 heavy bombers) and the Eighth (3,492 heavy
bombers) in July 1944,83 Twining's forces suffered casualties at more than twice
the rate of Doolittle's. The figures demonstrate the return of both air forces to the
Combined Bomber Offensive.

Despite such heavy casualties during their raids of June and July, efforts of
the Eighth and Fifteenth further aggravated Germany's critically low oil supply.

440

A German holding an antiaircraft range flnder in tlie fleld.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Ultra tracked Allied progress against Germany, particularly this most vulnera-
ble sector of its war economy. On July 9, Ultra deciphered a circular from
Goering to his field commanders, which read in part, "The deep inroads made
into the supply of aircraft fuel demand the most stringent reduction in flying.
Drastic economy is absolutely essential. 84 Another intercept of July 29 gave the
results of attacks on Merseburg, the single largest synthetic oil plant: "Heaviest
attacks so far; heavy damage — works provisionally 100 percent out of action."85
The American breaking of Japanese ciphers supplied more information. In
August, three confidential telegrams from the Japanese ambassador in Berlin to
Tokyo gave new information on the effect of Allied bombing. The ambassador
reported confidential statements made by Speer that presented as rosy a picture
as possible but could not conceal the damage done by the strategic bombing
offensive. Speer stated that, overall, the bombing had checked the rise of the pro-
duction curve. It had not to caused production in the aggregate to fall. The
attacks on oil installations were, however, another matter. "For the first time,"
Speer continued, "wehrwirtshaftlich [war economy] raids, which might deal a
really fatal blow to Germany, had begun." The oil offensive "was the problem to
which they attached the greatest importance at the moment," and the Germans
intended to strain every nerve to restore the situation. Speer then lied to the
Japanese ambassador, telling him that Allied claims of 50 percent destruction of
German oil supplies overstated the case. After observing that only the regaining
of air superiority could combat Allied heavy bombers, he offered wildly inflated
production figures for single- and twin-engine fighters, claiming production of

Germans preparing to fire 88mm antiaircraft artillery.

442

Strategic Operations

4,500 in July and predicted 6,500 to 7,000 a month by the end of the year. Those
totals were more than double the actual production achieved. Provided man-
power and oil stocks did not evaporate, Speer hoped to free Germany from the
bomber threat and to increase production of oil.86 This intercept must have con-
firmed Spaatz's resolve to continue the oil offensive and the coimterair cam-
paign.

For USSTAF, August and the first part of September brought no change in
routine. The Eighth attacked the Crossbow system; aided the ground forces by
striking tactical targets; and (most important, from Spaatz's point of view)
launched ten missions into Germany, seven of them strikes against portions of
the oil industry.87 The Fifteenth Air Force flew thirteen strategic missions
against Balkan and German oil targets.88 On August 24, the two air forces coor-
dinated their efforts m combined raids on synthetic oil plants in Germany; on the
same day, all oil production ceased at Ploesti, which the Soviets occupied a few
days later. From April through August 1944, the Fifteenth expended 13,649 tons
of bombs and lost 350 heavy bombers solely against Ploesti.89 A warning from
the British Joint Intelligence Committee on August 7 had helped to spur Spaatz to
maximum effort against oil. A vast program was being instituted by the Germans
to repair the oil plants as rapidly as possible.90 Henceforth, the oil campaign
became a race between the Allied bombers to destroy and German labor to repair.
For the month of August, the Eighth lost 331 bombers in combat, more than 70
percent of them (238) to antiaircraft artillery. The Fifteenth, whose total bomber
force was less than half that of the Eighth, lost 254 heavy bombers, 1 12 of them
to flak and 91 to enemy fighters.91

These oil attacks as had those in July reduced Speer to a state of frustration.
He recalled, "Again and again I had explained to him [Hitler] that it would be
pointless to have tanks if we could not produce enough fuel." Speer added that,
even as he attempted to cope with the oil bombings, "I was aghast at the incom^
prehension of our leadership." He implored Hitler to reserve a significantly
larger part of the fighter-plane production for the home front and "to give suffi-
cient high priority to protecting the home hydrogenation plants by fighter planes
so that in August and September at least partial production will be possible." At
the end of July, Speer obtained from Hitler and Goering a promise to set aside a
force of 2,000 fighter planes to be available by the first of September,92 and he
secured authorization to have his subordinate, Edmund Geilenberg, placed in
charge of restoring fuel production. Within two months Geilenberg had 150,000
workers, many of them slave laborers, assigned to rebuilding the synthetic
plants. By late autumn he had 350,000 workers, many diverted from essential
armaments production, assigned to restoring oil production.93 This diversion,
together with the huge antiaircraft organization, created another drain on the
German war effort directly attributable to strategic bombing.

None of Speer's and Geilenberg's efforts could prevent a serious decline in
Germany's oil situation. In August the Fischer-Tropsch process and the hydro-

443

Overhead view of the Merseburg synthetic oil refinery (above) showing bomb dam-
age after an Eighth Air Force strike, July 1944. A darl( plume (below) rises above
the lighter colored smoke generated by German defenders to conceal the Merseburg
works during the raid.

Strategic Operations

genation synthetic fuel plants, which produced high-octane distillates, delivered
47,000 tons of aviation fuel, 13.5 percent of April's production. Imported oil had
fallen to 11,000 tons, a mere 10.6 percent of April's figures. Ultra described
fuel shortages cutting into the Luftwaffe's operations on the Eastern Front. On
August 10, air units withdrawing from France were ordered to evacuate fuel
stocks down to the "last drop." Five days later, the Luftwaffe's high command
ordered Luftflotte 3 (or the 3d air fleet) in France to curtail operations in order to
release fuel for training 120 crews per month for the west or to accept a lower
training fuel allocation sufficient for 40 crews per month.^^ From all sources the
Germans garnered 345,000 tons of finished oil products, 42.6 percent of April's
total.95 This decline was attributable solely to USSTAF's oil bombing cam-
paign. Attacks on the hydrogenation plants disrupted other parts of the German
chemical industry. These plants produced methanol and nitrogen, key compo-
nents in synthetic rubber and explosives. The Germans had no natural source for
either substance and could not easily substitute for them. Speer morosely
recorded, "From October 1944 on, our explosives consisted of 20 percent rock
salt, which reduced their effectiveness correspondingly ."^^

Problems of the American Strategic Air Forces

During the summer of 1944, Spaatz did not spend all of his time attending
Air Commanders' Meetings or justifying the need for strategic bombing of
Germany. He spent much of his time and effort in somewhat more mundane
administrative concerns. Personnel considerations topped the list. Although a
complete study of the Eighth Air Force's personnel difficulties would fill a large
volume, Spaatz expended considerable energy on three interrelated problems:
crew morale, crew replacements, and internment of crews in foreign countries.

As the AAF official history admits, "Low morale among air crews, particu-
larly in the Eighth Air Force, was a nagging problem during the middle of
J 944 "97 The ground crews, who maintained, serviced, and repaired aircraft, also
suffered from poor morale brought about by an entirely different set of circum-
stances. Aside from matters that soldiers have grumbled about since the profes-
sion of arms began, such as food, boredom, and the general incomprehensibility
of most actions or decisions by the powers that be, AAF ground and air crews in
Europe fought two different types of wars. The ground crews did not rotate back
to the United States after a set period; they stayed with their units throughout the
war. Added to the certainty of no home leave — although leave spent in England
was not impleasant — were primitive working conditions and long hours.

Britain was as civilized and developed a country as any in which the AAF
worked in 1944. Even so, the Eighth's bomber and fighter fields, for the most
part, offered few hangars and covered working spaces. In periods of heavy oper-
ations in wintertime, the ground crews, who worked during the night and in the
early morning, suffered greatly from the cold and damp. Italy offered even fewer

445

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

amenities or diversions; its weather was certainly harsher than that of England.
During the summer, the groimd crews had to work harder and harder in response
to dramatically increasing numbers of missions. Of course, they did not risk their
lives or suffer to the same extent as those in the infantry or on the front lines.
However, they were exposed to the rigors of the flight line, where boring and
dangerous conditions steadily took their toll. As Eaker noted to Arnold in a sum-
mary of operations, dated June 1, "Those [ground crews] who have been in the
theater approaching two years are definitely weary and not as keen as they were
and their work falls off."98

The air crews fought a private war, the horizons of which extended little
beyond themselves or their planes. Throughout the summer the Eighth Air
Force's percentage of aircraft lost per sortie rate declined. The rate dropped from
3.6 percent in April to 2.2 percent in May, 1.1 in June, when the Eighth flew
only four strategic missions, and 1.5 percent in both July and August. The lower
loss rates greatly increased an air crew's chances of completing its tour of duty.
Unfortunately, the apprehension level of the crews did not decline. Many still
seemed to react as they had when loss rates were higher. The lengthening of the
combat tour in February 1944 from twenty-five to thirty missions dealt a blow to
everyone's morale. Even at 1.5 percent loss per sortie for thirty missions, a crew
member stood a 36 percent chance of not surviving. With the summer came
increased numbers of missions and the opportunity for some crews to finish their
required tour of thirty missions in as little as sixty-two days.99 The Eighth
retained some crews for more than thirty missions. On July 1, for example, 117
crews, almost 4 percent of the crews on hand, had thirty missions. lOO Eighth Air
Force reports identified the causes of poor morale as the lack of understanding
of the difficulties of combat crews by their superior officers, inadequate fighter
escort on some missions, the seemingly elastic limit on combat tours, and too
frequent missions. lOl

The air crew rotation policy instituted by Spaatz and Doolittle in the spring
of 1944 dampened spirits further. Before its imposition, air crews completing
their combat tours returned to the United States, and, in practice, flew no more
combat missions. However, heavy losses compelled Spaatz and Doolittie to dis-
continue the permanent release of at least some trained crews that had finished
their initial tours. They were obliged to return to Europe for another tour of duty
after a month's furlough of rest and recreation in the United States. They as well
as crews already into their first tour who could easily picture themselves in the
same situation naturally felt aggrieved. Arnold, apparently, wished to halt any
furloughs. The low morale of the crews returning to the United States was obvi-
ous and did nothing for the AAF's public image. The ideal solution to the prob-
lem — lack of trained manpower — would have been a replacement pipeline full
of crews — a goal the AAF never managed to achieve.

In fact, at least as seen from AAF Headquarters in Washington, USSTAF's
furlough scheme threatened to upset the carefully crafted training program for

446

Strategic Operations

Eighth Air Force ground crews servicing a P-38. They worked unprotected from
the elements, often at night.

air crew replacements. In a letter dated June 21, Lt. Gen. Barney M. Giles,
Deputy Commanding General, AAF, and Chief of the AAF Staff, informed
Spaatz that "General Arnold had contended successfully that every crew going
to the wars is entitled to an even chance at surviving its tour ... it has . . . been
necessary that we train two crews for every one you lose. "102 Once Spaatz's
forces achieved their goal of two crews per heavy bomber, the replacement and
force build-up flow would of necessity slow.

The two-crew-per-bomber policy had become the foundation of AAF crew
training. From his office in the Pentagon, where he poured over the figures
detailing the ebb and flow of personnel through training, Giles attempted to con-
vey to Spaatz the importance that AAF Headquarters had attached to continuing
a proven system. He noted that Spaatz's retention of crews in Europe threatened
to cause backlogs and delays throughout the replacement pipeline and that

Any change in what is now a smooth machine would not be good. As you can
see, a major leave and furlough policy in our four largest air forces would force
a considerable change and a downward revision in our crew training which
might not be smart until we see the final victory more inmiediately ahead than
we now see it.

Giles added the hope "that having built the track we can keep the program

447

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

running on it without any further hitches until we get you up to strength when, I
am convinced, we should return to the old rotation system. 103

A month later Spaatz replied that he, too, wished to return to a straight rota-
tion policy, which he estimated would occur on August 1, the date the Eighth
would reach its authorized strength of two crews per aircraft. But he also wished
to retain the right to return, temporarily, for rest and recuperation certain key
personnel such as group and squadron commanders, lead pilots, bombardiers, and
navigators. 104 The Eighth reached its goal of double crews in July. The Fifteenth,
which had a higher casualty rate, had only one and one-half crews per plane on
July 31.105

The number of Eighth Air Force crews interned as a result of crashing or
landing in neutral countries jumped from eighteen in May to thirty-eight in June
and forty-one in July.i06 Although these crews and planes amounted to only a
tiny fraction of the totals sent out, Arnold received the statistics with alarm,
especially after he read reports of interviews with interned crews conducted by
U.S. diplomatic personnel.

The 2d Bombardment Division seemed particularly prone to this problem, in
part because the B-24's longer range, as compared with the B-17's, allowed it to
fly deeper penetration missions. On deep missions a crew in a damaged plane
might be more likely to land in neutral territory than to chance a long, dangerous
return trip to Britain. In June, three-quarters of the crews interned belonged to
the 2d Bombardment Division (28 of 38); in July about 40 percent of interned
crews belonged to the 2d Division (15 of 41). During the June 20 raid on Politz,
an oil target in Poland, conducted by 358 2d Division B-24s, an eye-popping 20
bombers landed in Sweden. The next day, the fourth in a row in which the
Eighth launched more than 1,100 bombers, 14 more bombers (7 from the 2d
Division) on missions to the Berlin area landed in Sweden. 107

In mid-July, Spaatz suggested to Amold that battle-experienced, intelligent,
senior USSTAF air officers join the diplomatic representatives in Sweden and
Switzerland to interview the crews and to evaluate and investigate the reasons
for their landings from a more professional perspective. 108 On July 27, Amold
sent a message to Spaatz in which he noted the increasing number of aircraft
making landings in neutral countries "without indication of serious battle dam-
age or mechanical failure, or shortage of fuel." Then he noted diplomatic reports
confirming "the fact that the landings were intentional evasions of further com-
bat service." Finally, Amold insisted, "It is plainly evident that measures must
be taken immediately against the development of such a state of mind among
[other] flyers and crews now engaged in extremely active operations."l09 Amold
emphasized "that great care be taken not to hold combat crews in the theater
until war weariness provokes an uncontrollable urge to grasp release by the
action indicated." He further required Spaatz to return all crews over USSTAF's
authorized strength and to use green crews to the maximum extent. Amold cau-

448

Strategic Operations

tioned that "individuals or crews who appear near the breaking point should also
be returned for reconditioning."! 10

On July 29, Spaatz strongly defended his crews to Arnold. Speaking for
himself and Eaker, he noted, "We resent the implication that these crews are
cowards, are low in morale or lack the will to fight. Such is a base slander
against the most courageous group of fighting men in this war."lll He pointed out
that the internees amounted to only a tiny fraction among crews dispatched and
that some groups had persevered despite 60 percent casualties. He observed that
the morale of the crews depended to some extent on the morale of their com-
manding officers, many of whom held ranks inferior to their responsibilities. He
suggested that several of his wing commanders be promoted to brigadier general,
and he repeated his desire to have USSTAF officers assigned to diplomatic staffs.
He stressed that "the most recent program for sending war weary crews back to
the US should meet the combat fatigue situation, and you can rest assured that we
will not maintain combat crews in operations when they approach the breaking
point, provided you continue to send replacement crews. . . ."112 Spaatz did
acknowledge, however, that "in the past some crews have undoubtedly been
employed who were very tired, overstrained and near the breaking point. This has
been done because of crew shortages, the importance of the battle and in a desire
to put forth maximum effort in destroying the German Air Force before launch-
ing Overlord." Spaatz argued that the employment of overtired crews "was
inevitable in the initial application of our vastly expanding air forces. It was by
these means that the necessary air supremacy has been established which has
enabled the American Air Forces to get the situation in hand in the European
Theater."! 13

This response did not placate Arnold, who sent Lt. Col. James W. Wilson

from Headquarters, AAF, to the European Theater of Operations to investigate
and to report back to him. Wilson arrived in London on August 26, carrying a
set of confidential personnel instructions and an equally confidential letter from
Arnold to Spaatz. In it Arnold wrote that he did not blame Spaatz for resenting
the implied slander or for defending his troops. "Nevertheless," he continued,

I am concerned lest we fail to note any incipient weaknesses that may not be
apparent, but whose existence may be indicated by reports even by unskilled
observers or constitutional faultfinders. For your information, these unfortunate
attitudes are reputed to include, beyond the normal griping, lack of respect
(amounting to near hatred) for certain very senior leaders; disgust with the
influence of political expedients on tactical and strategical employment; lack of
desire to kill Germans; lack of understanding as to the political necessity for
fighting the war; general personal lassitude with consequent lack of patriotic
enthusiasm for their jobs. We must not let our aversion to believing them influ-
ence our thinking or our determination to ferret out facts if early knowledge of
even the faintest taint would enable us to take efficacious preventative mea-
sures."''

449

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Arnold assured Spaatz that Wilson came neither as an "inspector" nor as a "spy"
but merely to "clarify a situation that I fear has become clouded due to many
rumors and reports."ll5

In his instructions to Wilson, which Wilson handed over to Spaatz, Arnold
revealed that, in addition to diplomatic reports, reports from a flight surgeon
recently on duty with the Eighth indicated "a possible deterioration of combat
crew morale." Arnold said, "If these reports are essentially correct, immediate
action must be taken to prevent serious reductions in the fighting efficiency of
air crews in the European Theater of Operations." Arnold instructed Wilson to
"mingle with combat crewmen of all grades in tactical units" to determine for
himself their attitudes and then to submit to him and Spaatz a report with recom-
mendations.! 16

In mid-September, Wilson, who claimed to have talked to more than a thou-
sand crew members, reported to Arnold that morale, after a drop-off in July,li7
had recently improved considerably. "Not only were the airmen confident of
their airplanes, their methods, and themselves, but they felt sure they were doing
more to win the war than either the ground forces or the RAF." Wilson's infor-
mal investigation, plus other investigations conducted on Arnold's behalf, and
the findings of specially detailed USSTAF officers who interviewed the interned
crews convinced Arnold and Spaatz that the morale problem had been greatly
exaggerated.118

The advance of the ground forces to the western borders of Germany virtu-
ally ended the internment controversy. Once crews could land safely in France,
instead of farther away in England, the attractiveness of Sweden and Switzerland

Lt. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz
visiting a crew replace-
ment center, England,
June 12, 1944.

450

Strategic Operations

diminished. Later, in the winter of 1944-1945, the Soviet advance to the eastern
borders of Germany allowed crews whose planes were damaged in deep mis-
sions to Berlin and beyond to land in Soviet-occupied territory instead of
Sweden.

Of all the bombing by USSTAF during the summer of 1944, only the strate-
gic bombing of oil, with its side effects on the German chemical industry, has-
tened eventual Allied victory. Crossbow bombing did little more than crater the
Pas-de-Calais district. Nor would morale bombing, given the blows subse-
quently withstood by the German populace, have furthered the Allied cause
effectively.

For Spaatz and the U.S. Strategic Air Forces in Europe, the summer of 1944
represented a season-long fight to prevent the weakening of the strategic bomber
offensive with the diversion of the heavy-bomber effort to other important, but
less crucial, tasks. Spaatz succeeded, by and large, in fending off all but the most
necessary distractions from the main strategic effort. After establishing the dra-
matic potential of the oil plan in the May 1944 raids, he managed to pry out of
Eisenhower enough freedom of action to continue and steadily increase in scale
the assault on the life's blood of the German military machine. Finally, Spaatz
showed once again his flexibility and common sense by, on the one hand, reject-
ing such extreme air power proposals as terror-bombing and, on the other, send-
ing his heavy bombers into direct support of ground troops (discussed in the
next chapter), an action not contemplated by prewar bombing enthusiasts.

451

Chapter 13

Summer 1944:
Heavy Bombers in
Close Air Support
(July-August 1944)

Technically viewed, the bombing was good.'

—AAF official history on Cobra, 1951.

Though the results were not what we expected, it never
occurred to us that we could fail after the use of such mass
aircraft.^

— After-action questionnaire of US. 9th
Infantry Division on results of Cobra, 1944

In July and August 1944, the Allied strategic bombers departed from their
customary tasks of attacking vital military or political targets and engaging in
counterair and interdiction campaigns to directly assist the Allied ground forces
on the battlefield. The Allied ground forces, bogged down in the excellent
defensive terrain of Normandy, required heavy-bomber assaults in addition to
those planned for D-day. This foray into large-scale close air support presented
unique and unanticipated command, control, and technical problems to the
Eighth Air Force and Bomber Command as they sought to fulfill obligations for
which they lacked methods and training. These close air support missions were,
of course, diversions from the strategic effort. Not all Allied airmen agreed with
the necessity of heavy bombers in close air support. Tedder, for instance,
believed that Leigh-Mallory had oversold the army on the need for air support.
But Spaatz, although he might have preferred to attack targets in Germany,

453

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

assented, without coercion by Eisenhower or Tedder, to all requests to aid the
ground forces. The complex interplay between the command and control of the
bombers, the technical difficulties associated with heavy-bomber strikes close to
friendly troops, and the effects of conflicts among air leaders on the entire equa-
tion are the themes of this chapter.

Initial Attempts at Ground Support

Although the Allied air forces had cut the Luftwaffe at the front to bits, the
Allied ground forces, under the overall command of Gen. Montgomery's 21
Army Group, encountered stiff resistance. The Germans kept the Allies on their
relatively cramped beachhead. On the Allied left flank, the British 2d Army
could not take the city of Caen or break into the clear area beyond the River
Ome. On the Allied right the U.S. First Army, under Lt. Gen. Omar N. Bradley,
found itself enmeshed in the bocage, or hedgerow country. Hedgerows, earthen
dikes four feet high covered with tangled vegetation, provided perfect static
defensive positions that slowed the American advance to a crawl.3 From the air,
however, the bocage appeared insignificant.

Allied airmen found the failure of the ground forces to expand the beachhead
rapidly in the face of determined enemy resistance frustrating. On June 14, at the
Daily Air Commanders' Meeting at Stanmore, Air Marshal "Mary" Coningham
annoimced that his own information on the situation at the front did not jibe with
that supplied by the army. He described the situation as "near crisis."4 To bol-
ster morale, the airmen decided to put in an especially heavy mission near the
front line, and Air Chief Marshal Tedder, Deputy Supreme Commander of the
Allied Expeditionary Force, canceled an Eighth Air Force mission over Berlin
scheduled for the next day .5 Later on June 14, Tedder, who had attended the air
meeting, persuaded Eisenhower to fly to the front with him to get a firsthand
opinion of affairs there.

At this point the confused Allied air command situation once again became
a problem. Leigh-Mallory, Commander in Chief of the Allied Expeditionary Air
Force, commanded all air directly assigned to Eisenhower: the British 2d
Tactical Air Force and the American Ninth (Tactical) Air Force. Spaatz and
Harris, although controlled by Eisenhower, through Tedder, had the task, inde-
pendent of Eisenhower, of conducting the Combined Bomber Offensive against
Germany. Furthermore, Harris and Spaatz not only questioned Leigh-Mallory 's
competence to conduct heavy-bomber operations but denied his claims that his
position gave him operational command of all air power working with
Eisenhower. As a result, the two heavy-bomber commanders had refused to
allow their organizations to come under Leigh-Mallory 's hand. This led
Eisenhower to appoint Tedder, his preferred choice for overall air commander,
as overall coordinator between the tactical and strategic air forces. To further
confuse the situation, Leigh-MaUory, in the few days immediately before and

454

Heavy Bombers in Support

after the assault phase of the invasion, had actually been given operational con-
trol of the heavy bombers by Eisenhower in order to ensure their full integration
into the vital air operations of that phase of the invasion. As a result, he may have
assumed he would again receive such control in other times of crisis.

The next link down the chain of command had more problems. Leigh-
Mallory's AEAF Headquarters, supposedly a combined U.S.-British headquar-
ters, was really a house divided between its British and American components.
The AAF official history succinctly stated the American view of the AEAF by
calling it "possibly the least successful venture of the entire war with a combined
Anglo-American command. "6 The British component in AEAF Headquarters
outnumbered the American component two to one at the general officer's rank.
Leigh-Mallory had annoyed the Americans by taking care that for each combined
section of the headquarters the senior British officer outranked his American
counterpart.

On several occasions Spaatz had to restrain the strong-willed Deputy Com-
mander of the AEAF, Maj. Gen. Hoyt S. Vandenberg, whom he had brought in to
replace an ineffectual predecessor, from complaining too bitterly and vocifer-
ously about Leigh-Mallory and his actions, one of which involved procedures in
AEAF War/Operations Room actions.^ Leigh-Mallory disliked the combined
operation of the AEAF War/Operations Room and ruled that it be run entirely by
British personnel using British methods. On June 6, the AEAF War/Operations
Room posted no information on the progress at the American beaches until long
after 5:00 p.m. As Vandenberg recorded in his diary, "I asked for an explanation
and pointed out quite forcibly that, in my opinion, the whole proceeding from an
informational point of view was entirely inexcusable." Vandenberg pointed out
that "all three British beaches had clearly defined information as to the approxi-
mate position of the front lines, but . . . there was not a single mark on either of
the American beaches. "8 Vandenberg "stormed" from the War/Operations
Room and drove to Leigh-Mallory 's headquarters to demand remedial action.

The next day Vandenberg asked Spaatz whether he "should open up the
fight." Spaatz replied that "the time was not ripe." But Spaatz and Doolittle,
Commander of the Eighth Air Force, suggested that Vandenberg inform Leigh-
Mallory that the Eighth "was very displeased with the manner in which their
operations were being presented and that, as far as General Spaatz was con-
cerned, he felt strongly that the whole picture was so confused by the various
presentations that an accurate analysis and the proper action to take was, as a
result, impossible."^ Spaatz particularly objected to Leigh-Mallory 's Daily Air
Commanders' Meetings, not only because they confused many issues but
because they dragged on interminably and produced, in his opinion, little of
import.lO

Nor did Leigh-Mallory and his chief Commonwealth subordinate, Conin-
gham, work together well. Coningham, although less aloof and stiff than Leigh-
Mallory, had no greater knack than his superior for getting along with his fellow

455

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

RAF Operations Room. Deep underground, its walls were lined with huge maps,
charts, and blackboards.

officers. Coningham seldom took the time to conceal his contempt for anyone
who failed to appreciate his brilliance and his ideas concerning air-ground coop-
eration, n Coningham may have been the prime advocate of improved air-ground
cooperation, but his venomous view of Montgomery led him to violate a prime
tenet of his own creed — the ground commander and the air commander should
site their headquarters at the same place in order to provide the swiftest commu-
nications and maximum cooperation between the two combat forces. Claiming
that the beachhead could not yet provide the sophisticated communications net-
work he needed to control his forces, Coningham stayed at his own headquarters,
designated AEAF, HQ (Advanced), at Uxbridge in England, while Montgomery
set up headquarters on the beachhead. 12

As Commander, AEAF, HQ (Advanced), Coningham had day-to-day control
of the tactical air forces, both the British 2d Tactical Air Force and the U.S. Ninth
Air Force, and directed their efforts to assist the ground troops. Plans called for
the dissolution of AEAF, HQ (Advanced), when the beachhead expanded enough
to allow the separation of the British and American forces into different army
groups, whereupon each air force would cooperate with the army group com-
posed of its nation's ground forces. This arrangement never functioned smoothly
because Leigh-Mallory refused to accept it, because Montgomery did his best to
ignore Coningham, 13 and because the Cominander of the Ninth Air Force, Lt.
Gen. Lewis H. Brereton, asserted his independence whenever possible.

456

Heavy Bombers in Support

After the meeting on June 14, Leigh-Mallory, who still had nominal control
of targeting for the heavy bombers, on his own initiative flew to Normandy to
consuh with Montgomery. Montgomery, a less than enthusiastic host, still
resented Leigh-Mallory for refusing five days earlier to allow the 1st British
Airborne Division to conduct a drop just beyond Caen in order to surround the
city and hasten its fall. In fact, Montgomery had just denounced Leigh-Mallory
in a scathing letter to his own Chief of Staff, Maj. Gen. Francis (Freddie) de
Guingand:

The real point is that LM [Leigh-Mallory] sitting in his office cannot possibly
know the local battle form over here; and therefore he must not refuse my
demands unless he first comes over to see me; he could fly here in a Mosquito
in 'A hour, talk for an hour, and be back in England in '/z hour. Obviously he is a
gutless hugger, who refuses to take a chance and plays for safety on all occa-
sions. 1 have no use for him.'''

When Leigh-Mallory offered to employ the whole of Bomber Command,
USSTAF, and the AEAF "to blast out the Eighth [2d] Army from in front of
Caen," however, Montgomery readily agreed with his suggestion. 15 Leigh-
Mallory returned to England, promising to send part of his staff to the beachhead
the next day to firm up a plan with officers of the British 2d Army. 16

Leigh-Mallory's blithe offer of the entire strength of Allied air power brought
the frustration of Coningham and Spaatz to the fore. Early in the morning Iwth
men had heard of the proposal. Spaatz undoubtedly heard from Vandenberg,
whose American second-in-command. Brig. Gen. Frederic H. Smith, Jr., had
more or less forced his presence into Lcigh-Mallory's conference with
Montgomery. At 2:00 a.m. on June 15, Smith had roused Vandenberg to tell him
of matters afoot. They agreed that such a "use contemplated was not proper."l7
Vandenberg directed Smith to keep the number of planes involved to a minimum.

Coningham, who had left his headquarters for dinner on June 14, claimed
that he had never been informed, but Leigh-Mallory indicated in his diary that
he spoke to Coningham's deputy. Air Vice-Marshal Stephen Strafford and
explained the plan to him in detail.18 it seems unlikely that Coningham's deputy
would have neglected to inform his chief of such an important impending opera-
tion at the first opportunity. Leigh-Mallory's plan incensed Coningham because
it had cut him out of the decision-making process. As Commander of AEAF
(Advanced), the major tactical air operational headquarters, Coningham insisted
that he, not Leigh-Mallory, should negotiate with Montgomery. Spaatz, too,
objected to what he considered Leigh-Mallory's usurpation of his prerogative
concerning command of the heavy bombers.

Early on June 15 at the Daily Air Commanders' Meeting, Leigh-Mallory
discussed the possibility of air assistance to the army to break up the "stalemate"
in front of Caen. Opposition was immediate. A guest at the meeting. General

457

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Henry H. Arnold, Commanding General, AAF, had come to London to attend
meetings of the Combined Chiefs of Staff and to inspect the beachhead; he spoke
up and "expressed the hope that" this was not going to be "another Cassino,"l9
where a heavy-bomber attack had reduced its target to rubble, and ironically pro-
vided the enemey a far better defensive position.

Even as Leigh-Mallory addressed the Daily Air Commanders' Meeting,
Tedder and Eisenhower flew to the beachhead to check on the extent of the "cri-
sis" for themselves. They met Coningham, who, in Tedder's words, "happened
to be in Normandy, "20 and drove to Montgomery's headquarters. Montgomery,
however, was not there, and rather than cool their heels until he returned, they
continued on to Lt. Gen. Miles Dempsey's British 2d Army Headquarters. There
they found a joint air force-army planning session, consisting of part of Leigh-
Mallory 's AEAF staff and some of the 2d Army staff, in progress. Leigh-
Mallory had sent his ubiquitous civilian scientific adviser. Professor Solly
Zuckerman, who had concocted another of his mathematically based bombing
schemes, this time involving close support of front-line troops by heavy bombers,
and some of the AEAF military staff to draw up a bomb line with Dempsey and
the 2d Army staff.

Tedder, flanked by Coningham and Air Vice-Marshal Harry Broadhurst,
marched into this cabal and broke it up. Tedder claimed in his memoirs that he
did so because neither Spaatz nor Coningham was represented at the meeting.2l
This disingenuous explanation does not accord with the facts. Coningham was
aware of the meeting, having informed Tedder of it the night before,22 and could
have sent representatives had he wished. Nor was Coningham's presence in
Normandy a coincidence. Similarly Spaatz, although not formally represented,
not only knew of the meeting from Vandenberg, but could count on accurate
reports from the two American general officers present at the session, Brig.
Gens. Frederic H. Smith and David M. Schlatter, Ninth Air Force Deputy Chief
of Staff, Operations, who would, he knew, voice their opposition to the "misuse"
of American heavy bombers.23

Tedder stopped the meeting because Leigh-Mallory had violated military
protocol in bypassing Coningham.24 When Tedder and Eisenhower caught up
with Montgomery later in the day, they made clear to him that his counterpart in
the air chain of command was Coningham, not Leigh-Mallory. Tedder also
made it clear to Dempsey that Air Vice-Marshal Broadhurst was his opposite
number.25 "Montgomery," stated Tedder, "seemed relieved to have this confir-
mation."26 Given Montgomery's attitude toward Coningham, the extent of his
"relief is questionable. Tedder's efforts, however, did end this first attempt to
divert the heavy bombers. Leigh-Mallory, for his part, took Tedder's actions as a
personal rebuff and had to be dissuaded from resigning.27

On the evening of June 15, after his return from Normandy, Eisenhower met
with Spaatz. Apparentiy, to ease by the logjam on the ground and perhaps to

458

Heavy Bombers in Support

British 2d Army
Commander Lt Gen. Miles
Demjjsey and Air Com-
modore Archibald Boyle.

chide Spaatz gently for his adamant opposition to the use of heavy bombers in
direct close support of the ground forces, Eisenhower brought up the subject of
"the necessity for exercising fiill imagination in the employment of forces."28
Spaatz did not apply this gentle hint to himself. In his diaiy he recorded after the
meeting:

Later developments indicate that complete lack of imagination exists in the
minds of Army command, particularly Leigh-Mallory and Montgomery, who
visualize best use of tremendous air potential lies in plowing up several square
miles of terrain in front of the ground forces to obtain a few miles of advance.
Our forces now are far superior to [the] Germans opposing us, both in men and
material. The only thing necessary to move forward is sufficient guts on the
part of the ground commanders.^

Two days afterwards, Spaatz suggested to Tedder that the strategic bombers
be allowed to resume a full-scale campaign against Germany, save for a force
held back to act as a "fire brigade" for the ground forces.30 For his part, Leigh-
Mallory simply could not understand Spaatz's continuing insistence on strategic
bombing. Near the end of June he noted in his campaign diary, "The Americans
are a strange lot. They are still obsessed with the notion that to bomb Germany
in daylight is the proper course."3l

459

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Although Spaatz managed to avoid a diversion to morale bombing, he could
not ignore the demands of the ground forces for any tactical bombing that might
help them break out of the beachhead. During July and August he committed the
Eighth's heavy bombers four times in close support of ground attacks — three
times for Montgomery and one time for Bradley.

By the end of June, Allied air leaders had begun to question the progress of
the groimd forces in Normandy. Montgomery's seemed particularly slow paced.
"I am feeling," Leigh-Mallory remarked, "slightly frustrated and have the dis-
tinct feeling that the Army is becoming more and more sealed in."32 On July 1,
he noted, "The Army I can only describe as stagnant."33 Coningham also criti-
cized the army's slow progress. Portal and Tedder agreed that the problem was
Montgomery, who could neither be removed nor moved to action.34 Eisenhower's
complaints about him to Churchill resulted in a four-hour argimient between the
Prime Minister, who was no fan of Montgomery, and the Chief of the Imperial
General Staff, General Alan Brooke, a staunch supporter.35 For his part,
Montgomery maintained that he had not received vigorous enough air support.36

To Leigh-Mallory the best way to break the army free was to give it as much
air support as possible. "I have always taken the view," he stated in his usual
assertive way, "that the Army must be given all the air support it desires." Then
he described his frustrations:

What I have been up against more or less since D-Day is the school of thought
which takes the view that air support given to the Army should be the minimum
rather than the maximum, on the principle that if you give the Army an inch it
will take a mile. This school of thought urges as a principle that really heavy
Air Forces should not be employed on the battlefront, but elsewhere beyond
and outside it. I maintain, and have always, that heavy bomtiers can produce a
concentration of high explosive infinitely greater than any which can be pro-
duced by any other means."

To prove his point, Leigh-Mallory arranged for Bomber Command and the

Eighth to aid Montgomery's lunge forward on July 8. Tedder warned Leigh-
Mallory "that he was in danger of leading the Army up the garden path by his
sweeping assurances of help." Tedder was convinced that neither the army nor
Leigh-Mallory fully understood the limitations of air support on the battlefield
or the role of air power outside the battle area.38

During the night of July 7-8, Bomber Command dropped 6,000 half-ton
bombs directiy on northern Caen39 and on targets 6,000 yards beyond the British
front lines, with negUgible damage to the Germans. The raid devastated about Th
square miles, leaving practically contiguous craters, none of which measured
less than 20 feet across, that blocked all the roads to Caen save one.^o The
Eighth bombed bridges and tunnels beyond the German lines. The bombing,
according to Zuckerman, who observed and prepared a detailed report on it soon

460

Heavy Bombers in Support

after it occurted, did not result in any Allied casualties but neither did it demoral-
ize or materially affect the Germans.^i

Zuckerman concluded that a great deal of French property was unnecessarily
destroyed, and he expressed some doubt as to whether the batteries and other
strong points listed by the British 2d Army were even in the target area. He sug-
gested, in future, bombing closer to the troops or on the flanks of an attack and
more careful planning.42 Tedder, examining Zuckerman 's report a few days
later, said he had "never read a more demoralizing document" and refused to cir-
culate it .43 He probably feared that it might damage air-ground relations.

Montgomery's next attack. Operation Goodwood, seemed to offer more
toward a breaking through. Although cautious with subordinates, to whom he
spoke merely of killing Germans and improving positions, Montgomery told
Eisenhower that the operation might have "far reaching results." On July 14, he
informed Tedder that the plan "promises to be decisive."44 This prospect
delighted the airmen. Tedder, noting the agreement of the senior airmen, pro-
claimed the operation "a brilliant stroke which will knock loose our present
shackles. Every plane available will be ready for such a purpose."45 Leigh-
Mallory hoped that at long last his moment had come. After the affair of mid-
June he had

decided to sit tight for I felt quite sure that the plum would fall ripely into my
hand. Now, as the result of my talks in France yesterday and the day before, I
feel sure that it has. The policy of double-dealing, the effect of which has been
to deny the Army what it wanted in the field, has failed.'^

Leigh-Mallory and Montgomery agreed to cut out Coningham and to deal
directly with each other. Leigh-Mallory intended to move his mobile headquar-
ters caravan into Montgomery's 21 Army Group Headquarters and take charge
of the tactical air battle. He gleefully recorded, "This means 1 am going to put
Air Marshal Coningham where he ought to be, in charge of one branch of the
General Air Forces, and I am going to take command of their dispositions
myself. If he does not like the situation, he will have to clear out." As for
Tedder, if he objected, "then he or I will go. My mind is now fully made up.
Either I am to be allowed to direct, if necessary, the whole air forces available to
the full and immediate support of the Army or 1 shall resign on that issue.''^?

On July 11, Leigh-Mallory blithely went to see Portal and informed him of
his intentions to restructure the air command in Normandy. Portal appeared
"somewhat startled." He appeared "still more startled when I said that I did not
intend to inform Tedder that 1 was going to see the Supreme Commander-in-
Chief, but would tell him after I had done so." Leigh-Mallory explained that, in
his view, "Tedder had not been open with me over the role which Coningham
should play in his estimation, and that, in any case, I was perfectly entitled to go
direct to Ike."

461

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Leigh-Mallory did go to see Eisenhower and outlined his ideas on taking a
larger share in directing the battle and putting Coningham in his place. The
Supreme Commander seemed agreeable but apparently did not commit himself.
Then Leigh-Mallory bearded the lion in his den — he saw Tedder. They engaged
in "some very plain speaking." Leigh-Mallory complained that Tedder did
everything through Coningham. Tedder replied that Eisenhower had delegated
the authority to control air to him.48 If Leigh-Mallory insisted on taking control of
the tactical battle and interfering with Coningham and Brereton, Tedder threat-
ened to take away from him all voice in the employment of heavy bombers. Portal
sided with Tedder.49 The situation remained unresolved until after Operation
Goodwood.

On July 18, Bomber Command and the Eighth Air Force provided direct
support for the next British assault. At dawn Bomber Command dropped 6,000
half-ton bombs and 9,600 500-pound bombs on three target areas. At 7:00 a.m.
medium bombers of the Ninth Air Force swept over the field, but many could
not drop their bombs through the clouds of smoke and dirt left behind by
Bomber Command. Then, at 8:30 a.m., the B-24s of the Eighth's 2d Bombard-
ment Division, 570 strong, dropped almost 13,000 100-pound and 76,000 20-
pound fragmentation bombs (1,410 tons in all) on a key tactical feature,
Bourguebus Ridge. In all, 4,500 Allied aircraft beset the Germans. Once again,
bombing did not completely clear the way for the ground forces.

Bomber Command struck first in the remarkably clear morning, hitting most
of its targets squarely. Even foot months later a British Bombing Analysis Unit
reported that one area "resembled the surface of the moon." It found the rusting
remains of an entire Panzer company — fifteen tanks and twelve half-tracks — ^none
of which had been hit with shells or mortars. Only a few of the B-24s' fragmenta-
tion weapons fell on their targets; most scattered over the countryside. In the
ensuing ground assault, Allied troops encountered particularly stiff resistance in
the American target areas.^^^ Bomb bursts had cratered the terrain, hindering the
advance of some units, and had failed to knock out all of the entrenched German
tanks and antitank guns. Furthermore, the Germans, anticipating the attack, had
prepared deep defenses, many of which had not come under fire. Operation
Goodwood, like its predecessors, soon ground to a bloody halt.51

It was no fluke that the British heavy bombers were more accurate than the
American heavy bombers. As illogical as it seemed, British night tactics pro-
duced more precise bombing than American daylight tactics. The Americans
flew compact formations in which only the lead bombardier made full use of his
accurate Norden Visual Bombsight (M-9). This practice produced closely
grouped bomb patterns and many missed targets. When several groups bombed
a target, as they usually did, however, some of the bomb patterns landed directly
where they should have. Because Bomber Command could not fly formations at
night, each bombardier made all bombsight corrections.

462

Heavy Bombers in Support

Moreover, whereas the Eighth used radar only in its lead planes, almost all
British bombers carried radar and crews trained in more accurate radar bombing.
In addition, by the summer of 1944, Bomber Command was employing a "mas-
ter bomber" or airborne air controller who stayed over the target for an entire
mission and adjusted the bombing as it occurred. For the last year of the war.
Bomber Command, plane for plane, not only delivered more tonnage but deliv-
ered it more effectively .52 Of course, if the British had had to fly their lightly
armed bombers in formation, in daylight, without escort from their short-ranged
Spitfires, the analysis of bomb plots might well have tilted toward the Americans.

The failure of Montgomery's much ballyhooed attack led to a round of
recriminations among top Allied leaders. The airmen, in particular, expressed
keen disappointment. The normally unflappable Tedder began to agitate for
Montgomery's dismissal and wrote to his old friend. Lord Trenchard, the
founder of the RAF, that he and Eisenhower had been "had for suckers" by
Montgomery.53 At a high-level SHAEF staff meeting on July 21, Tedder asked
Bedell Smith when the army would get to the V-1 launch sites in the Pas-de-
Calais region of France. When Bedell Smith replied it would not be soon.
Tedder sarcastically remarked, "Then we must change our leaders for men who
will get us there."54 Leigh-Mallory felt "bitterly disappointed, for it does not
seem to me that the breakthrough which we produced has been exploited and
pressed to a conclusion."55 Eisenhower fumed as well. He acidly noted that the
air forces had dropped a thousand tons of bombs for each mile of Montgomery's
advance and wondered whether the Allies could afford to move through aU of
France at such a cost.56

Operation Cobra

The Eighth's next and last ground support mission in July proved to be both
its most effective and its most controversial, because some of its bombs dropped
short of the intended target area, landed among American troops, killed over one
hundred of them and wounded hundreds more. This mission, flown in support of
Lt. Gen. Omar N. Bradley's Operation Cobra, greatly assisted the ground forces
in their attack, which eventually penetrated the German main line of resistance
and produced the opportunity for the long-awaited Allied breakout from the
Normandy beachhead.

The plan for Cobra came almost solely from Bradley, who first expounded
it, and his chief subordinate, who would execute it, Maj. Gen. J. Lawton
"Lightning Joe" Collins, at that time Commander of the U.S. VII Army Corps.
Bradley had decided on the plan's outline by July 10,57 and he presented it to his
staff and to his corps commanders on July 12. Cobra differed from the usual
pattern of American offensives. First, once the U.S. First Army reached the part
of the road between St. L6 and Periers, where the offensive was to start, Collins

463

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

would use his combat-experienced reserve of two U.S. armored divisions, the 2d
and 3d — both organized according to an early wartime table of organization and
equipment which gave them greater numbers of tanks than the typical U.S.
armored division — and the fully motorized 1st Infantry Division to launch a nar-
row and concentrated attack on the German front line. As Russell F. Weigley, in
his study of the campaign in France and Germany, has made clear, their concen-
tration on a narrow front departed from the wide-front operations usually con-
ducted by U.S. ground forces.58 Bradley meant to conduct a battle to pierce
enemy lines rather than to continue the attritional struggles of the earlier phases
of the campaign. Ultra intercepts helped to fuel Bradley's determination. The
two enemy units opposite him, // Parachute Corps and LXXXN Corps, reported
heavy losses before July 10 and continuing heavy losses during the next two
weeks. The senior German officers on the scene expected a breakthrough at any
moment.59

Second, Bradley insisted that a heavy aerial bombardment immediately pre-
cede the beginning of Cobra. From its inception, Bradley intended that the air
bombardment include the use of heavy bombers. As Bradley described it,
"Realizing the great power we had in our Air Force, I wanted to secure some-
place where we could use a great mass of power to virtually wipe out some
German division opposing part of our line and then punch a hole through."

Bradley chose the straight stretch of road running from St. L6 through
Periers to Lossay, having determined^O that it could support the large force he
intended to deploy. The air bombardment, in Bradley's mind, offset the lack of
artillery firepower available. He told his chief of artillery, Brig. Gen. Charles E.
Hart, that if he had had ten times the number of guns, he might have dispensed
with air support.6i Lack of artillery ammtmition, at least as much as lack of
artillery pieces, prevented an extensive gunfire bombardment. The Allied supply
situation, restricted to what could come in over the original landing beaches, did
not allow for a surfeit of shells. Bradley also wanted the "blast effect" of the
bombs, which, with their thin metal casings, greatly exceeded the blast effect of
artillery shells of similar weight.62

Because Bradley himself had originated the idea of employing heavy
bombers, he had several preconceived notions about how they should be used. He
required that the air bombardment fall into a rectangular area approximately 4
miles long and I'A miles deep, 7,000 yards by 2,500 yards.63 The area covered
the entire front of his initial attack. He also required that only 100-pound frag-
mentation bombs be dropped^^ to prevent excessive cratering that would hamper
the advance of the infantry and, more important, the mechanized forces. He
plaimed to withdraw his troops 800 yards from the front line.65 A withdrawal of
only 800 yards cut the safety margin exceedingly fine, but Bradley wished to
avoid placing his troops too far away to follow up the attack without delay and
letting the Germans reoccupy the conceded space, which would, in turn, force
his men to fight through an enlarged defensive position. Bradley also wanted the

464

Heavy Bombers in Support

air bombardment conducted rapidly; if it stretched out over several hours, it
would lose its shock effect.

Bradley recognized that the airmen would prefer to approach the target box
at a right angle to the front, flying from north to south, first crossing over the
American lines and then dropping their bombs on the Germans to minimize
exposure to antiaircraft fire. Bradley, however, wished the bombers to fly paral-
lel to the front (along German lines) rather than perpendicular to it, in order to
provide a greater security margin for his troops. The bombers could attack from
east to west, during the morning, putting the sun in the eyes of the antiaircraft
gunners, or reverse the course of attack in the aftemoon.66

Bradley had picked the St. L6-P6riers road as the battle's start line because
it was straight, paralleled the front immediately behind or on the German front
line, and would serve as a clear and unmistakable aiming point for the air forces.
The entire target box fell just to the south of the road.67 As Bradley stated in his
1951 memoirs, "Indeed it was the thought of saturation bombing that attracted
me to the Periers road. Easily recognizable from the air, the road described a
long straight line that would separate our position from that of the Germans. The
bombers, I reasoned, could fly parallel to it without danger of mistaking our
front" [emphasis added] .68

Given the key role allotted to air power in the attack, it is puzzling why
Bradley waited until July 19 to fully inform the Allied air commanders of his
scheme and their place in it. He merely said that he did not approach them until
he had finished his plans and obtained Montgomery's approval on July 18.^9 On
July 19, Bradley, flew from his headquarters in Normandy with his tactical air
commander, Maj. Gen. Elwood R. (Pete) Quesada, Commander of the IX
Tactical Air Command, to Leigh-Mallory's headquarters at Stanmore. There
they found arrayed the full panoply of Allied air leadership — Tedder, Leigh-
Mallory, and Spaatz — accompanied by Vandenberg, Brereton, Doolittle,
Coningham, and lesser lights.70 In his memoirs Bradley glossed over the differ-
ences between himself and the air chiefs. He baldly stated:

Air's enthusiasm for Cobra almost exceeded that of our troops on the ground,
for air welcomed the St. L6 carpet attack as an unrivaled opportunity to test the
feasibility of saturation bombing. Leigh-Mallory proposed a heavier concentra-
tion of bombers than the Allies had ever before put into the air."

Bradley left the meeting with a commitment for 1 ,500 heavy bombers, almost
900 medium bombers, and 350 fighter bombers.'Z

Bradley's description masked the serious differences he had had with the
other airmen in attendance, who had initially insisted on a safety zone of 3,000
yards to separate his troops from the bombing. They agreed to reduce the safety
zone to 1,500 yards, which still did not satisfy him. In the end he agreed to with-
draw the troops only 1,200 yards. The heavy bombers, however, would not
strike the front edge of the target box and would thereby add 250 yards to their

465

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Maj. Gen. Elwood R.
"Pete" Quesada, Com-
manding General, IX
Tactical Air Command.

safety zone. Fighter-bombers would cover those 250 yards with their own more
accurate and easily deliverable ordnance.'^s Leigh-Mallory even attempted to
gain the participation of Bomber Command, but Bradley and Vandenberg both
vetoed his idea. Bomber Command was equipped to drop only large bombs whose
craters might retard the advance.^4

At the meeting, Quesada and Bradley insisted that the bombers fly parallel
to the front,''5 When some of the airmen present agreed with them, they appar-
ently assumed that all of the airmen present agreed with them. In this they were
mistaken. They had unknowingly run afoul of the air conmiand system, which at
that moment was suffering from tangled lines of authority and was riven with
even greater personal animosity than usual.

On the American side of the house several principals were involved in a
game of musical chairs. Two days before the July 19 meeting Eisenhower and
Spaatz had accepted Marshall's recommendation that Brereton vacate his post as
Commander of the Ninth Air Force to assume command of Combined Airborne
Headquarters, which consisted of all British and American airborne divisions in
the theater (a force of three divisions), plus separate troops, the IX Troop Carrier
Command, and RAF transport and troop carrier formations. This conglomera-
tion became the First Allied Airborne Army in August 1944.76

Meanwhile, Vandenberg, whom Spaatz and Eisenhower had originally
wanted for the airbome command but whom Marshall refused to promote,77

466

Heavy Bombers in Support

would move over to command the Ninth. The Ninth's Deputy Commander, Maj.
Gen. Ralph Royce (another member of Spaatz's West Point Class of 1914),
would take over Vandenberg's old post as Deputy Commander in Chief, AEAF.
Although the principals had learned of these moves, the War Department and
Marshall had not yet approved them. This left most of the American tactical air
high command in a state of flux. If his diary is a reliable guide, Vandenberg
spent a considerable amount of time during this period stewing over the "Royce-
Brereton-Vandenberg triangle."78 Quesada apparently continued, blissfully
unaware of his superior's command changes until later.

Brereton may well have been "kicked upstairs" — at least, Bradley thought
S0.79 He said of Brereton, "Ike knew Brereton was not pulling his weight. I had
told Ike he was hard to do business with. Brereton never seemed interested in
the job, would never throw himself into it."80 Brereton had committed two of
the worst sins possible for an air commander with a ground support mission. He
had not established a good working relationship with nor set up his headquarters
directly alongside his counterpart in the ground forces. Apparendy, after he set
up his own plush headquarters in Normandy, he hardly ever went to see Bradley
in the field, only a mile away.81 Unlike Coningham, who also had a less-than-
exemplary relationship with his counterpart in the ground forces, Brereton had
neither the patina of past success nor the support of his superiors in the air chain
of command. His aspirations for independence and his support of the transporta-
tion plan had probably irritated Spaatz. In the somewhat feudal and definitely
hierarchical nature of the military establishment there was no indication that
Brereton was a "Spaatz man." Conversely, Vandenberg had formed strong ties
to the Amold-Spaatz section of the Army Air Forces.

As the American generals sorted out their new positions, the British air mar-
shals engaged in a brouhaha of their own, revolving around their respective views
of Montgomery. Coningham was still hostile toward him, Tedder, as discussed
earlier, had taken up the warpath against him for his supposed lack of vigor and
success and had continued the campaign for his relief. Leigh-Mallory, marching
to his own drum, had alienated Portal, Tedder, and SHAEF Headquarters staff by
literally moving in with Montgomery. In his Command Diary, on July 19,
Tedder noted:

Montgomery will not deal with Coningham, but only with L-M [Leigh-
Mallory]. This entails Broadhurst, Coningham's subordinate, dealing direct
with L-M. . . . L-M has even moved his own personal caravan . . . with Monty.
L-M seems to be cashing in on the discomfiture of his own subordinate.*^

This finished Leigh-Mallory as far as Tedder was concerned.

In his postwar memoirs Tedder proceeded directly from the end of Good-
wood to the air command situation. Goodwood's failure allowed him to squelch
Leigh-Mallory 's ambition to take a more active role.

467

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Field Marshal Bernard
L. Montgomery, General
Officer Commanding, 21
Army Group, Northwest
Europe, 1944-1945.

My immediate problem was to place on a more solid footing the arrangements
for control of our Air Forces. Leigh-Malloiy, though earnest, zealous, and brave,
did not inspire confidence as Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Air
Forces. It seemed to me that he was insufficiently firm in explaining to the Army
authorities the limitations of air-power in direct support of the ground battle.*'

Montgomery meanwhile had developed a greater appreciation for Leigh-
Mallory's qualities. He wrote to a friend at the War Office in London, "We must
definitely keep Leigh-Mallory as Air Commander-in-Chief. He is the only air-
man who is out to help us with the land battle and has no jealous reactions."84ln
the eyes of most of the top Allied airmen, Montgomery's support could only
have been the kiss of death.

At this point Tedder decided to eliminate or greatly reduce Headquarters,
AEAF. He had already removed Crossbow from AEAF's purview and had
informed Leigh-Mallory that if he, Leigh-Mallory, wished to move forward to
direct the tactical battle at the expense of Coningham, then he, Tedder, would
resume total direction of the strategic air forces. "I could not help feeling,"
wrote Tedder in 1966, "that Leigh-Mallory's large assurances to Montgomery
encouraged the unhealthy tendency of the Army to rely on air-power for support
of a kind which it could not confer. "85

Bradley, and probably Quesada, could have had little idea of the quagmire
into which they had stepped. Leigh-Mallory's enthusiastic support for Cobra at

468

Heavy Bombers in Support

the meeting of July 19 must have left the impression that he would ensure the
adherence of the other airmen. After all, when Bradley gave an order to his sub-
ordinates or agreed to an operation on their behalf, he very naturally assumed
that they would follow his lead once a decision was made, even if they had pre-
viously expressed disagreement. Bradley had, of course, heard the protests of
Vandenberg and Brig. Gen. Orvil A. Anderson, Doolittle's operations officer,
that the big bombers could not fly parallel to the front, but he had also heard
Leigh-Mallory dismiss these objections. 86 With good reason, then, Bradley
assumed that the airmen had accepted his strictures and he returned to the
Continent jubilant at the extent of the air commitment. He and the Air Chiefs had
set the date for Cobra for the morning of July 21, less than thirty-six hours
away.87

The Air Chiefs had also completed the air command arrangements for
Cobra, a bizarre mishmash that excluded USSTAF and the Eighth Air Force
from most command decisions and left the heavy bombers subject to the orders
of men who understood little of the technical difficulties involved in their opera-
tion. Tedder, who had approved the mission in the first place, would provide
top-level supervision; Leigh-Mallory would set the time and date of the opera-
tion; Brereton would plan the bomber attack; and Quesada would coordinate the
air attack with the ground forces.88

Inclement weather forced the postponement of Cobra from July 21 to July
24. This postponement gave the Eighth the chance to send a 1,100-bomber raid
against German aircraft production plants on July 21 and a 280-bomber attack
on French airfields on July 23. On the evening of July 23, AEAF's meteorolo-
gists predicted that the weather on the next day would be suitable for Cobra.
USSTAF' s weathermen had a different forecast. They predicted heavy to mod-
erate clouds for July 24 and better conditions for July 25 in the St. L6 area. They
foresaw good bombing weather over Berlin and central Germany on July 24.

At 9:30 P.M. on July 23, Spaatz's Deputy for Operations, Maj. Gen. Frederick
L. Anderson, called Leigh-Mallory for an immediate decision as to the target
because the Eighth needed to know which bombs to load, 500-pound general-
purpose bombs and incendiaries for Berlin or fragmentation bombs for St. L6.
Leigh-Mallory, relying on his own forecasts, set the starting time for Cobra's
air bombardment at 10:00 a.m. On the morning of July 24, AEAF's meteorolo-
gists revised their estimates and called for slowly breaking clouds from 11:00
A.M. to 1:00 P.M. Therefore, at 6:30 a.m. Leigh-Mallory delayed the attack for
two hours, rescheduling it for 12 noon. 89 Despite the unease of their own Eighth
Air Force weathermen, 1,586 B-17s and B-24s left their bases to participate in
Cobra. Leigh-Mallory flew to Bradley's headquarters. Vandenberg and Smith
flew forward as well. They saw little; except for a brief period when the clouds
thinned somewhat, the skies stayed heavily overcast with a ceiling of only 5,000
feet. Leigh-Mallory had no choice but to call off the mission and reschedule it
for the next day.

469

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Unfortunately, the timing of this decision — ^he waited until the last moment
to cancel — revealed Leigh-Mallory's unfamiliarity with the handling of heavy
bombers and reflected unfavorably on his ability to command such formations.
The cancellation caused tragedy and confusion. Incredibly, the ground forces had
no direct communications link to the bombers in the air. Quesada passed Leigh-
Mallory's halt order back to Stanmore by radio- telephone, where its receipt pro-
duced immediate consternation in the Daily Air Commanders' Meeting, which
had convened, as usual, at 11:00 a.m. Tedder, Spaatz, Harris, Doolittle, and
Eaker (who had come up from the Mediterranean for his and Spaatz's end-of-
the-month meeting) were nonplussed. Doolittle said that the bombers were only
seven minutes from their targets and could not be recalled now. He assumed that
the planes would return fully loaded if they could not bomb visually. Spaatz
wanted to know who had set the attack for noon, when the Eighth's weathermen
had predicted solid overcast at that time, with a chance of some clearing only at
2:00 P.M. Bradley, he said, had indicated that he could wait until 3:00 p.m. for the
bombing to start. "Why," asked Spaatz, "had the earlier time been selected?"90
No one present could answer him.

Over St. L6 the first of the Eighth's three bombardment divisions made no
attack because of poor visibility. In the second bombardment division to pass,
one group (35 bombers), after making three runs to identify its target, released
its bombs. The third bombardment division to arrive over the target box found
weather conditions slightly improved, and 317 bombers loosed their loads, 550
tons of high explosives and 135 tons of fragmentation bombs, before finally
receiving the recall order.^l All the heavy bombers had approached and bombed
at a right angle, or perpendicular, to the front line. Some had dropped short,
directly onto their own troops. They killed 25 men and wounded 131 more of
the 30th Division.

The performance enraged Bradley. Thanks to the confusion caused by
bombing after the cancellation of the air phase of Cobra and some indecision as
to whether the ground phase was also postponed, his troops had to fight hand-to-
hand to regain the start line.92 The German LXXXIV Corps defending St. L6
optimistically (and prematurely) reported that it had shot the American offensive
into the ground with a great expenditure of artillery ammunition. 93

Bradley could scarcely believe that the bombers had not struck parallel to
the front. At his command post he found Leigh-Mallory equally upset. "But
what worries me more than anything else," Bradley told Leigh-Mallory, "is the
fact that those heavies came in over our heads instead of parallel to the Periers
road. I left Stanmore with a clear understanding that they would fly parallel to
the road. "94 Vandenberg and Brig. Gen. Frederic H. Smith, his deputy, attempted
to explain to Bradley, Leigh-Mallory, and Quesada why the mission could not
be carried out as planned — to little effect. Bradley did not even mention them in
his memoirs, but Vandenberg noted sourly in his diary, "General Bradley gave
the appearance of having very little idea as to the cloud conditions required for

470

Heavy Bombers in Support

heavy bombardment, a situation we attempted to remedy. "95 Before leaving
Bradley's headquarters, Leigh-Mallory promised to check on the bombers'
direction of attack.

Leaving an incensed Bradley behind, Vandenberg flew back to England
where he found a message to call an irate Spaatz. Spaatz demanded to know
why the mission had not been set up for Tuesday, July 25, "when his weather
people had given a much brighter forecast for that day than they had for Mon-
day."96 Vandenberg replied that his forecasters had predicted no better weather
for Tuesday than for Monday, and besides, he himself had observed that, as the
Eighth's meteorologists had predicted, the weather had not broken that after-
noon. Spaatz responded that if the Cobra mission was on for Tuesday and if
there was any difference of opinion between the two groups of meteorologists,
he should be informed at once. By 9:00 p.m. that evening Vandenberg informed
Spaatz that all of the meteorologists had agreed on 10:00 a.m. for the next day's
mission over St. L6.97 What irked Spaatz was not the bombing short, but the
waste of effort for 1,600 of his bombers. The late decision to cancel had cost
him a day of visual bombing conditions over Berlin and central Germany .98

Vandenberg's busy evening continued. He talked to Eighth Air Force
Headquarters and, after some argument, informed it of Leigh-Mallory's desire
for bombing parallel to the road. Eighth Air Force Headquarters replied that as
long as Bradley required that the bombers attack in as little time as possible,
they could not fly parallel. Funneling more than 1,500 bombers through the
short side of the target box would take Xh hours, if it could be done at all. Soon
afterward, Maj. Gen. Frederick L. Anderson of USSTAF called Vandenberg.
He, too, emphasized that "the time factor" controlled their direction of attack.
He suggested that Bradley might want to extend the time allowed. Before
Vandenberg could pass this message on to Leigh-Mallory, Leigh-Mallory
informed him that he had just spoken to Bradley and that Bradley could not
accept a lengthier attack and, therefore, "had decided to accept the additional
risk of perpendicular to the road bombing."99

Bradley had accepted the alternative with extreme reluctance. Later he
expressed his feelings about having been coerced:

I was shocked and angered by air's reply, for to me it represented a serious
breach of good faith planning. . . . Had I known of air's intent to chance the
perpendicular approach, I would never have consented to its plan.

What clinched the decision for Bradley was Leigh-Mallory's latest weather fore-
cast, which noted that a low-pressure area would move into the St. L6 area in the
afternoon of July 25, carrying with it several days of bad weather. In addition, at
an earlier command conference he and his subordinates had decided to wait only
one or two more days for air support. Bradley would have pulled his troops far-
ther back had he known in advance of the bombers' approach route. 100

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

The status of the enemy troops facing his attack added to Bradley's anxiety.
Signal intelligence decrypts from July 14 and 21 revealed that the German
LXXXIV Corps and // Parachute Corps had reported serious disorganization as a
result of earlier American attacks and were unsure that they could continue a
successful defense. Further messages on July 22, 24, and 25 detailed the steadily
depreciating combat value of // Parachute Corps. '"l An extraordinary opportu-
nity beckoned if only Bradley's forces could go forward, and the blow could not
be long delayed. A more ominous signal, which indicated that the Germans
might have begun to realize their vulnerability to Bradley's forces in this section
of the beachhead, dated late July 22, decrypted 8:18 a.m. July 23, from the
German Seventh Army Luftwaffe liaison, urgently requested reconnaissance of
powerful new U.S. forces with tanks (Patton's Third Army) opposite the 17th SS
Panzer Grenadier DivisionA^^ (See Map 14, Operation Cobra Area, Night of
July 24-25, 1944.)

On the morning of July 25, at about 10:00 a.m.. Eighth Air Force mission
no. 494 began its bomb drop. In an effort equaling the previous day's, the Eighth
dispatched 1,581 B-17s and B-24s. Unlike the day before, 1,503 of the heavies
released their high-explosive cargo and sent it hurtling toward the front line.
Over 3,300 tons of explosives plus 870 tons dropped by the medium bombers
and fighter-bombers crashed into the greatly understrength German Panzer Lehr
Division, killing 1,000 of its men, destroying three of its battalion command
posts, knocking out all but a dozen of its armored fighting vehicles, and wiping
out an attached parachute regiment. ^03 Lt. Gen. Fritz Bayerlein, the division's
commander, described the Normandy scene in a postwar interrogation. "It was
hell. . . . The planes kept coming overhead like a conveyor belt, and the bomb
carpets came down. . . . My front lines looked like a landscape on the moon, and
at least seventy percent of my personnel were out of action — dead, wounded,
crazed or numb. "'04 At 10:00 a.m. Bayerlein reported to his superiors that the
air bombardment heralded an American breakthrough attempt. He urgently
requested the Luftwaffe's assistance. 105

Despite this punishing blow and the artillery barrage that followed it, the
well-disciplined and -trained German survivors, in a last-gasp effort, managed to
prevent the American breakthrough for one more day. By the night of July 25,
the American assault had advanced only a mile south of the Periers road, still
within the target box. The general gloom and disappointment that surrounded
the first day's action did not affect General Collins. He sensed that the attack
had broken through the German lines. Signal intelligence on the Germans'
weakened state even before the offensive, which Bradley undoubtedly shared
with Collins, and the early morning decryption of Bayerlein's plea for help must
have confirmed his feelings. Ultra also intercepted a message dated before
dawn on July 26 in which LXXXIV Corps reported a shortage of 88mm antitank
ammunition, heavy casualties, and a deteriorating situation. 106 On the evening
of July 25, Collins summoned his armor to the front with orders to push through

472

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

the last German defenders and exploit the breakthrough. '07 The German forces
in Normandy, bled white by seven weeks of attrition, their attention focused on
the Caen sector by Montgomery's repeated attacks, and their mobility curtailed
by Allied control of the air, did not react quickly or forcefully enough to
Bradley's offensive. On July 26, CoUins's troops burst through the thin screen of
Germans opposing them, and, thanks to the ingeniously simple idea of welding
iron shears to the front of each tank, which gave them a tactical advantage over
the road-bound Germans, the Americans plowed through the hedgerows into the
clear terrain beyond. The race through France to the German border had begun.

On the afternoon of July 25, however, the long-awaited breakthrough seemed
as far away as ever. In addition to the surprisingly stout German defense, more
short bombings had shaken the advancing troops. Although in retrospect it was
evident that the air bombardment had accomplished its goal of wrecking the
German defenses, Americans on the spot were naturally more inclined to dwell
on their own losses. Once again, the 30th Infantry Division bore the brunt of
friendly fire. A unit of the 9th Infantry Division also suffered heavily. Short
bombs killed 111 Americans, including Lt. Gen. Leslie J. McNair, the highest-
ranking Allied officer to die in the campaign, and wounded 490 more.io^
Ironically, McNair, in his previous assignment as head of the Army Ground
Forces, had been one of the harshest critics of the AAF's lack of training in
close air support. Other GIs suffered from combat fatigue or, to use the more
vivid World War I term, shell shock. As a direct result of the July 25 bombings,
the 30th Infantry Division reported 164 cases of combat exhaustion. 109
Eisenhower, who had come to Bradley's headquarters to observe the first day of
the offensive, was more dismayed by the short bombing than Bradley and said
of the heavy bombers' performance, "I don't believe they can be used in support
of ground forces. That's a job for artillery. I gave them a green light this time.
But I promise you it's the last."' 10

Bombs from between thirty-five and sixty heavy bombers and forty-two
medium bombers fell within American lines.m all as a result of human error. 112
The bombers were working under what were for them unusual conditions. They
had planned to bomb at 15,000 to 16,000 feet, but cloud cover over St. L6
forced them to recompute their sights while airborne and to bomb at 12,000 feet.
In descending to the lower altitude, formations loosened up, as nervous pilots
sought air space in congested areas over the target. Elongated bomb patterns
resulted as the groups followed standard procedure and released their bombs
when the lead plane dropped its bombs. On the ground, a prevailing wind from
the south quickly dissipated the smoke from the marking shells fired by
American artillery. This smoke soon mixed with the clouds from the attack and
drifted back toward the American lines, masking any aiming points. 113 The all-
important St. L6-Periers road, visible on the map, like much else in Normandy,
proved less prominent from the air. Years later Quesada berated himself:

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Heavy Bombers in Support

The shattered aftermath of Operation Cobra near St. Ld, France, July 26, 1944.

Now, everybody made a mistake, including Pete Quesada, in thinking that the
St. L6 road was a good and visible demarcation point that anybody could see,
and it turned out not to be so. The St. L6 road was . . . rather obscure . . . and I
have always condemned myself . . . [for] not having flown over this road
myself and looked at it.'"

In fact, many bombardiers, well aware of the first day's tragedy, took great
pains not to bomb short on the second day. One-half of the 1st Bombardment
Division, approximately 150 to 200 bombers, delivered their loads beyond the
target. Unfortunately, 2 to 4 percent of the bombers dropped short. One bom-
bardier had trouble with his bombsight and recomputed visually, with poor
results; another failed t& identify vital landmarks properly; and a command pilot
failed to observe the order to drop by bomb group, ordering "bombs away"
when his wing leader, several hundred yards ahead of the pilot's formation,
dropped his bombs. 1 15

The next day Spaatz talked to Doolittle, Eisenhower, and Bradley. In sum-
marizing the operation, Spaatz made four main points:

1 . Short bombing, like short rounds from supporting artillery fire, was an
unavoidable fact of life.

2. The mass of bombs dropped on St. L6 had so demoralized the enemy
that the demoralized U.S. troops had still succeeded in achieving a break-
through.

475

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

3. Because of their striking power and potential for tremendous damage,
masses of heavy bombers should not be routed over friendly troops.

4. All our bombing experience shows that lateral error is greater than range
error. To achieve the foregoing, the Air Commander himself must determine
what weight of effort can be placed in any area selected by the Army Com-
mander and must have the power to decide whether or not an area can be
attacked at all.iie

Spaatz 's problem with lateral dispersion, also known as drift, raised an issue
seldom discussed in other analyses of Cobra. That was perhaps for two reasons:
(1) either the strategic airmen had become so accustomed to analyzing bomb
plots that they regarded it as a given and subconsciously assumed that everyone
imderstood, or (2) the airmen believed it to be so technical that they could not
possibly explain it to an outsider. In a perpendicular approach, if a plane
released bombs at the proper time, its forward momentum would be imparted to
its bombs and would carry them beyond friendly lines, even if they veered off a
straight course. A parallel approach did not have that advantage. Even if a heavy
bomber released its bombs at the correct time, side-to-side error, which was
much harder to calculate and compensate for than forward momentum, would
almost certainly carry bombs into friendly forces.

Furthermore, if bombers on a parallel approach entered the target zone at an
angle different from the briefed approach, any under- or over-shooting of the tar-
get could again put strings of bombs into friendly troops. In any attempt to send
1,500 bombers through a two-and-one-half -mile- wide parallel approach, conges-
tion would invariably put many groups on the wrong approach angle. A parallel
approach for Cobra would force the bombers to form a column two groups
wide, extending all the way back to Holland, and take several hours to fuimel
over the target. Although lateral dispersion caused no attributable casualties, the
AAF official history does note that for Cobra "spillage to the east and west of
their targets" occurred for several of the formations, all of which flew from
north to south,

The Eighth's standard operating procedure added to the possibility of lateral

dispersion. Although, by this stage in the war, most heavy bombers carried the
improved Norden bombsight (M-9), capable of very high accuracy in well-
trained hands, only the lead bombardier in each formation, usually the group or
wing in 1944, used his bombsight to correct both for drift (side-to-side accuracy)
and for range or rate (front-to-back accuracy). The remaining bombardiers in the
formation corrected for range only and released their bombs when they saw the
lead plane release its bombs. Most of the bombardiers in a formation did not cor-
rect for drift.

This procedure was obviously not ideal for maximimi bombing efficiency
but had been adopted for safety's sake. By 1944 the bombardier was actually
able to take over control of his aircraft from the pilot when he adjusted his sight

476

Heavy Bombers in Support

and allowed the bombsight, through its electrical connection with the automatic
pilot, to adjust course. In a formation, kept tight to maximize each aircraft's
defensive power and the compactness of its bomb patterns, the danger of midair
collision would have greatly increased had each bombadier maneuvered inde-
pendently to correct his aim. Hence, only the formation's lead bombardier made
the necessary corrections; the others conformed to his movements. 1 18 It was
hardly likely that the Eighth could or would change this practice for a single
mission with only a few days' notice.

If timing and lateral dispersion problems necessitated a perpendicular
approach, why, then, did Spaatz recommend parallel bombing for future support
missions requiring heavy-bomber participation? He did so to avoid psychologi-
cal damage to the assault troops. The day after the Cobra bombardment, Spaatz
recorded in his Command Diary,

If by any chance a gross error in the leading formations causes bombs to fall
among our troops, the psychological effect of succeeding waves of bombing
becomes terrific since, if one of our formations errs, in the minds of the soldiers
on the ground the same error may be made by others, and their worry and anxi-
ety builds up to tremendous proportion.'"

Lt. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz alighting from his B-17 at an Eighth Air Force B-24 base to
confer with his air crews. He visited immediately before and after combat opera-
tions whenever possible.

477

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Parallel bombing would reduce the number of planes passing over the troops.

Spaatz also recommended selecting more aiming points to reduce the con-
centration of planes and potential errors at a single point — a 1 ,500-yard safety
margin simply did not suffice. Finally, Spaatz conceded to the ground comman-
der, Bradley, the right to suggest the target area, but he reserved to the air com-
mander the right to determine the weight of effort placed on any specific point
and "the power to decide whether or not an area can be attacked at all."i20As
Spaatz well knew, he and Doolittle had had too little voice in determining either
the time of the attack or its feasibility under prevailing weather conditions.

Although Spaatz had defended the work of the Eighth to Eisenhower and
Bradley, the performance of the 2d Bombardment Division, made up entirely of
B-24s, apparently had not pleased him. In contrast to American ground force
leaders like Bradley, Patton, and even Eisenhower, who openly relieved several
division commanders and lesser officers promptly, if not too promptly, for inad-
equate performance, Spaatz did not deal harshly with his subordinate comman-
ders. If they failed the test of combat, he quietly sent them to other posts. This
seems to have been the fate of the commanding general of the 2d Bombardment
Division, Maj. Gen. James P. Hodges.

In mid-August the Eighth reorganized. It reduced VIII Fighter Command to
a paper organization and assigned its fighter groups duBctly to the three bom-
bardment divisions, which became air divisions. This reorganization enabled the
same bomber and fighter formations to operate together for extended periods
and thus ensured close cooperation between them, with the goal of reducing the
number of occasions on which either type of aircraft would miss an all-impor-
tant air rendezvous. Bombers without constant escort still proved easy marks for
the Luftwaffe.

As part of the reorganization, Maj. Gen. William E. Kepner, who had a rep-
utation as a troubleshooter, took over Hodges 's bombardment division. Within
twenty days of Cobra, Hodges foimd himself in Washington as Assistant Chief
of the Air Staff, Intelligence, Headquarters, AAF. He never held another combat
command and retired in 1951 still a major general. This reassignment had been
in the works before Cobra. On the day of the bombing, Hodges attended a lun-
cheon given by Spaatz's Chief of Intelligence, Brig. Gen. George C. McDonald,
where he met the top British intelligence officers and was processed into the
"real Blackmarket Intelligence business."12l Hodges's new post was, appar-
ently, not highly regarded. His predecessor as Assistant Chief of the Air Staff,
Intelligence, Brig. Gen. Thomas D. White, upon leaving the assignment, pun-
gently commented to McDonald, "I never have had an unhappier job tho' few
people know it; A-2 will forever suck the hind tit [sic] in the AAF."122

From January 1944 through July 1944, the 2d Bombardment Division's
bombing accuracy had fallen far behind that of the 1st Division's and, for five of
those seven months, behind the 3d Division's as well.l23 in the Eighth, the B-24
was considered inferior to the B- 17, mostly because of its lower effective com-

478

Heavy Bombers in Support

bat air ceiling and poor center of gravity, caused by many modifications, which
made it more prone to flak losses and more difficult for pilots to operate.
However, it had performed well for the Fifteenth Air Force. 124 The aircraft's
capabilities did not account for the poor achievements of Hodges's units.

The 2d Division did badly during Cobra, leading the mission on both July
24 and 25. Its lead bombers had the easiest time because the smoke of previous
groups did not obscure their aiming points and targets and because enemy flak
had not had time to find its range and adjust for atmospheric conditions. On July
25, thirteen of the 2d's forty-five squadrons bombing dropped short of the target
area; two of those dropped 2,800 to 3,000 yards short, among the American
troops. In the 3d Division, which followed, six out of thirty-six squadrons
bombed short, with one of those — ^the 100th Bomb Group — dropping bombs
into the American lines.

In the 1st Division, only one squadron bombed short of the target area, by a
mere 100 yards, and five groups withheld their cargoes and hit alternate targets
because they could not identify their aiming points. One-half of the 1st Division
bombed beyond flie target area; obviously, its bombardiers had taken to heart the
briefings concerning the proximity of U.S. troops to the target box. 1^5

After Hodges left the 2d Division, its bombing accuracy improved to equal
or surpass that of the other divisions. In January, February, and March 1945, it
significantly outdistanced them.i26

As the breakthrough progressed and the troops and commanders had a
chance to assess the damage inflicted on the Germans, emotions cooled. By July
28, Bradley wrote to Eisenhower: "This operation could not have been the suc-
cess it has been without such close cooperation of the Air. In the first place the
bombardment we gave them last Tuesday was apparently highly successful,
even though we did suffer many casualties ourselves."l27

Later Missions in Support of Ground Operations

Montgomery requested another heavy-bomber mission for early August to
assist an offensive by his newly established 1st Canadian Army. On August 5,
Spaatz and Vandenbergl28 met with other air leaders, including Tedder and
Leigh-Mallory and, 129 after a five-hour session, they agreed to supply the
American and British heavy bombers.

At 10:00 P.M. on August 7, Leigh-Mallory once again tried to make last-
minute changes in operational plans. He called Spaatz and informed him that the
AAF's bombing effort over two of the aiming points needed augmentation
because he had already requested Harris and Bomber Command to give addi-
tional support for those two areas. Spaatz, apparently incensed at another exam-
ple of Leigh-Mallory 's penchant for interference and inability to let well enough
alone, immediately called Tedder and gained his agreement that if the attack

479

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

needed more weight, the Americans themselves would supply it. Spaatz was
seeking to avoid the confusion that was very likely to result if the two Allied
bomber forces attacked the same pinpoint targets. Then Spaatz called Leigh-
Mallory back and obtained his agreement to place more American bombers over
the aiming points in question. The next day the Eighth dispatched 678
bombers to follow up the initial bombardment of 637 RAF aircraft.i3i The 2d
Bombardment Division did not participate in this attack.

This combined attack incorporated several lessons learned from the St. L6
and earlier air bombardments. Bomber Command did not bomb directly ahead
of the troops. Instead, it delivered large bombs, with their accompanying crater-
ing effect, on both flanks of the assaulting Canadians in order to seal off lateral
movement by German reinforcements. Also, the RAF, departing from its prac-
tice in earlier close support missions, attacked at night, when the Canadians
began their own assault, penetrating the first two German lines and gaining five
kilometers. Ground mist in the morning delayed further attacks, which allowed
the Germans to counterattack. Nevertheless, Lt. Gen. G. C. Simonds, Comman-
der of the 2d Canadian Corps, committed two inexperienced armored divisions,
the 4th Canadian and the 1st Polish, to exploit the attack. 132

At 1:00 P.M. on August 8, the Eighth Air Force arrived to bomb its targets.
Scouting planes had preceded it to check weather conditions and the state of the
target areas, which were marked by smoke shells and flares. As planned, the
bombers flew parallel to the lines of the attacking troops, a tactic forcing a long
flight over enemy territory and, of course, magnifying the usual problems of
operating in congested air space. After the troops had withdrawn only 1,500
yards — the Canadians, like Bradley, apparently were willing to chance casual-
ties rather than give up too much ground and momentum — ^the American heavy
bombers delivered their attacks flying north to south.

The bombardment struck its targets in turn, in the manner of a creeping
barrage. The bombers flew straight and level down forty miles of the German
lines and received intense heavy flak for the entire distance. The 681 attackers
lost 7 bombers, wrote off 4 more as not repairable, and had 107 with major
damage and 187 with minor damage. They dropped 1,275 tons of bombs. Two
of their four aiming points were well covered. Clouds of dust prevented the
bombing of one point and allowed only 30 percent of the bombers to drop on
the other.133

Two 12-plane formations, unfortunately, bombed short, killing 65 and
wounding 265 Canadians and Poles in areas packed with unsuspecting members
of the 1st Polish Armored Division and the 3d Canadian Infantry Division, many
of them sitting in their vehicles moving or waiting to move up to the front. Some
of the bombs fell on the tactical headquarters of the Canadian division, wound-
ing its commander, Maj. Gen. R.F.L. Kellor, and forcing his evacuation.l34 The
discomfiture caused by the shorts, the 5-minute safety delay between the bom-
bardment and the renewal of the ground assault, the 1,500-yard safety margin.

480

Heavy Bombers in Support

and the two divisions' inexperience caused the attack to bog down. It halted on
August 9 after gaining 13 kilometers.135

AAF after-action reports revealed the near impossibiUty of preventing such
short bombing. In one bomb group an antiaircraft round hit the lead plane just
after it had decided to bypass the primary target, which was obscured by smoke.
The round caused a fire in the bomb bay. The pilot, fearing for the lives of him-
self and his crew, salvoed his bomb load. The rest of the formation followed his
lead. Their bombs landed in the friendly city of Caen.

In a second instance, the lead bombardier and pilot, confused by a course
change to avoid intense flak, performed "exceedingly poorly," misidentifying
their targets and dropping the formation's bombs just to the south of Caen.l36
Such errors were inevitable on any large mission. The only way to keep them
from adversely affecting the friendly assault troops was to bomb so far behind
the enemy front line that any direct advantage the troops might gain was elimi-
nated.

The next day Spaatz flew to the Continent. At Heston Airfield, just before
taking off, he encountered Eisenhower, who had just come from Normandy to
review the paratroops of the 82d and 101st Divisions. They discussed the use of
heavy bombers in close support. After describing what he had leamed so far,
much of it based on an extensive report from Doolittle on operations of July 24
and 25, Spaatz incorrectly noted that most of the gross bombing errors were the
result of enemy antiaircraft fire or the actions of enemy aircraft. Eisenhower
suggested that Spaatz visit Montgomery, who, after the previous day's short
bombing, had apparently developed misgivings about the employment of heavy
bombers in close support. Before they parted Spaatz told Eisenhower that, in his
opinion, "the only significant breakthrough obtained had been through the use of
heavy bombardment [aircraft]."i37

Once on the Continent, Spaatz visited, in order, Bradley, Patton, and
Montgomery. The first two praised the cooperation of the tactical air forces,
which had helped the speed and success of their advances. Spaatz found
Montgomery singing a tune slightly different from the one Eisenhower had
heard. Montgomery apparently told Spaatz that "the breakthrough of the Army
was made possible by heavy bombardment," and that "to have attempted such a
breakthrough without such preparation would have cost him 10,000 men."l38
Montgomery had certainly not sworn off using heavy bombers.

Five days later, on August 14, a daylight Bomber Command bombardment
preceded another 1st Canadian Army lunge toward Falaise. This time the RAF
dropped short, causing 400 Commonwealth casualties, including 65 killed and
91 missing, many blown to bits. A recent history of the RAF explained why:

It appeared that someone had omitted to inform Bomber Command that the

Army's standard color for marking its positions was yellow; this was Bomber
Command's target-indicating colour, and 77 aircraft which had gone astray

481

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

proceeded to bomb on yellow marks — (the more the troops burnt yellow flares
to show their position the more the errant aircraft bombed them).i39

Once again the Poles suffered along with the Canadians. Ironically forty-four of
the bomber crews dropping short were Canadian. The RAF, adding insult to
injury, almost killed one of its own in a concentration of short bombs — Air
Marshal Coningham — and a Canadian corps commander. 140

Allied heavy bombers did not fly another close support mission until
November 16, 1944, when they participated in the preliminary bombardment of
Operation Queen, a U.S. First Army offensive in the Huertgen Forest region near
Aachen. Their overall performance in close support during the campaign in
northwestern Europe indicates that heavy bombers were not entirely suitable
weapons. They did not belong on the tactical battlefield unless all other ground
or tactical air firepower available was insufficient. A flyswatter and a sledge-
hammer can both kill flies, but the ease of use of the former made it far easier to
control and more effective than the sound and force of the latter. In three out of
four cases, close support of the ground troops, although spectacular, achieved
little for effort involved. The ground troops did not achieve a breakthrough. In
the fourth case, at St. L6, the heavy bombers expedited the success of a massive
ground offensive by undercutting German resistance and probably saved Ameri-
can lives.

The attacks in support of Montgomery, who faced the bulk of the Germans'
high-quality armored formations, could do little because he did not have the pre-
ponderance of strength necessary to overwhelm the troops facing him. Sheer
weight of fire cannot make up for lack of manpower against a first-class oppo-
nent. The Panzer Lehr Division held on for one more day despite its drenching
from the air. If the Germans had had reserves available, they might well have
delayed the breakthrough for days. The decisive factors in the St. L6 break-
through were Bradley's massing of four divisions on a single division front and
the Germans' total lack of reserves to respond. This blow would have succeeded
in any case, but the heavy-bomber attack helped the assault to penetrate the
German lines more quickly and with fewer American casualties.

482

Chapter 14

Stalemate on the
German Frontier
(September 11-December 15, 1944)

There is no conclusive evidence of any intention of the
Germans to quit.'

— Spaatz to Arnold, September 24, 1944

To what extent the ground forces can advance during the
ensuing late fall and winter months is anyone's guess.
However, it is my prediction that unless the weather is
extremely unusual, the ground advances will be very lim-
ited until the good weather of spring again permits the
overwhelming air cover to which they have become accus-
tomed. Barring a disintegration within Germany itself or
the benefit of a spell of good weather in October or
November, I foresee a repetition of the winter in Africa and
last winter in Italy

—Spaatz to Lovett, October 1, 1944.

From the middle of September through the middle of December 1944, the
U.S.-British ground forces engaged in a series of sanguinary battles from the
Swiss border to the North Sea. As the Allied armies inched forward against the
stout resistance of hastily created or largely reconstituted German divisions,
Allied air power continued to doininate the skies over the battle lines and above
Hitler's truncated empire.

In September, at a high-level Anglo-American conference in Quebec, code-
named Octagon, Roosevelt, Churchill, and the Combined Chiefs of Staff, in the

483

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

midst of discussion concerning strategy and coming operations in the Pacific and
Europe, resolved the air command tangle in the European Theater of Operations
by abolishing the AEAF and removing, over Spaatz's and Eisenhower's objec-
tions. Bomber Command and USSTAF from Eisenhower's direct control. Within
the European Theater, Spaatz and his fellow Allied airmen faced, as usual, the
task of setting strategic bombing priorities in the light of changing perceptions
of remaining German military and economic strength. In addition, Spaatz had to
balance the requirements of the strategic bombing campaign with the needs and
exigencies of the ground situation. Finally, just as the Allied armies confronted
recovered and effective opponents, Spaatz feared a revival of the Luftwaffe,
which had begun to deploy the deadly new jet, the Me 262.

A controversial phase of the AAF's strategic bombing effort in Europe
began in the autumn of 1944. Strong advocates of U.S. strategic bombing, such
as former strategic bomber commander Maj. Gen. Haywood S. Hansell, have
pointed to the four months from mid-September to mid- January as the time
when the bombing offensive fatally weakened Germany "before a single Allied
soldier set foot on German soil," catastrophically injured selected German eco-
nomic and industrial systems, and completed the remaining original strategic
objectives of AWPD/1.3 Academic critics of the bombing offensive have
detected an effort "adrift among conflicting visions of the road to victory"^ and
an AAF reversion "from its selective bombing doctrine to the Douhetian princi-
ples of mass attack and terror."^ None of those views completely encompassed
the reality of the bombing effort, yet all described, with varying degrees of
objectivity, important aspects of the state of strategic bombing in Europe in the
last quarter of 1944.

This chapter and the one that follows show how the bombing of railroad mar-
shaling yards could simultaneously be a euphemism for area bombing and a
killing blow to the German war economy; how bomber leaders constantly shifted
bombing priorities, yet continued to strangle both oil production and transporta-
tion; and how precision bombing became a jackhammer reducing German cities
to rubble, instead of a scalpel cutting the heart out of German industry.

The Removal of the Strategic Air Forces from SHAEF's Control

In late August 1944, Spaatz visited Eaker in the Mediterranean primarily to

discuss the fate of the XII Tactical Air Command (XII TAC), which had accom-
panied Lt. Gen. Jacob L. Devers's 6th Army Group in its invasion of southern
France (Operation Anvil/Dragoon) and in its advance to the north. When
Devers's and Eisenhower's troops made contact with each other, they would all
come under Eisenhower's control. Until then, Eaker and Spaatz agreed that
Vandenberg, Commander of the Ninth Air Force, and Lt. Gen. John K. Caimon,
Commander of the Twelfth Air Force, would coordinate the activities of Xn
Tactical Air Conmiand, through a Redune cable link akeady estabhshed between

484

Stalemate

the two headquarters.6 Afterward, XII TAC would come under the operational and
administrative control of the Ninfli Air Forced

Spaatz and Eaker used the occasion to pass on to Arnold, for his use at the
coming conference at Quebec, their views of the air command arrangements in
the European Theater of Operations. After declaring that the current AAF orga-
nization was "the most satisfactory" likely to be attained, they went on to con-
demn the AEAF. Each army group, they added, needed its own air force, and
those air forces required no more controls between them than did the army
groups. Just as no intervening headquarters existed between Eisenhower, who
would formally assume command of all ground forces on September 1, and his
army group commanders, none should exist between Eisenhower and his air
forces. 8

On the afternoon of his return from the Mediterranean on August 30, Spaatz
discussed with Eisenhower the organization of the U.S. Army Air Forces in the
ETO. The next morning he held further discussions on the subject with Tedder
and again with Eisenhower. That afternoon he met with Ambassador Winant and
RAF Chief of Staff Charles Portal. All agreed that the AEAF ought to be dis-
banded. Spaatz cheerfully informed Robert Lovett, Assistant Secretary of War
for Air, "In general, it is our desire to eliminate the Allied Expeditionary Air
Force as soon as possible and I believe this will be accomplished. That head-
quarters has been a cause for disagreement since its inception."^

In his meeting with Spaatz, Portal not only had indicated a willingness to
dispense with the AEAF but also had raised the issue of the changing command
arrangements between Eisenhower and the strategic air forces. Because Overlord
had obviously succeeded. Portal wished to invoke the provision, previously agreed
upon by the CCS, of preinvasion air agreements that called for the independence
of Bomber Command and USSTAF sometime after the establishment of the
Western Allies on the Continent. 10 Instead of supporting this move, as might
have been expected, Spaatz opposed it.

Spaatz assumed that Portal intended "to attempt to obtain a decision for the
return of the strategic forces to the status existent January 1, 1944,"il and he had
no wish that Portal resume his role as chief interlocutor of the Combined
Bomber Offensive. Before Overlord, Spaatz had strenuously objected to sev-
eral of Portal's actions, especially his refusal to authorize the bombing of the
Ploesti oil facilities. In the months since then, Spaatz had become accustomed to
serving under Eisenhower's congenial hand and had no wish to exchange an
American master for a British one. Spaatz warned Arnold that "imder no condi-
tions should RAF Bomber Command be consolidated with the U.S. Strategic Air
Forces." He foresaw continued heavy losses for the RAF if it flew at night or, if
it operated by day, extensive disruption of his own fighters covering it. Spaatz
realized that Bomber Command would not accept an overall American strategic
bombing commander; as for USSTAF, he added, "It may not be fully appreci-
ated by you how strongly our American Air Force personnel feel about serving

485

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

under British Command."! 2 instead, Spaatz suggested to Portal that Eisenhower
have both operational control and direct command of the heavy bombers.l3

Spaatz preferred a slight modification of the current status of command rela-
tions. He had completely turned Eisenhower, with whom he worked extremely
well, against the reversion to Portal's control of the strategic air forces on Sep-
tember 1.14 Neither saw any need for a change in arrangements.

At Spaatz 's urging, Eisenhower detailed their objections in messages to both
Marshall and Arnold. Emphasizing that he "would regard any change as a seri-
ous mistake," Eisenhower told Marshall that he needed to retain control of the
strategic forces in order to concentrate the greatest possible strength for the
"penetration" of Germany. So far, there had been no disputes between his head-
quarters and the British Chiefs of Staff concerning the bombers. Moreover,
strategic priorities and bombing missions needed to be carefully coordinated
with the ground battle by planners in his own headquarters. To facilitate such
coordination, Spaatz, on September 1, had moved his headquarters to the
Continent, next to Eisenhower's. Air Chief Marshal Harris, head of Bomber
Command, had sent his own liaison officers. Thus, Eisenhower urged, USSTAF
should stay under his control. Reversion of Bomber Command to Portal's direc-
tion would make it difficult to coordinate the two strategic commands — one
under Portal and one under Spaatz.15

On September 3, Eisenhower told Arnold, "All of us are striving to keep the
heavies on normal tasks but emergency use in battle must be assured by continu-
ation of the command system."i6 Arnold replied,

With regard to the Strategic Air Force command situation, I agree wholeheart-
edly [emphasis in original] with the view expressed in your recent cables that
the control now vested in your headquarters should not be changed to revert to
Chief of Air Staff but instead that all strategic air forces should be placed under
your command."

At the Second Quebec Conference, September 12-17, 1944, Arnold, how-
ever, "flopped over" on the issue of independence for the heavy bombers. 18
During the conference, which dealt mainly with European occupation policy and
the war against Japan, Portal gained Arnold's consent and the approval of the
CCS to detach the strategic air forces from Eisenhower's control. This air issue
had meant more to Portal than to any of the other Chiefs. By bringing Harris,
who, like Spaatz, had enjoyed comparative freedom under Eisenhower's lenient
yoke, back under the control of the Air Ministry, Portal hoped to rein him in. 19

In August, Harris had obtained Tedder's and Eisenhower's permission to
mount twelve area attacks on German cities when his forces were not required
elsewhere. In a single attack on Konigsberg on the night of August 29-30, for
example, only 175 Lancaster heavy bombers left 134,000 people homeless.20
Portal and the Air Staff, however, disapproved of such attacks. They had at last
seized on the oil plan with the enthusiasm only a convert can generate2l and

486

Stalemate

hoped to redirect Harris's efforts toward the synthetic plants and refineries.22
Ironically, Harris, who for the first time actually subordinated himself to another
commander, operated with more freedom after the command change from
Eisenhower to the Air Ministry than before.23 He happily stepped up his pro-
gram to area bomb German cities.24 At Quebec, Portal apparently wanted so
badly to control Harris that he was willing to pull Bomber Command out from
under Eisenhower and leave USSTAF under SHAEF if the Americans refused to
cooperate.25

Arnold and Marshall initially resisted Portal's suggestions, but the next day,
September 13, the British and American Chiefs agreed to the substance of his
new command arrangements.26 The CCS directive to Spaatz and Air Marshal
Norman Bottomley, Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations, RAF, announced the
new command structure and specified certain target priorities. The CCS vested
joint executive responsibility for the control of strategic bomber forces in
Europe in the Chief of Staff, RAF, and the Commander, AAF, who in tum, des-
ignated Bottomley and Spaatz as their representatives for the purpose of provid-
ing control and local coordination through consultation. The directive required
support of the ground and naval forces and charged Spaatz and Bottomley with
the task of coordinating their actions with the theater tactical air forces. After
accepting current target priorities, it added six further objectives:

1. Counter air farce action consisting of policing current production facili-
ties;

2. Direct support of land and naval forces whenever the Supreme
Commanders called for it;

3. The bombing of important industrial areas when weather made other tar-
gets impractical, and the use of blind bombing techniques if necessary;

4. Attacks in support of the Soviet armies, when authorized by the CCS;

5. Continued support for British Special Operations Executive/American
Office of Strategic Services* operations; and

6. Targets of opportunity, such as the German fleet or submarines."

These objectives reflected particularly the concerns of the Combined Chiefs.
The first three points were already part of current directives to the bomber
forces. Before accepting the change, both the American and British Chiefs had
ensured that the heavy bombers would be available for other purposes if needed.
Point 3 authorized RAF area bombing, while point 4, inserted at the behest of
the British,28 introduced an entirely new consideration, of little importance tmtil
January and February 1945.

* The British Special Operations Executive (SOE) and the American Office of Strategic
Services (OSS) were Allied intelligence organizations heavily involved with resistance movements
in German-occupied Europe. They also engaged in other types of covert intelligence operations
directed against the Germans.

487

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Why did Arnold revise his stance on the issue of command change for the
strategic air forces? In a letter to Spaatz shortly after the directive was issued,
Arnold wrote that he "found it expedient to agree to having the responsibility for
the direction of the U.S. Strategic Air Forces vested in me." The reason, he
implied, was that Portal had formulated a plan to equahze the RAF and the AAF
by making them co-directors of the Combined Bomber Offensive.29 A few days
later, in an "Eyes Only" letter to Spaatz, Arnold explained further,

I went to Quebec with a firm conviction that we should not change the control
of the Strategic Air Forces RAF and AAF, but after I went into the matter more
thoroughly and saw that there was no control lost by the United States Higher
Command and that provisions could be made for General Eisenhower to get
strategic bombing missions upon request, I flopped over. In my opinion the
advantages of having you as my representative determine the targets and objec-
tives for the Strategic Air Force on a co-equal status with Portal give us a posi-
tion in the scheme of things that we have never had before.^"

When Spaatz and Eisenhower first learned of the CCS's decision, they were
not happy. 31 Their initial surprise soon passed and, although Eisenhower termed
the new structure a "poor arrangement,"^^ both he and Spaatz had no qualms
about the decision. Both men admitted that their personal and official relation-
ships were so close that Eisenhower would get "just as much support from the
Strategic Air Forces under this arrangement as he did before."33

The Quebec Conference also approved the demise of the AEAF. On Sep-
tember 14, Eisenhower had agreed with Arnold "that imder the present circum-
stances we can get along without Leigh-Mallory's headquarters."34 Within a few
days, Eisenhower received formal notification of Leigh-Mallory's transfer to the
Allied Air Forces in South East Asia. The idea for this posting had come from
Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten, the Allied Commander in Chief, South East
Asia Command (SEAC).35 Mountbatten had worked closely with Leigh-Mallory
in 1942 on the planning and conduct of the ill-fated Dieppe raid. Portal whole-
heartedly embraced the idea (it offered a face-saving method of removing a dif-
ficult personality from northwest Europe) and presented it to Arnold. Arnold,
who felt that the Air Commander's post in SEAC ought to be awarded to an
American officer since the AAF supplied the majority of the theater's aircraft,
was quite irritated, but nonchalantly suggested that Leigh-Mallory be assigned,
instead, to one of the British military missions in the United States. It is hard to
imagine a less congenial placement for the ethnocentric commander of the
AEAF. With feigned indifference, Arnold protested to Eisenhower that Leigh-
Mallory's disposition was an internal RAF matter, noting that a suitable assign-
ment for one of over twenty Air Chief Marshals and Marshals of the Royal Air
Force on the RAF's active rolls was not an insuperable problem.36

Since the Second Quebec Conference agreed to intensify operations in
Burma and since the British supplied most of the naval and ground forces in that

488

Stalemate

Air Marshal James M.
Robb, RAF, Chief of Staff
(Air), SHAEF, 1945.

theater, Mountbatten's request for Leigh-Mallory outweighed Arnold's desire to
see the post go to an American. Because Leigh-Mallory had become heavily
involved in air operations surrounding Operation Market-Garden, the Allied
paratroop drop designed to seize a series of bridges and break through across die
Rhine, Eisenhower delayed his release until October 15.3"? On that date the
AEAF ceased to exist.*

Coningham became responsible for the administration of his 2d Tactical Air
Force, while administrative control of the Ninth Air Force remained with
Spaatz. Eisenhower created a new position within his own headquarters. Chief
of Staff (Air), and designated Air Vice-Marshal James M. Robb, Spaatz's
Deputy Commander from the Northwest African Air Forces, to fill it. Robb
would take over the AEAF's operational functions. To Tedder fell the tasks of
coordinating the Allied tactical air forces and presenting Eisenhower's require-
ments for strategic bombing to the strategic bomber commanders.38Robb's large
and predominately British staff, although less controversial than the AEAF,
proved no more effective at handling operations or at suppressing national jeal-

* En route to India, the plane carrying Leigh-Mallory, his wife, and his staff became lost in the
mountains thirty miles from Grenoble, France, and crashed, killing all aboard. Seven months later, a
French farmer discovered the wreckage, solving the mystery of the air marshal's disappearance. Air
Chief Marshal Keith Park replaced Leigh-Mallory in SEAC.

489

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

ousies.39 Nonetheless, the final form of Allied air command in Europe had been
established. (See Chart 7, System of Control of Strategic Air Forces.)

The new format made no difference to the congenial relationship already
established between Spaatz, Tedder, and Eisenhower. As Eisenhower moved
SHAEF to Granville, Normandy, thence to Paris, and finally to Reims, Spaatz,
after momentarily deciding in the first flush of command change that his pres-
ence might be more useful in London,40 marched in lockstep, keeping his per-
sonal headquarters next to the Supreme Commander's. On October 1, Spaatz
informed Lovelt, "We have moved an advance headquarters of USSTAF to the
vicinity of Paris and very close to Eisenhower's main headquarters. ... I expect
to spend practically all of my time here in order to be close to Eisenhower."4l
Spaatz left Maj. Gen. Frederick L. Anderson in London to ensure coordination
of operations. This propinquity facilitated Spaatz's administrative control of the
large AAF contingent in France and maintained short and speedy lines of coor-
dination between the strategic air forces and the Supreme Commander.

Strategic Target Selection in the Autumn of 1944

One of the chief contributions Spaatz made to the conduct of the war during
the late summer and autumn of 1944 was the setting of target priorities for the
U.S. Eighth and Fifteenth Strategic Air Forces. He insisted on the primacy of oil
targets with the same tenacity that Harris displayed in his embrace of area bomb-
ing.

On September 1, Spaatz issued a new set of target priorities reflecting his
and USSTAF's assessment of the German mihtary and economic situation. Four
factors influenced his judgment: (1) the success of the oil attacks, (2) the disper-
sal of the German aircraft industry, (3) the acute shortage of trained German
pilots, and (4) the German losses in men and materiel to the Anglo-American
forces in France and to the Soviets during its summer offensive, which alone had
destroyed twenty-five German divisions.

From these factors, Spaatz drew three conclusions:

1. The Luftwaffe, the German ground forces, and the German economy all
faced imminent collapse from lack of fuel.

2. Pilot and aviation fuel shortages, not lack of aircraft, would severely
limit Luftwaffe operations in the future.

3. The Germans lacked sufficient military equipment to reequip battered
formations and to equip newly raised units.

Therefore, to take advantage of the few remaining summer days, Spaatz issued
instructions to Doolittle and Twining to intensify their attacks on oil targets, to
confine any attacks on the German aircraft production industries to those manu-
facturing components for rockets and jet fighters, to devote excess effort to the

490

Chart 7

System of Control of Strategic Air Forces and Channels Used in Detennining Bombmg Policy

September 16, 1944 to May 24, 1945

Great Britain

USA

WarCabhwt

Cabinet Defense
Committee

Chiefs of Staff
Committee

Combined
Cliiefs of Staff

Chief of Air Staff

Portal

Supreme Allied Commander
Allied ExpedWonaty i=bice

Eisenliower

Deputy
Chief of Air Staff

Deputy Supreme
Allied Commandar

Tedder

Assistant
Chief of Air Staff
(Intelll9ence)

Assistant
Chief of Air Staff
(OpersMone)

Director of
Bomber Operations

Bufton

Cabinet and Advisors
President

Joint Chiefs of Staff

1 Commandir
1 USA
1 Am(

g General 1
AF 1
lid 1

1 CommandN
1 USSTAF

ig General |
Europe) 1
atz 1

Director
of

Operations
(USSTAF)

F. Anderson

A.O.C. in C.
Bomber Command
l-iarris

Combined straL Targets Committee
AirMinistiy • War Office • Admiralty • SHAEF
USSTAF (Europe) • Bomber Command
U.S. Eigltth Air Force
Economic Advisory Brancli (Foreign Office) and
Ministry of Economic Watfan
U.S. Enemy Obiectives Unit (Economic Warfare Department)

Commanding General
U.S. Eighth AF
Doolittle
Commanding General
U.S. Fifteenth AF
Twining

Operadooal Coatrol

Taiseting Policy

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

destruction of, in order of priority, ordnance depots, armored fighting vehicle
production, and motor transport production, and, finally if weather "or other
considerations" made these targets "impracticable," to employ bombing-
through-clouds techniques or other methods to strike transportation targets.42

Aside from its emphasis on oil, to which all of his post-D-day directives
gave primacy, this memo signaled Spaatz's diminishing sense of urgency
regarding the Luftwaffe and increased interest in an antiordnance/military equip-
ment campaign already started on a small scale in August. The memo also indi-
cated his willingness to employ his force during bad weather over Germany,
even though it was dependent on inaccurate H2X radar. This method, as Spaatz
well knew, performed best over built-up areas (cities) but had little ability to
pick out individual targets (marshaling yards, etc).43 H2X accuracy improved
greatly if any part of a bomb run could be done visually. Moreover, transporta-
tion sites offered a good subsidiary system when bomb groups that were unable
to hit their primary target often found that openings in the clouds presented them
with targets of opportunity, such as marshaling yards. Nonetheless, Spaatz had
no qualms about any incidental damage that bombs falling short would cause
among German civilians.

Within days of the September 1 directive. Air Marshal Bottomley discussed
new priorities with Spaatz and Tedder. By that time German defenses had visi-
bly stiffened, taking the edge off some of the optimism in Allied command cir-
cles. The day before they received the Quebec directive, September 13, 1944,
the three agreed to a new scheme for new circumstances. In this scheme, Spaatz
assented to a rearrangement of his just-issued priorities. Oil retained top priority.
Ultra intercepts continued to confirm the injury inflicted by the oil offensive. A
September 7 decryption revealed an order calling for qualified volunteers from
other branches of the Luftwaffe to join the fighter arm in order to conserve on
training fuel. A September 1 1 decryption uncovered Goering's order of September
1 restricting flights to a bare minimum to ensure that every possible drop went to
operational training. 44

German rail and water transportation systems, particularly those located in
the Ruhr and Saar and leading from those regions to the front, would be the tar-
gets of the strategic air forces, which would carry out attacks progressively
deeper into Germany. The tactical air forces would deal with transportation tar-
gets closest to the battlefront. Motor transport, armored fighting vehicles, and
ordnance plants and depots would have the same priority as transportation sys-
tems. The Luftwaffe would receive any residual effort. This new schedule,
which served as a basis for a more formal dkective issued in accordance with
the instructions from Quebec, meant that Tedder had succeeded in upgrading to
second priority his own preferred target system, that of transportation.45

On September 25, Bottomley issued a "Directive for the Control of Strategic
Bomber Forces in Europe," to Arthur Harris.46 Spaatz had agreed to this direc-
tive, later designated "Strategic Bombing Directive No. 1," two days earlier.47

492

Stalemate

I Norman
ly, Deputy
Air Staff,

Bottomley's directive conformed, for the most part, to his previous discussion
with Tedder and Spaatz, but one item reappeared. Referring to important indus-
trial areas, the document stated, "When weather or tactical conditions are unsuit-
able for operations against specific primary objectives, attacks should be deliv-
ered on important industrial areas, using blind bombing techniques as neces-
sary." Area bombing simply would not disappear. Given the tenor of the times,
no one could have justified keeping idle the heavy-bomber fleets, on which so
much national treasure and energy had been heaped, merely because cloud cover
or darkness necessitated their use against built-up areas rather than specific targets.

Bottomley's directive also provided for the periodic issuance of a separate
list of strategic targets. The list would specify the targets best calculated to
achieve the goals of the bomber offensive and would set relative priorities
among them. The directive further noted that the priorities within the list would
"be adjusted in . . . accordance with the situation." Interestingly enough, the first
list lumped attacks on the German rail transport system in a secondary category
with missions against the Luftwaffe. Both types of attack would occur "from
time to time." In the meantime, oil targets retained first priority; second priority
went to ordnance, tanks and motor transport depots, tank assembly plants, and
motor transport assembly plants, in that order.48 Apparently the Allied air leaders
felt that the immediate denial of tactical equipment to the German ground forces
would still pay a greater dividend than a protracted series of strategic attacks on

493

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

transport. This view, which emphasized short-term results, mirrored the hopes
still prevalent that the Germans would collapse with one more good push.
Eisenhower's headquarters in particular placed the highest priority on the
Wehrmacht's major ordnance depots.^9

Within a week this optimism had evaporated. The Allied air leaders began to
search for new ways to employ their forces. At one of the last of Leigh-
Mallory's Daily Air Commanders' Meetings, on September 29, held at Versailles,
Air Marshal Coningham suggested "that it might be a matter of months before
the Army would make any considerable move into Germany, and that the only
hope of a quick finish to the war was from a collapse inside Germany."50 in
view of that prospect, which might allow the Germans time to raise a large force
of jets and to improve their antiaircraft defenses, he pressed for an immediate,
concentrated attack to cripple either German morale or the jet aircraft industry.
He was seconding a proposition Spaatz had voiced moments earlier — that, with
three or four continuous days of good weather predicted for October, an aU-out
effort might prove profitable. Leigh-Mallory agreed, pointing out that the tacti-
cal bomb line already in effect provided an ideal basis for a division of labor
between the tactical and strategic forces. Spaatz then clarified his proposal, indi-
cating that he envisaged an all-out attack by the combined strategic and tactical
forces outside the tactical area. Such an attack "was bound to have considerable
effect on morale, especially if kept up for two or three days."5i

Bottomley attempted to throw cold water on the whole idea. The inhabitants
of 100 smaller cities in Germany made up only 10 percent of the population —
not enough, in his opinion, to influence the German High Command. The Chiefs
of Staff, he continued, had already approved Thunderclap (a maximum-force,
combined strike by USSTAF and Bomber Command on Berlin) for implementa-
tion when German morale showed signs of cracking. Until then, the German war
effort ought to remain the primary target. Besides, any all-out attack would have
maximum impact if tightly focused on a single objective, such as transportation
in a single region. To defuse the effort over a wide area against something as
amorphous as morale would have little long-term benefit. Bottomley concluded
by requesting that the air forces place priority on the transportation network of
the Saar and Ruhr industrial regions in support of the ground effort that
Eisenhower intended to direct against them.52 The meeting ended with no agree-
ment on any all-out massive attack. Soon afterward, however, both the Air
Ministry and USSTAF began to formulate plans^^ for widespread maximum-
force attacks against Germany (code-named Hurricanes I and II).

Spaatz strongly supported the Hurricane plans. On October 1 he wrote to
Lovett:

I have urged and started the development of a plan for the full-out beating
up of Germany with all the Air Forces at our disposal, if and when we have a
proper weather break.

494

Stalemate

He did not know whether such an operation could be decisive, but, he wrote,
"To my mind it represents the only means of terminating the war this year with
our forces" [emphasis added] .54

Spaatz beheved that the plans were a necessary gamble. How much to wager
remained a question. As he explained to Arnold on October 4, oil remained the
overriding priority, but, he went on, "I must emphasize that the war with
Germany is not over and with the stagnation of the ground front, it may be up to
Air to force Germany out of the war." Spaatz then described the Hurricane
plans, both of which had RAF approval.

Hurricane I concentrated Bomber Command and the Eighth Air Force, plus
portions of the theater's tactical air forces, against targets in western Germany,
primarily the Ruhr area. This event was to be closely tied with the maneuver of
the ground forces. The attack was to be all-out, except when weather permitted
attack on high-priority oil targets throughout Germany.

Hurricane II required good weather over all of Germany and involved a
concentration of all U.S. and British air forces from the Mediterranean and
Britain over Germany. This force was to attack targets in the following priority:
(1) oil; (2) ordnance depots; (3) motor transport depots and armored force vehi-
cle depots; and (4) transportation. The Allies would be hitting something almost
everywhere they could reach. Both plans kept oil targets foremost.55 Spaatz
would not loosen his grip on oil, the life's blood of the Nazi military machine.
As he had told Doolittle and Twining the previous day, "Failure to maintain this
primary aim will result in immediate increase in fighting effectiveness of enemy
ground forces and offensive operations by the GAF."56

After meetings on October 3 between Bottomley for the Air Ministry,
Tedder and Robb for SHAEF, and Anderson and Spaatz for USSTAF, the air-
men set October 7 as the tentative date for Hurricane 11.57 Given the relative
quiet in ground operations, the more strategically oriented Hurricane II seemed
a better choice than Hurricane I, which limited itself to the Ruhr and was
meant to assist a ground offensive. Arnold concurred with the Hurricane II
plan to emphasize oil targets, but wanted attacks on "everything of military
importance," to impress all sections of Germany with Allied air power's "over-
whelming superiority and destructive power." Arnold explicitly added, "I will
not condone attacks on purely civilian objectives."58

Neither Hurricane plan was ever executed. Despite forecasts of a stretch of
clear days during the first two weeks of October, prolonged good weather never
materialized. Instead, USSTAF took advantage of the few clear days to strike
the vital oil plants again. By mid-October the opportunity, improbable and fleet-
ing as it was, had passed.

Near the end of October the Allies again reviewed their strategic priorities
for air. This review, caused by the stagnation of the front on one hand and
Marshall's hope for a quick end to the war on the other, produced a new direc-
tive. Revision in the face of changing circumstances does not seem remarkable;

495

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

what was remarkable was Marshall's optimism, which he maintained even after
an extensive visit to the Western Front in early October. As late as October 20,
he reported to Eisenhower that the U.S. Chiefs of Staff contemplated issuing "at
an early date" a directive for a supreme effort to end the war in Europe by
January 1. Such a decision, said Marshall, would require the employment of the
strategic air forces in an almost exclusively tactical manner. 59 In response to
Marshall's request for frank comment, Eisenhower mentioned his logistical dif-
ficulties but also volunteered that more infantry and supplies might produce a
quicker conclusion.

In the same message Eisenhower supported strategic use of the heavy bombers.
Poor weather prevented them from flying in direct support of the ground forces.
Also, noted Eisenhower, "We know in these conditions our best bet has been to
keep hammering constantly at the enemy's oil."60 The British Chiefs of Staff
also discounted the chances of ending the war before the start of the year. The
Air Staff, in particular, objected to diverting the heavy bombers from oil targets,
which, if freed from attack, would rapidly regain much higher production levels.
Consequently, the British asked Marshall to shelve the directive, which he did
on November 1.61

The bombing results of September and October had shown the inconclusive-
ness of the campaign against ordnance, tanks, and motor transport. Oil targets
had absorbed most of the visual bombing days, and USSTAF had employed
blind bombing techniques for part of most raids against military equipment tar-
gets. This produced less accurate bombing. Meanwhile, the German front-line
troops showed no equipment shortages attributable to the bombing, and postwar
analysis revealed no major effects. By the end of October, the Allies were ready
to try different target systems.62

The British Air Staff, for its part, wanted a new directive that would enable
it to get better control over Harris. Since the CCS directive of September 14
placing him again under Portal, Harris had proceeded on his own course as he
continued to do at least until the beginning of 1945. During the last three months
of 1944, Bomber Command dropped 53 percent of its bombs on cities, 15 per-
cent on railways and canals, 18 percent on miscellaneous targets, and only 14
percent on oil targets.^^ Harris, who enjoyed personal access to Churchill and
great prestige from Bomber Coirmiand's status as both the largest component of
the RAF and the most successful punisher of the Germans, rebuffed Portal's
repeated attempts to have him concentrate on oil targets. By late January 1945
the dispute between Harris and Portal over oil targeting culminated in a threat by
Harris to resign. Although Portal had the authority to accept Harris's resigna-
tion, he chose not to. Removing him would have been difficult to justify to
Churchill and the British populace, who regarded Harris as a war hero. However,
in declining Harris's gesture. Portal lost any sanction he might have held.
Consequently, Harris persisted in flouting Portal's authority until the end of the
war. In any case, Bomber Command had delivered only 6 percent of its bombs

496

Stalemate

against oil targets in October,^^ a figure Portal and Bottomley wanted greatly
increased.

Portal also solicited Tedder's views on new instructions for the heavy
bombers.65 Tedder replied on October 25 with a tightly reasoned brief favoring
transportation as the primary target system. After referring to the current opera-
tions of the strategic and tactical air forces, he continued, "I am not satisfied
that on these lines, we are using our air power effectively. The various types of
operations should fit into one comprehensive pattern, whereas I feel that at pre-
sent they are more like a patchwork quilt."66 Tedder believed that the one com-
mon factor underlying the entire German war effort, from political control to
troop supply, was communications. He argued, "Our primary air objective
should be the enemy's communications. Road, water and rail are interdepen-
dent and complementary, and our Air operations should play on that fact. The
present oil plan is the key to movement by road or air, and, moreover, directly
affects operations in the battle area."^'^

Tedder had integrated the oil plan into his own, adding two factors that he
believed would make his antitransportation system effort even more telling than
the one that had preceded Overlord. Fu-st, all loss of transport traffic would be
a dead loss to the German war effort. In France, the Wehrmacht required only 20
percent of all rail traffic, with much of the remainder going to support the
French economy. In Germany, any loss of transportation would eventually pro-
duce a shortage or delay in the German war effort. In Germany, bombed-out
transport lines could be replaced only at the cost of other vital programs,
whereas, in France the Wehrmacht could use a large portion of the 80 percent of
remaining capacity to replace bombed-out capacity.

Second, noted Tedder, "In FRANCE and BELGIUM the programme of
attacks on rail centres was severely limited, both as regards selection of targets
and as regards weather conditions, by the need to avoid civilian casualties; no
such limitations affect attacks on German rail centres."68 Tedder had concluded
that by concentrating heavy bombers over marshaling yards, oil targets, the
canal system, and "centres of population" in the Ruhr, and backing up that con-
centration with the tactical air forces' operations against trains, rail embank-
ments, and selected bridges, the Allies "would rapidly produce a state of chaos
which would vitally affect not only the immediate battle on the West Wall, but
also the whole German war effort."69

British intelligence buttressed Tedder's arguments. As early as July 1944 the
British Joint Intelligence Committee detected diversion of essential war freight
from the overstrained railroads to the inland water transport system. By the end
of August the Allies perceived an overall weakening of the German transport
system demonsttated by more diversion to water transport and delay in the
delivery of war production materials. Intelligence from high-grade intercepts in
October revealed a worsening situation. An October 10 decryption of an October
2 message from the Japanese naval attache reported gradually increasing havoc

497

The Reich Besieged. The cumulative effect of strategic bombing was evident by late 1944.
Clockwise from above: Eighth Air Force bombs struck the Tegei tank works and a nearby gas
plant (above, left) in Berlin, October 6, 1944. A tangle of wagons, twisted track, and craters
(above, right) mark the marshaling yard at Limburg after a Ninth Air Force raid. "Wheels
Must Roil for Victory!" is the exhortation (below) amid the ruin of a rail terminus late in the
war. River transport suffered the loss of countless barges and tugs (opposite, below), as this
scene near Mainz attests. The Magdeburg synthetic oil plant (opposite, above) shows the
effects of repeated American attacks by early 1945.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

on the lines of communications and confusion in the transport of coal and muni-
tions from the Rhineland. A particularly telling decryption on October 24 of a
four-day-old message from Hitler's headquarters quoted a Speer report that
destruction of traffic installations and lack of power had brought from thirty to
thirty-five percent of all armament factories to a standstillJO Lack of power
meant lack of coal to fire generating plants, a sign of serious, if not catastrophic,
rail disruption. This intercept can only have convinced the Allied air leaders
both of the efficacy of transportation bombing and of the diminishing capacity
of the Germans to absorb more of it.

After a meeting on October 28 at SHAEF in Paris, at which the possible
contributions both the strategic and the tactical air forces could make in assisting
the ground forces were thoroughly analyzed, Spaatz and Bottomley issued a new
directive, Strategic Directive No. 2. It deleted the military equipment targets not
specifically requested by the ground forces. This deletion left only two target
systems: the petroleum industry and lines of communication, the latter with sec-
ond priority. Spaatz and the British Air Staff had maintained top priority for oil
targets but had also seen the advantages of Tedder's campaign against commu-
nications.7l

Meanwhile, Harris had an escape clause as wide as an autobahn. Strategic
Directive No. 2 authorized the bombing of "Important Industrial Areas" — ^that
useful euphemism for area bombing — whenever weather or tactical conditions
were unsuitable for the two main objectives. Bottomley modified the clause
slightly by adding language requiring these alternative attacks to contribute, as
far as possible, to the destruction of the oil and transport systems. He also wrote
a cover letter to Harris emphasizing the importance of oil — ^to little avail. Harris
believed in neither oil nor communication targets. He dryly aimotated his copy
of Bottomley's letter, "Here we go around the Mulberry bush."'^^ November,
however, Harris did increase petroleum strikes to 24.6 percent of his total effort,
a figure not far from the Fifteenth's 28.4 percent. In November the Eighth Air
Force dropped 39 percent of its bomb tonnage on oil targets.73 This directive
remained in effect until it was replaced by Strategic Directive No. 3, issued on
January 12, 1945.

Operations

The changes in strategic priorities, none of which displaced the oil campaign
from its position as the target system of highest priority, had less effect on the
operations of USSTAF during the autumn of 1944 than the advances of the
ground forces, the severity of the weather, and the resurgence of the Luftwaffe.
Constantly increasing numbers of enemy operational jet and conventional
fighter aircraft available from September onward constituted, in Spaatz's eyes,
the greatest potential threat to the success of a continued Allied strategic bomber
offensive against Germany.

500

Stalemate

The advance of the Allied ground forces across France in the summer of
1944 had greatly complicated the Luftwaffe's defense problems. Whatever
advantage accrued to Germany's hard-pressed aerial defenders from the forced
concentration of almost all of their resources into Germany proper did not offset
the disadvantages occasioned by the destruction of most of their early warning
network in the occupied countries or the denial of sufficient territory in which to
conduct a defense in depth. The heretofore relatively efficient German night-
fighter force probably suffered a greater decline in operational ability because of
these factors than the day force. In May and June, when Bomber Command
devoted a great part of its strength to 25,000 night sorties over France in support
of Overlord, the night fighters shot down 265 British heavy bombers. In
September and October, when Bomber Command flew more than 16,000 night
sorties against targets in Germany, the British credited only 36 losses to enemy
night fighters.'74

As Allied ground forces advanced they disorganized the Luftwaffe's fighter
defenses, but when they were halted at the German border they stretched the
Allied bomber effort in two ways. (See Map 15, Front Lines, 1944-1945.) The
inability of the Allied logistics system to keep pace with the rapid advance of its
armies led to the diversion of an entire B-24 combat wing, composed of four
combat groups (approximately 200 bombers), to the task of ferrying supplies to
the forward troops; and the scarity of supplies led Eisenhower to limit the broad-
based advance of his forces in favor of a single narrow thrust. After some hesita-
tion between alternatives offered by Montgomery, who championed an airborne
thrust across Holland to the Rhine, and Bradley, who advocated an attack
through the Saar to the Rhine, Eisenhower settled on Montgomery's proposal,
code-named Operation Market-Garden. In its planning and execution,
Montgomery's airborne operation tied up the theater's air transport craft, mak-
ing them unavailable to the ground forces throughout the theater, and it diverted
the Eighth Air Force from strategic targets in Germany.75

From August 29 to September 30, USSTAF directed the Eighth Air Force to
conduct cargo trucking operations to assist the Allied armies in France. Starting
with a small force of fewer than 30 aircraft on August 29, the operation grew to
200 by September 8. Eventually 225 B-24s made the daily trek from supply
sources in England to the Continent. In the first ten days the planes carried 1,383
tons of supplies, mostly medicine and food, to Orleans/Briey Airfield, seventy
miles south of Paris. When loading, unloading, and flying went smoothly, many
planes made two trips a day.'^^

After a three-day pause for reorganization, the second phase of the operation
began on September 12. This time the bombers carried mostly 80-octane gaso-
line for the forward armored units. They had a commitment, never attained, to
deliver 354,000 gallons of gasoline a day. On September 14, the B-24s began to
land at Chartres, 50 miles to the southwest of Paris. Eight days later, the Eighth
continued to deliver gasoline to three airfields: Chartres, St Dizier (120 miles

501

Stalemate

east of Paris), and Florennes, Belgium (140 miles northeast of Paris). During
this second phase, despite missing three days because of weather, the ferry ser-
vice delivered 8,226 tons of gasoline (2,703,255 gallons/ 169,000 per day) and
244 tons of other supplies.^'' Spaatz considered the diversion sound; he merely
wished that the army had called on him before it had come to a halt J8

Operation Market-Garden, a three-division airborne assault conducted by
the First Allied Airborne Army operating under the command of Montgomery's
21 Army Group, was part of the Allies' bold attempt to break through the German
lines in Holland and into Germany itself. At the very least the Allies hoped to
cut off the German Fifteenth Army in Holland, turn Germany's border defenses,
and position 21 Army Group around the north flank of the Ruhr.79 The opera-
tion achieved none of these goals. As the official U.S. Army history stated, "By
the merciless logic of war, Market-Garden was a failure."80

Two features of the operation impinged on the strategic air forces: the lock-
ing up of the theater's air transport assets and the diversion of the strategic effort
to the direct support of the ground forces. In the first four days of the operation,
September 17-20, the Eighth committed both its bombers and its fighters.
General Doolittle, a few days after the close of the affair, estimated that "Market
cost four (4) major and two (2) minor heavy bomber missions in September. "81
On September 17, 875 of the Eighth's heavy bombers dropped fragmentation
bombs in support of Market-Garden, while another 703 of its fighters strafed
enemy antiaircraft positions, for a loss of 2 bombers and 14 fighters. On
September 18, 254 B-24s dropped supplies for the paratroops. That mission lost
8 bombers to flak, and about half of the remainder received battle damage. Its
575 fighter escorts lost 20 aircraft and wrote off 9 more upon return to base, all
to flak.82

At the Daily Air Commanders' Meeting on September 19, Doolittle com-
plained that because the involvement of all of his fighters in support of the
troops prevented the use of heavy bombers elsewhere, "he hoped that it [Market-'
Garden] would not be extended beyond the four days, as in addition to prevent-
ing heavy bomber operations, it was proving very expensive in fighters."83 The
Eighth continued its commitment to the ground offensive until September 26,
during which time it limited those bombers not involved in the operation to shal-
low penetrations into western Germany. It bombed marshaling yards, airfields,
and military equipment targets but no major oil targets.84

In addition to the diversions caused by Market-Garden, weather greatly
affected the operations of USSTAF in the autumn of 1944. In mid-December,
Spaatz ruefully commented in a letter to Lovett, "We have been facing unusual
handicaps from weather in our operations. "85 On the same day, he wrote to
Arnold, "Weather is, of course, the serious handicap in any operation at this time
of year. Practically all of our bombing for the last two months has been PFF
[blind bombing]. The amount of rainfall exceeds, in the opinion of experts to
whom we have talked, any experienced for the last thirty years."86

503

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Spaatz did not exaggerate the problem. The AAF official history noted that
in the last quarter of 1944, 80 percent of the Eighth's and 70 percent of the
Fifteenth's missions employed, at least in part, blind-bombing devices. 87 An
Eighth Air Force Operational Analysis Section report on the bombing accuracy
for the period September 1 to December 31, 1944, graphically depicted the
effects of weather on operational performance. Of the seventy-three days in the
period in which the Eighth conducted heavy-bomber operations, visual means
could be used on only twenty-six days. Only 14 percent of the Eighth's bombing
was done by visual means under good visibility. Even in good visibility (no
cloud cover, no German smoke screens, or haze), high altitude and smoke from
preceding bombing meant that only 30 percent of the bombs landed within 1,000
feet of their aiming point. Thirty-five percent of the bombing employed H2X
through complete cloud cover. The possibility that bombs would land within
1,000 feet of an aiming point was 150 times greater with good visibility than
with H2X through 100 percent cloud cover. 88

Even for visual targets, bombing accuracy in the fourth quarter of the year
fell a dramatic 40 percent — a drop that the report attributed to more heavily
defended targets, longer missions, and poor flying conditions. More flak at the
target meant increased altitudes and decreased accuracy. Table 5 shows the
abysmal results obtained for 58 percent of the bombing employing H2X. An
official postwar survey admitted, "It cannot be said that this equipment [H2X]
was in any sense a precision bombing instrument."89

The German synthetic oil industry, particularly, benefited from cloud cover
and man-made smoke screens. Large-scale visual attacks on September 11, 12,
and 13 brought the production of aviation fuel to a virtual halt from September
1 1 to 19.90 For the month, the fourteen chief hydrogenation plants produced
only 5,300 tons, one-thirtieth of their May 1944 production.^! In October, how-
ever, the Eighth dropped more tonnage on military equipment targets than on oil
targets. It also conducted only three oil raids using completely visual means. As
a result, German aviation gas production tripled to 16,400 tons. In November,
the Eighth did not have a single completely visual attack on an oil targets.
Although it devoted 39 percent of its bombing effort (16,147 tons) aided by 32
percent of the Fifteenth's efforts (4,837 tons) and 24 percent of Bomber
Command's (13,060 tons), German aviation gasoline production doubled again
to 35,400 tons.

In December, the Eighth Air Force diverted much of its energy to helping
the ground forces repel the German Ardennes counteroffensive at the Battle of
the Bulge. Hitler's last gamble to win the war on the Western Front, which
began December 16, was initially successful but within two weeks it had been
contained by the Allies. Communications bombing and tactical support for the
Battle of the Bulge lowered the Eighth's capacity to bomb oil targets. Conse-
quently, the Eighth delivered only 2,940 tons of bombs, only 7.2 percent of its

504

Stalemate

Table 5

The Relationship between H2X Bombing Accuracy and Cloud Cover
September 1-December 31, 1944

Estimated Percentage of Bombs within Standard Distances around Assigned

Aiming Point

Reported Percentage
Cloud 1,000 Feet 'bMile 1 Mile 3 Miles 5 Miles of Total
Cover Eighth

Air Force

10/10

0.2

1.2

5.6

39.8

58.5

8-9/10

1.0

7.3

22.5

67.4

82.0

6-7/10

2.0

12.5

36.5

84.0

90.5

4-5/10

4.4

22.8

48.5

89.1

96.0

Based on Eighth Air Force Operations Analysis Section, "Report on Bombing Accuracy, Eighth Air
Force, 1 September to 31 December 1944," April 20, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Subject File 1929-1945.

total monthly tonnage, on oil targets. The Fifteenth, however, picked up the
slack, employing 43.5 percent of its total effort and dropping 6,939 tons on oil
targets. Bomber Command, with its ability to drop heavier bombs than the AAF,
delivered the most punishing single blow in a night attack, December 6-7, on
Leuna-Merseburg. This attack, combined with two Eighth Air Force raids,
stopped all production at Leuna for December, the chief reason German aviation
gasoline production declined to 23,400 tons in that month.92

Despite diversions and weather, the offensive against oil targets in the fall of
1944 kept the total of oil production from all sources in Germany to only one-
third of production in January 1944.93 (See Chart 8, Total German Synthetic
Fuel Production, 1940-1945.)

The oil plants required repeated attacks in part because of the Germans'
repair efforts and in part because of the low accuracy of the bombing. Out of
every 100 bombs dropped on oil plants, 87 missed the target completely, 8
landed in open spaces inside the plant causing no damage, 2 landed on the plant,
but failed to explode, 1 hit pipelines or other utilities causing repairable damage,
and 2 hit buildings and important equipment.^^

505

Charts

Total German Synthetic Fuel Production, 1940-1945

Stalemate

These figures emphasize the vital importance of visual bombing; postwar
data indicate that full visual bombing of the oil plants scored five times as many
hits as full-instrument attacks.^^

In the last third of the year the Eighth devoted increasing attention to rail
installations, tracks, marshaling yards, and stations — components of the mar-
shaling yard target complex.96 The Eighth delivered the bulk of its bombs non-
visually, which meant that the area around the target, invariably a city, was
drenched. In September, the Eighth released 13,053 tons of bombs (33 percent
visual sighting, 32 percent of monthly total) on marshaling yards, exceeding the
total of the previous three months, in which it had assisted the ground troops and
bombed Crossbow targets. The figure went up in October to 18,844 tons (5 per-
cent visual sighting, 43 percent of monthly total), fell in November to only
11,829 tons (14 percent visual sighting, 29 percent of monthly total) when the
Eighth rained bombs on the oil industry, and rose in December to 22,921 tons
(30 percent visual sighting, 55 percent of monthly total) when the Eighth aided
the ground forces against the German Ardeimes coimteroffensive by pummeling
enemy transport lines feeding the attack.^?

This deluge of bombs played havoc with the German rail system or Reichsbahn.
The Reichsbahn and, to a lesser extent, the German river and canal transport
system, like the bloodstream carrying oxygen, carried coal to German industry.
Without coal, all war production would grind to a halt, as the factories and
power plants consumed the last of their stockpiles. The Reichsbahn also trans-
ported other raw materials and fmished and semifinished assemblies from sub-
contractors to factories, while hauling completed arms and munitions to military
depots. Troop trains and military supply trains had the highest priority, followed
by coal trains. All other traffic, including essential war production traffic, would
be cut back in favor of the highest-priority trains. In striking the marshaling
yards and canals, the Eighth tightened the same deadly tourniquet around the
artery supplying coal to the German war economy as it had around the synthetic
oil plants feeding the German military machine.

If the oil campaign was Spaatz's contribution to winning the war, the trans-
portation campaign was Tedder's. Tedder was fortunate that Spaatz willingly
aided him because Harris continued his area bombing campaign. Spaatz had
sound technical reasons for striking marshaling yards. The terrible weather of
the fall of 1944 compelled his forces to bomb blind, which meant bombing tar-
gets that could be picked up on H2X. As mentioned earlier, the Germans had
located synthetic oil plants away from cities. Although large, these facilities
were not large enough to give a consistently identifiable return on H2X radar.
They had to be bombed by visual means in order to achieve a reasonable return
on the effort invested to get to them. Bombs that missed the synthetic plants
usually fell in open coimtry where they did little harm. However, H2X had no
trouble locating cities and the marshaling yards within them and, given any

507

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

break in the clouds, the yards would be well hit. But therein lay the tragic
conundrum of the strategic bombing campaign: a well-hit marshaling yard
meant a well-hit city, with block upon block of residential areas gutted, families
left homeless, small businesses smashed, and workers and others — including
women and children — ^blown to bits or, more likely, bumed or crushed by the
hundreds, if not the thousands.*

Eighth Air Force policy increased the likelihood of area bombing. On
October 29, 1944, a memorandum defining standard procedure for operations set
the policy for attack on secondary and last-resort targets:

1. No towns or cities in Germany will be attacked as secondary or last
resort targets, targets of opportunity, or otherwise, unless such towns contain or
have immediately adjacent to them, one (1) or more military objectives.
Military objectives include railway lines; junctions; marshalling yards; railway
or road bridges, or other communications networks; any industrial plant; £uid
such obvious military objectives as oil storage tanks, military camps and bar-
racks, troop concentrations, motor transport or AFV parks, ordnance or supply
depots, ammunition depots; airfields; etc.

2. Combat crews will be briefed before each mission to insure that no tar-
gets other than military objectives in Germany are attacked.

3. It has been determined that towns and cities large enough to produce an
identifiable return on the H2X scope generally contain a large proportion of the

military objectives listed above. These centers, therefore, may be attacked as
secondary or last resort targets by through- the-overcast bombing technique.'*

Almost every city or town in Germany with a population exceeding 50,000
met the foregoing criteria. This policy made it open season for bombing
Germany's major cities in any weather. Those cities fortunate enough not to
show up on H2X could still be bombed by visual or visually assisted means. If
the AAF did not actually abandoned its precision techniques for area and terror
bombing in this memo, it came perilously close.

On September 5, the Eighth began to inflict the death-of-a-thousand-cuts on
the German transportation system (see Map 16, Greater German Transport
Network) with a raid of 218 B-24s dropping, by visual means, 463 tons on the
Karlsruhe marshaling yards. Escorting and sweeping fighters strafed transporta-
tion targets and claimed 192 aircraft destroyed on the ground.99 In attacks
mounted on October 14, 15, 17, and 18, the Eighth bombed Cologne, employing
for the most part H2X radar and in one the far more accurate Gee-H radar/ground
beacon system. These raids, plus raids on Hamm and RAF raids on Duisburg and

* Everyone in Germany had heard, in one form or another, of the old grandfather who had gone
into city X with five coffins for his son, daughter-in-law, and their three children, killed in an Allied
bombing raid, only to return with the remains of all in a single bucket.

508

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Wedau on October 14, almost shut down the coal railroad gateways leading
from the Ruhr. They temporarily cut coal traffic by 80 percent. The October 14
strike by U.S. planes at Cologne not only damaged the yards but by a stroke of
extraordinary chance set off the demolition charges affixed to the Cologne-
Mulheimer Bridge. The 13,000-ton suspension span, roadway intact, collapsed
into the Rhine River, blocking navigation. Only unusually high water later in the
winter allowed a few days of traffic to float over the wreckage.lOO On October
29, Ultra revealed this debacle to the Allies. lOl By the end of October, as a
result of Allied bombing, Germany's three most important western waterways
had ceased to function at the time of their highest use before the winter freeze
drastically lowered their efficiency.

The Reichsbahn had great reserves: rolling stock and locomotives looted
from all of Europe; an abundance of trackage for alternate routes; and well-
trained, relatively numerous repair crews. All this did not suffice. By the first
week of November, 50,000 "workers" from Holland reinforced repair crews. By
mid-November the Germans committed 161,000 workers, 95,000 of them in the
Ruhr. Marshaling yards had top priority. On November 29, Hitler allowed Speer
to send 150,000 laborers, taken from all sections of the country, including some
engaged in fortification work, to the Ruhr. But enormous inputs of unskilled
labor could not substitute for exhausted trained crews. Repairs to constantly
bombed yards consumed spare parts, signals, switches, and rails. Bombs
churned up the earth, making it unable to support the rails and flattened the
switching humps, dramatically decreasing the yards' ability to marshal cars into
proper trains. 102

Unable to use wrecked or unrepaired telecommunications equipment,
Reichsbahn and German industrial managers made fatal recourse to their code
machines. By November 1944 the British Government Code and Cypher School —
the Ultra organization — had broken two Reichsbahn Enigma keys (code-
named Blunderbuss and Culverin) for Germany and the west and some arma-
ment industry Geheimschreiber settings (Fish).* A November 8 decryption
called for more use of waterways. Other decryptions spoke of increased antiair-
craft defenses for traffic installations, and a January 1 decryption stated that
fighter-bomber attacks (from the Ninth Air Force) in the area between the Moselle
and the Saarland had ruined weeks of repair work, eliminated telephone facili-
ties, and made it impossible to reroute trains.l03

This cumulative destruction of the yards took its toll on the economy. Items
of military necessity, troop and vital supply trains, could get through on a single
track, which could be opened in a few hours or days. Even so, point-to-point
travel times in Germany lengthened. But one through line did not a fimctioning

* The Geheimschreiber was a more advanced machine than the Enigma and was used for
Hitler's and other high-ranking officials' traffic.

510

Stalemate

marshaling yard make. Raid after raid, repair after repair, each not quite as good
as the last, reduced the capacity of the yards in an ever-descending spiral, doom-
ing the German war economy. The thousands of separate items needed for pro-
duction, not to mention coal, piled up at the factories and shaft heads or lay idle
in marshaling yards or sidings, as the trains to haul them could no longer be put
together. By November the Reichsbahn got a chilling glimpse of its future. It
could not even Jceep its own fireboxes full. Instead of the normal twenty-day
supply of hard coal, the system's supply stood at eleven days on November 5,
ten days on November 11, nine on November 18, eight days on November 20,
six days on December 1, and five days on December 12. The east suffered as
badly as the west, and in the south, cut off from the Ruhr by shattered rail lines,
empty bins testified to a complete coal famine. 1^4

When the Reichsbahn resorted to brown coal for its fuel, locomotive power
dropped, repair intervals tripled, and a much larger smoke cloud made the
engines easier targets for roving Allied fighter-bombers and fighters. Reduced to
a hand-to-mouth fuel situation in one of the greatest coal producing countries in
the world, and unable to marshal necessary trains, the Reichsbahn imposed fiu--
ther embargoes on cargo. In the western areas, only coal and Wehrmacht troop
and supply shipments were allowed; not even food or armament production
trains could be placed.* The railroads even refused a plea from the Ministry of
Food and Agriculture for additional car space for the harvest. 105 Clearly, the
economic life of Germany was ebbing away. Yet, like the Wehrmacht and the
Luftwaffe, the Reichsbahn was capable of one last effort, which Hitler demanded
and squandered in his futile Ardennes counteroffensive.

The Resurgence of the Luftwaffe

Spaatz's chief concern during the fall of 1944 was a possible resurgence in
the effectiveness of the Luftwaffe's fighter force. September 1944, the month in
which Germany produced its wartime high of 3,375 fighter aircraft (thanks to
high priorities given fighter production and to a thorough dispersal program for
the fighter assembly plants), gave indications that such a resurgence could
occur. On September 1 1 and 12, large numbers of Luftwaffe fighters opposed
Eighth Air Force missions directed against important oil hydrogenation plants
for the first time since the oil strikes in May 1944. The Eighth lost 75 heavy
bombers on those two missions.

On September 27, when the Eighth hit industrial and transportation targets,
the Luftwaffe demonstrated its still deadly effectiveness against unescorted
bomber formations. Using newly developed tactics based on the development of

* In railroad tenninoJogy placing is the assembly and ordering of cars within a train. Normally,
placing occurs only in a marshaling yard.

511

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

the Sturmgruppe (literally storm group, a special bomber assault unit consisting
of heavily armored FW 190 fighters equipped with rapid-firing 30mm cannons),
the Luftwaffe pounced on the 445th Bomb Group, whose 37 B-24s had wan-
dered out from under the protective umbrella of its escort. In the three minutes
between the bombers' plea for help and the arrival of the 361st Fighter Group's
P-51s, Sturmgruppe IIIJG4' s 48 aircraft disrupted the formation and shot down

26 bombers; 2 more badly damaged bombers crashed in France. This was the
largest loss by a single group during a mission ever experienced by the Eighth.
The other 1,155 bombers dispatched lost only 2 bombers to enemy action.

The Sturmgruppe' s heavily armed and armored planes proved a double-
edged weapon. Additional weight severely hampered their maneuverability. The
nimble Mustang P-51s of a single squadron of the 361st probably saved the
remainder of the 445th; they certainly avenged their comrades. They intercepted
the Sturmgruppe and its escort of Bf 109s, shooting down 18 fighters — the
Eighth Air Force record for kills by a single squadron in a single day. 107

This increase in Luftwaffe activity did not go unremarked by Spaatz or
Arnold. On September 3, Maj. Gen. Frederick L. Anderson, with Spaatz 's
approval, warned Arnold of USSTAF's concern over the progress of the
Germans in fielding their new jet fighter, the Me 262. Anderson described the
attacks the AAF in Europe plaimed to make on the enemy's jet airframe, engine,
and fuel-manufacturing facilities, and on the experimental and training airfields.
Two of USSTAF's greatest worries were (1) the Germans' obvious intention to
use their jets against Allied photographic reconnaissance aircraft and (2) the
small, dispersed underground sites where the jets themselves were assembled.
Anderson requested the earliest possible deployment of the American jet fighter,
the P-80.108 Arnold replied that the AAF in the United States was working hard
to meet Spaatz's requirements. New, more effective P-51s and P-47s had gone
into production, and so would the P-80 when its development was finished.
Arnold also promised to send the latest bombing-through-overcast radar devices
as they became available. '0^

The terrible losses absorbed by the 445th had a sobering effect on the heavy-
bomber commanders. Although the Luftwaffe never duplicated the September

27 feat, the Americans had to assume that it would. On September 28, Doolittle
wrote to Spaatz. He cited a gradual increase in the strength and aggressiveness
of the Luftwaffe as a reason periodically to give "first priority to the conduct of
winter air operations on the German Air Force-in-being to insure that their air-
craft productive capacity does not get out of hand." Doolittle added, "It is inex-
pedient for us to permit them to build up their force to a point where, even
though we fly the maximum number of our limited escort fighters on every deep
penetration bomber mission, they are able, in their periodic attacks, to take a
serious toll of bombers."!

Three weeks later, a still worried Doolittle described the new Sturmgruppe
tactics:

512

Stalemate

The Germans have developed a "line abreast" method of attack and it has
proved so effective that they are now using it almost to the exclusion of other
forms of attack. The concentrated fire from "line abreast" attacks has greatly
reduced the effectiveness of the defensive fire of our bombers. Once a 'line
abreast' attack is launched, it is practically impossible to break up that particu-
lar attack unless our fighters are in a position between the bombers and the
attacking enemy. Split-second timing is necessary and we do not have enough
fighters to give close cover to all of our bombers."'

Doolittle pleaded for the forward deployment of a new and more effective
Allied radar. He informed Spaatz that microwave early warning radar (MEW)
should come forward to Luxembourg where, with its 250-mile range, it could
observe enemy fighter formations as they formed up, direct and control friendly
fighters, pinpoint bomber forces and direct them to the vicinity of their targets in
overcast, and help Allied aircraft locate home or emergency fields in very bad
weather. "It is my personal opinion," added Doolittle, "and that of our fighter
controllers, that with our M.E.W. located on the Continent, operated by the
Eighth Air Force and tied in with this headquarters by adequate communica-
tions, the effectiveness of Eighth Air Force fighters will be increased at least
50%."ll2

Spaatz shared Doolittle's feeling of alarm, but he focused on potential and
actual German technical advances. At the beginning of October he wrote to
Lovett, "The Luftwaffe has raised its head a bit in the past week or so by means
of jet propelled or rocket planes that are now able to carry on reconnaissance
which was denied to them prior to D-Day and up until quite recently."! 13 At
about the same time he wrote to Arnold expressing a more pessimistic outiook:
"There is every chance, I think, that the Germans may be using proximity fuzes*
or an improved type of radar control for their flak. We can't prove this yet and
our increased flak losses may be due simply to the fact that they are concentrat-
ing all their available flak in a smaller area." Spaatz also expressed concern
about German jet aircraft: "The Hun has still got a lot of fight left in him, even
in the air, and we must concentrate to kill him off if possible before he can
develop these new threats against us."ii4

* The proximity, or variable time (VT), fuze was an "influence" fuze. The fuze contained a
miniature wet-cell battery and a five-tube two-way radio activated by the impact of the firing
artillery piece. It transmitted a 140-foot doughnut-shaped signal, which, in proximity to aircraft or
the ground, reflected back to the fuze, triggering an electric impulse that detonated the shell.
Although it was difficult to manufacture, and, as a consequence, had a high dud rate, it was the most
effective antiaircraft fuze of the war. It eliminated the extremely difficult problem of fuze setting for
larger antiaircraft artillery guns, increasing the effect of antiaircraft fire by approximately 300 per-
cent. The shell was developed in strict secrecy and first employed by the U.S. Navy in the Pacific.
The V-1 campaign in the summer of 1944 prompted its use in England. Not until raid-December
1944 did the Americans employ it on the European continent. See Frank E. Comparato, Age of the
Great Guns: Cannon Kings and Cannoneers who Forged the Firepower of Artillery (Harrisburg,
Pa.: Stackpole, 1965), pp. 265-267, for a more detailed description of the fiize and its effectiveness.

513

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

RAF Air Intelligence added to Spaatz 's unease. On October 1, AI estimated,
correctly, that in September the Germans had reached a new monthly high in
single-engine fighter plane production and predicted, incorrectly, that the
upward trend would continue. AI assessed the current Luftwaffe single-engine
fighter strength at 2,000 and guessed that it could rise to 2,500 in six months. An
October 3 Ultra decryption showed a Luftwaffe reorganization shifting fighter
forces back to the defense of the Reich. Six days later, signal intelligence dis-
closed Goering's orders reducing close support fighters in the west by 150 air-
craft and adding that number to strategic defense. '15

On October 4, Spaatz, in an "Eyes Only" letter to Arnold, showed that the
shock of the attack on the 445th Bombardment Group had abated. After noting
that recent losses were "not unduly high," he said, "I am reasonably sure that, at
the present time, the Germans have no new weapons that are causing our losses,
although I am not overlooking the possibility of proximity fuzes, and better
ammunition and sights for their fighters."! 16 Nevertheless, Spaatz retained enough
concem that he authorized the Fifteenth Air Force to abandon temporarily the oil
campaign if it felt the need to defend itself by attacking airfields and aircraft
production. 117

After approving the forward move of the theater's only microwave early
warning radar set, Spaatz sought to enhance intelligence operations. On October
20, he asked Portal to move the RAF "Y" Service tactical radio interception unit
from England to the Continent, arguing, "In as much as the German defensive
measures appear to be increasing in capacity and efficiency, it is of vital impor-
tance to the successful continuation of our daylight bombing operations that we
obtain . . . every possible means to improve the efficiency of our fighter cover-
age."! 18 The same day Spaatz wrote to Air Vice-Marshal Robb, head of SHAEF's
air section, "The increasing efficiency of German Air Force operations against our
penetration necessitates that every means be taken to improve the efficiency of
our own fighter operations in their protection of the bombers." Thereupon,
Spaatz requested improved voice and teletype circuits to enable better commimi-
cations linking Eighth Air Force Headquarters, Ninth Air Force Advanced
Headquarters, the MEW set in Luxembourg, and the "Y" Service unit moving to
the Continent. !!9

Additional signal intelligence may have heightened Spaatz's concem. In
mid-October RAF Air Intelligence informed the British Joint Intelligence
Committee that the Germans had enough fuel for advanced fighter training and
maximum deployment for defense of the Reich. AI added that front-line fighter
strength had risen 25 percent from August 1 and would continue to increase.
From this data AI concluded that the Luftwaffe, in conjunction with its jet and
rocket aircraft, might secure some degree of air superiority over Germany,
thereby enabling it to protect vital war industries during the upcoming winter.l^O
On October 17, a signal from Luftflotte Reich, decrypted by Bletchley Park the

514

Stalemate

next day, gave close-support forces the main task of engaging Allied air forces
in the rear of the operational area and over the population working on the West
Wall (German border fortifications). They would undertake ground support only
in critical situations. An October 26 decryption of an October 18 message unam-
biguously set the Luftwaffe's main task as the strategic defense of the Father-
land and warned of impending transfers of additional ground support fighters to
air defense. 121 None of this could have added to Spaatz's peace of mind.

Spaatz visited Bradley at his headquarters on October 21. After being
briefed on the 12th Army Group's plans for an attack on November 10, Spaatz
told Bradley of his concern about the German air buildup. Spaatz feared that
daylight bombing into Germany would become very expensive and that the
strategic air force might have to lose "about 40,000 crew members" in order to
maintain present air superiority. Spaatz added that it was essential for the army
to press forward to the Rhine in order to obtain advanced airfields that would
enable the Ninth to move forward and the Eighth to send its fighters into the
continental fields vacated by the Ninth. Such a move would almost double the
effectiveness of his fighters, Spaatz declared. Bradley replied that if good flying
weather appeared likely, he could advance the date of his attack to November 5.
Spaatz responded that the strategic air forces were prepared to lay down a bar-
rage wherever Bradley requested it, weather permitting. In any case, Spaatz
promised to aid Bradley's attack by operating the Eighth's fighters just to the
east of the Rhine to enable the Ninth's fighters to concentrate on Bradley's
immediate front.l22if nothing else, this interchange between Bradley and Spaatz
demonstrated more integration and interdependence between the ground and
strategic air efforts than is usually conceded by the proponents of either effort.

This conversation probably had little influence on Bradley's plans; he made
no mention of it in his memoirs. The U.S. Army official history does note, how-
ever, that one reason Eisenhower and his advisers [Spaatz?] wished to avoid a
halt in operations in November was that they feared such a pause might give the
Germans the chance to increase jet fighter production and discover the proxim-
ity fuze "which might blast Allied bombers from the skies."l23

The weather, as Spaatz anticipated, did not cooperate. Patton's Third Army
began its attack toward Metz on November 8. Hodges's First Army, which had
included a massive air bombardment as a prelude to its attack, postponed action
from November 10 to November 16 because the heavy bombers could not fly
until then. This attack, code-named Operation Queen, far exceeded the St.
Lo/CoBRA attack in technical efficiency. Unfortunately, its ultimate effective-
ness came nowhere close to the proficiency of its predecessor in Normandy. In
its preparations and execution Queen showed how far the Eighth Air Force had
come in its ground support role. Instead of only a few days' preparation,
Doolittle rehearsed his forces thoroughly for the assault. On November 7 he
conducted a full-scale "experimental" practice attack on a target in England to

515

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

test safety measures. He also insisted that he have more input into advance plan-
ning; if he had only short notice, the Army "must expect the hazards incidental
to support from heavy bombers."124

Unlike earlier bomber-support attacks, Queen employed elaborate measures
to mark the front lines. In addition to sixty-four 90mm antiaircraft artillery
pieces that fired colored shells, giant ground-marking panels laid out by the
troops, and a string of barrage balloons, the Eighth set up a series of radio and
radar beacons close to the line. The planes would bomb no closer than 3,600
yards from the troops, well over twice the margin used in the St. L6 attack. 125

On the morning of November 16, a total of 1,191 Eighth Air Force heavy
bombers dropped their fragmentation bombs through overcast, killing only one
American soldier and wounding only three with short bombs. An additional
1,188 Bomber Command aircraft bombed and cratered areas flanking the assault
in the hope of preventing enemy reinforcement. Unfortunately, this attack.
World War II's largest air attack in direct support of ground troops, did not pro-
duce results commensurate with efforts. Because of the large safety zone, most
bombs fell beyond the German main line of resistance, striking artillery posi-
tions and fortuitously cutting up a German infantry division caught in the open
while relieving a front-line unit. After a few hours, enemy resistance stiffened.
Subsequent fighting produced no spectacular breakthrough, only more dogged
attritional warfare. The air commanders blamed the large safety zone for poor
results, because it prevented a rapid follow-up by the ground forces.i26 Spaatz
commented to Arnold: "As a result of these operations, it has very definitely
been established that unless there is a quick follow up of the bombardment by
ground troops, the enemy recovers from the shock and the effect of the bombing
is vitiated."l27

Other factors prevented this attack from achieving the tremendous results of
the St. L6 breakthrough. First, the U.S. ground forces did not launch so highly
concentrated an attack as in Normandy. Second, the Germans — in conttast to
their attenuated situation in France — had adequate reserves, which allowed them
to seal any break in their lines before it became critical. Even if Queen had
severely damaged the front-line troops, it would have made no lasting break.

At the beginning of December the Allies seriously considered diverting
more strategic effort to the direct support of their bogged-down ground troops to
achieve an immediate end to hostilities. Why bomb strategic targets when the
war might be over in sixty days? On December 5, the air commanders and
Eisenhower met at Versailles "to devise some means of using the strategic air
forces in such a way as to bring about an early decision on the Western Front."l28

After opening the meeting by acknowledging the stalemated position of the
ground forces and the pressure from the CCS to end the war quickly, Tedder
suggested possible solutions: (1) conducting another QuEEN-type operation or
(2) providing continuous close support by heavy bombers over a long period of

516

Stalemate

time. By limiting the airmen to these two options. Tedder hoped that Eisenhower
would understand what extended heavy-bomber support would cost him in terms
of damage not inflicted on the interior of Germany. Spaatz spoke up immedi-
ately. He could deliver 40,000 to 50,000 tons of bombs per month. Of that total,
10,000 tons of bombs were needed to keep German production down at ten oil
facilities, which, if they could continue operating uninterrupted for a month,
might bring forth 400,000 tons of all types of fuel. In addition, Spaatz suggested
that the antitransportation attacks had begun to show results and should continue
to receive "some effort." As for the Luftwaffe, it could be limited by air battle
alone without Allied recourse to bombing. Hence perhaps 30,000 tons of bombs
were left for tactical support.l29

After Spaatz's recitation, Tedder skillfully guided the meeting toward the
conclusion that he and most of the other airmen supported: the strategic air
forces should moimt QuEEN-like operations when required, but should also per-
severe with the strategic bomber offensive. From Coningham and Quesada
Tedder extracted agreement that heavy-bomber carpet bombing would not mate-
rially assist the tactical air forces at present. Tedder also gained from Doolittle
and Harris agreement that QuEEN-like operations would be the most effective
type of ground support operation for the heavy bombers. Doolittle noted that the
Eighth had begun to train strategic air support parties and plaimed to have an air-
borne air controller to assist in future operations. 130

The airmen emphasized to Eisenhower that they thought QuEEN-like opera-
tions would be most effective only if they supported troops actually moving for-
ward. Repeated and continued bombings of targets such as villages and towns
immediately behind the front lines would accomplish virtually nothing. Eisen-
hower agreed and closed by paying the air forces a compliment: "It was impos-
sible to convince the Army that the battle of St. L6 had not been won as a result
of the direct support given by the 8th Air Force."i3l

The next day, Spaatz flew to Patton's headquarters and offered him the
direct support of the heavy bombers during the attack on the Siegfried Line in a
week or ten days. Because Patton's attack would occur at the boundary between
Devers's 6th Army Group and Bradley's 12th Army Group, Spaatz also visited
Devers on December 7 and Bradley on December 8.132 However, the German
Ardennes counteroffensive caused the hurried shelving of this initiative.

As the Eighth prepared for Queen and possible ground-support missions,
Spaatz fretted over the Luftwaffe, which now had far more fighter aircraft than
ever before. From the all-time high of 3,375 fighters in September, production
fell off only slightly to 2,975 machines in October and to 2,995 and 2,630 in the
last two months of the year. 133 if the Luftwaffe had possessed the fuel necessary
to train its pilots properly and to oppose all raids in strength, this formidable
force might have fulfilled the hopes of its masters. Despite their severe losses in
the quarter ending December 31, 1944, the Germans placed 4,219 more aircraft

517

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

into service than they lost, 90 percent of them fighters.l34

The Germans were at cross-purposes about how to deploy this force. Maj.
Gen. Adolph Galland, the Luftwaffe day-fighter commandant, and Speer hoped
to use it to defend Germany from the Allied heavy bombers. On October 5,
Speer concluded a report to Hitler on the oil situation with this recommendation:
"Raise the effective fighting capacity of the German fighter force to such a
height as is absolutely possible, to add all available machines to its strength, and
then concentrate this fighter force for the protection of the home armaments and
war production."l35

In the meantime, Galland, according to his postwar interrogations, suc-
ceeded in convincing Goering and the Luftwaffe General Staff that the fighter
forces needed a period of rest and rehabilitation before being returned to com-
bat.136 Alternatively, Hitler may have decided at that point to allow the conser-
vation of fighters in order to save them for his plaimed counteroffensive. In any
case, probably unaware of Hitler's plans, Galland confidently began to imple-
ment his own scheme. He stripped Italy and Austria of German fighters,
increased the number of planes per group to 68, made sure that each group
received fifteen hours (a pitiful amount) of special training in air defense, and
reorganized the command structure to reflect the actual basing of his aircraft.
By early November he claimed a strength of 3,000 aircraft, 2,500 of them oper-
ational.137 The Eighth and Ninth Air Forces had a paper strength of 4,204 fight-
ers,i38 with a high serviceability rate, and the British could add 2,000 more
fighter aircraft. Galland claimed that he had achieved a satisfactory resolution
to fighter leadership personnel problems and, although he admitted that fuel
shortages hampered training, he maintained that all formations had had enough
time to complete their courses.

Galland planned to use this rejuvenated force in a series of "Big Blows"
against the Eighth Air Force. The first interception would consist of 1,000 fight-
ers, 300 to 400 of which would refuel and attack again. A further 80 to 100 night
fighters would pick off cripples headed for Sweden or Switzerland. ' 39 Under
Galland's direction, the fighter force carefully practiced the tactics required for
such a large-scale operation and awaited the combination of a clear day and a
deep bomber penetration to put their preparations into practice. 140 with all in
readiness by November 12, Galland hoped to shoot down 500 bombers in a sin-
gle day. He expected to lose an equal number of fighters and 150 pilots. This
effort, he thought, would force the Americans to resume bombing the aircraft
industry (instead of oil targets) and perhaps give the Germans the chance to hold
the Soviets while making a separate peace with the Anglo-American Allies, l^l

The weather in mid-November never provided the clear day both the AAF
and the Luftwaffe hoped for. In late November Galland received orders to trans-
fer fighters to the Western Front, ostensibly to defend against a coming Allied
attack, but, as he subsequently realized, in reality to assist the counteroffen-
sive. 1^2 Once engaged in the Battle of the Bulge, the pilots, without even mini-

518

Stalemate

mal training in ground support, and their machines rapidly succumbed to the
massive air power the Alhes applied to halt the attack. One of Germany's last
hopes to protect its industry — a slim hope, given the poor performance of its
pilots — went down in flames as the fighter arm dissipated itself in vain attempts
to assist the German ground forces. During the Battle of the Bulge the Germans
lost hundreds of fighters in air-to-air combat and hundreds more in ground
attacks, including more than 200 on a spectacular but ineffective New Year's
Day raid on Allied airfields.

No full-scale Big Blow was ever launched; but the tactics and control tech-
niques developed in case it was must have aided the Luftwaffe in fielding its
three largest interceptions of the war. On November 2, 21, and 26 at least 500
German fighters arose to defend their Fatherland. These interceptions evoked
both consternation and relief within USSTAF and the Eighth — consternation
because such large forces could be marshaled and relief because they were inef-
fective. In the entire month of November the AAF credited German fighters
with the destruction of only 50 heavy bombers, a far cry from the 314 bombers
shot down by enemy fighters in April. 143 What is more, the Luftwaffe paid a
heavy price. Even if the claims of the bomber gunners were invariably inflated,
American fighters, most of whose kills were recorded by gunsight cameras,
knocked down 102 enemy fighters on November 2, 68 on November 21, and
114 on November 26.144

Yet, the large-scale German interception on November 2 sent a shiver
through USSTAF. Three days later Spaatz wrote a long letter to Arnold explain-
ing his current thinking on the situation. "For some months we have been care-
fully weighing the build up of the German fighter force," reported Spaatz,
Showing that he had grasped at least the outline of Galland's Big Blow, Spaatz
continued:

It has been increasingly evident that the GAP was being processed to become a
major threat to our deep penetrations, in daylight, into Germany. The opera-
tions last Thursday, at which time the OAF hit our penetration with a well laid
plan, and in strength, resulted in an outstanding aerial victory for our forces.
However, this victory was attained because of almost perfect fighter cover and
because of a fortunate chain of circumstances which contributed to the decisive
outcome."'

Spaatz described four factors in the Luftwaffe's resurgence: conversion of
its remaining bomber pilots to fighter pilots, all-out expansion of the entire
fighter force, the highest-priority development and production of jet aircraft, and
perhaps most important, the continuation of a conservation policy. Spaatz noted
that the enemy met his critical oil shortage by not operating during the increas-
ing periods of poor weather or against shallow penetrations or well-escorted
bomber missions. "Thus," Spaatz informed Arnold, "it is possible that during
our deep penetrations we can be hit in force now, and this possibility is con-

519

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

General Dwight D. Eisenhower, Supreme Allied Commander, and his two leading
ground commanders, Lt. Gen. Jacob L. Devers (left), Commanding General, 6tb
Army Group, and Lt Gen. Omar N. Bradley (right), Commanding General, 12tli
Army Group, November 1944.

stantly increasing with the resurgence of the GAF during the winter. This is a
point of serious concern and may have a major effect on the war should it last
throughout the spring."i46

Spaatz went on to discuss the coimteimeasures necessary to avert the threat.
In his opinion the Eighth had too few fighters; with the influx of new bomber
groups in the spring and summer there was only one fighter to protect every two
bombers. This shortage posed a serious problem because it offered Spaatz only
two options: reducing the number of bombers sent on deep missions to a number
which the fighters could adequately cover, or sending out the maximum number
of bombers on each mission, knowing fiill well that a massive German attack
might overwhelm both a thinly spread escort and its flock. Spaatz regarded the
first alternative as unacceptable because winter weather limited the number of
good bombing days to a handful. With key targets protected by weather, flak,
and smoke screens, the only way to obtain a reasonable assurance of destruction
was by concentrating the maximum force on each target. Having decided to risk

520

Stalemate

Lt. Gens. Carl A. Spaatz, George S. Patton, and James H. Doolittle; Maj. Gen. Hoyt
S. Vandenberg, Commanding General, Ninth Air Force; and Brig. Gen. O. P.
Weyland, Commanding General, XIX Air Support Command, autumn 1944.

the second alternative, Spaatz strove to limit the Germans' opportunities for
attack. Microwave early warning radar and "Y" signal intercepts helped, but, as
he told Arnold, "a permanent movement of the Eighth Air Force fighters from
the U.K. to the Belgium-Holland area is the only real answer to increasing our
escort fighter density."l47 Such a move could not occur until the British 2d
Tactical Air Force moved forward and vacated its present fields, more commu-
nications equipment arrived to supplement the already overloaded equipment on
the Continent, and Montgomery succeeded in opening Antwerp. I'^S

In the meantime, the Americans took countermeasures. On November 27, the
Eighth sent two forces into Germany. The first, made up of 515 heavy bombers
escorted by 241 fighters, bombed marshaling yards in southwest Germany. The
second force, composed of 460 fighter bombers, headed for four oil centers in
northern and central Germany. Using radio deception methods to trick the
Germans into mistaking fighter formations for heavy bombers and aided by both
heavy overcast (which prevented ground observers from identifying the aircraft)
and newly deployed very high frequency radar jammers (which partially blinded
the German ground controllers), this force, vectored to the German fighter ren-
dezvous areas by the newly positioned MEW radar, provoked strong German
reaction. In the ensuing fighter melee the Americans claimed to have downed 98
enemy fighters, against a loss of 12 of their own. 149 As Spaatz observed to

521

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

General Giles, Chief of the Air Staff, two weeks later, "Our war is becoming a
radar war. We depend heavily on the operational capabilities of a small number
of radar sets of extraordinary performance." As H2X had increased the bombers'
effectiveness in the first half of 1944, the three MEW sets in the theater were
largely responsible, Spaatz said, "for the superiority of our fighters over
Germany. We are therefore willing to pay the high price of the introduction of
new and complicated apparatus because the return is proportionately high."i50

Arnold, too, felt the growing threat of the Luftwaffe. In his reply to Spaatz's
letter of November 5, he agreed on the urgency of getting the Eighth's fighters
to the Continent. He displayed a more open attitude than Spaatz did toward the
possibility of changing priorities such as increasing night bombing, sacrificing
heavy bomber effort in favor of more fighter sweeps, or creating a strategic
fighter force to conduct additional fighter sweeps. Arnold closed on a hopeful
note: "The staggering losses you have inflicted in the past few days suggest that
numerical increases in aircraft may not reflect the true position of the GAF."151

Another letter from AAF Headquarters in Washington, this time from
General Giles, further explained the attitude prevalent there. He admitted AAF
Headquarters' concern over the growing strength of the Luftwaffe and men-
tioned alternatives studied and rejected, including a suggestion for 500 addi-
tional fighters. "If we are to hit the Germans low with the fighters and high with
the bombers," wrote Giles, "it will have to be done with the means we know we
possess." Giles also seconded Spaatz's desire to get the fighters to the Continent
and supported the maximum use of heavy bombers. Finally, he expressed con-
cern about the accuracy of the Eighth's blind bombing.i52

At USSTAF, examination of November's operations restored a certain
amount of optimism. Spaatz wrote to Washington, "In spite of the buildup of
strength, his [the enemy's] overall effectiveness has not increased. In recent
operations, when he has come up to fight, we have destroyed as much as 25% of
his forces. . . . "153 if Spaatz's airmen could only get a break in the weather, they
could destroy the German fighter force and free the escorts to return to a purely
offensive role. "In the meantime," he assured Lovett, "our motto is — the maxi-
mum tonnage of bombs on Germany that the weather will permit."l54

Three days after his letter, three German armies plus supporting troops
stormed through the surprised American defenders in Belgium's Ardennes
Forest region and began to drive for the Meuse River and Antwerp. If they suc-
ceeded they would split the American and British army groups and possibly
crush each separately. The Luftwaffe supported this offensive with all its capa-
bilities. Spaatz and the other Allied airmen finally had the chance they had
sought to destroy the Luftwaffe.

522

Stalemate

Arnold and the Public Image of the AAF

The goal of winning the war dominated the thoughts and actions of both
Arnold and Spaatz. Nonetheless, the two also worked toward the fulfilbnent of
another goal, the independence of the Air Force within the U.S. military estab-
lishment. Toward this end, USSTAF had to present itself to the public and to its
elected representatives in the U.S. Congress in the best possible light — Whence,
Arnold's and Spaatz 's concern with the amount, quality, and type of press cov-
erage for the AAF.

Naturally, Arnold in Washington felt the need for a good press more acutely
than Spaatz in Europe. Amold dealt daily with the heads of the services, con-
gressional committees, the British Chiefs of Staff, the civilian politicians in
charge of the War Department, and, occasionally, the President — all in a gold-
fish-bowl atmosphere. As a result, he could assess the position of the AAF in the
hierarchy and its future prospects with a precision unobtainable elsewhere. The
AAF's position depended not only on its actual performance but on its perceived
performance as well. Amold, with his hand so close to the nation's pulse, at least
with regard to air matters, invariably pressed his air force commanders for favor-
able news items to convince the public of the AAF's importance to the war effort.
Spaatz, concerned as he was with the operation and administration of the AAF's
three largest numbered air forces, felt the pressure from Washington on public
relations and reacted to it.

The invasion of France caused an abrupt decline in the amount of press cov-
erage devoted to the AAF in Europe. Heretofore, the AAF, as the only ail-
American force in the ETO directly engaged in combat with the Nazis, had
enjoyed front-page coverage of its operations. Indeed, press attention further
focused on it because censorship and restrictions concerning the ground forces'
state of preinvasion preparations actively diverted attention from other U.S.
forces. After D-day the situation reversed itself. On June 8, Chief of the Air
Staff Giles wrote Spaatz, "We all appreciate your innumerable current problems
and your magnificent participation in the invasion. However, the newspapers
here are pressing us for some special material which I should like to have you
get together for us at the earliest practicable moment." Giles asked for a brief,
colorful overview of the air forces in action, with special stories on troop-carrier
and heavy-bomber operations. In a penciled note he requested stories on the
fighters, too.155

The breakout from Normandy and the drive to the Siegfried Line kept the
ground forces on the front pages. In late September, Amold wrote Spaatz, "I am
extremely concerned over current press releases stressing remarkable achieve-
ments of Ground Force commanders such as Hodges, Patton, and Patch in
speeding the war to an early and successful end with armor, mobile infantry, and
artillery occupying the spotlight." Instead Amold wanted to see

523

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

balanced narration of battles and offensives, with the effects of an action upon
the outcome being described in true relation to the overall success, one would
imagine that air power played a relatively small part in the liberation of the
occupied countries and the defeat of the German airmen therein. However, you
must apply pressure in Europe while I apply it here, to the end that our press
releases more nearly picture in proper balance the relative contribution of
ground, sea and air forces in our approach toward a complete victory over our
enemies.

Next, Arnold expressed his view on the necessity of a favorable public opinion
for air power. "I consider the whole subject of realistic reorientation of the pub-
lic's concept of the effects of air power upon the outcome of the war so impor-
tant that I will scour the country to provide you with the men most capable of
putting into words the achievements of the Army Air Forces."i56 Finally,
Arnold wanted Spaatz to emphasize that USSTAF was no longer under Eisen-
hower's control so that the public would know that the strategic air offensive
was playing an independent role in Europe.

Spaatz, who had appeared on the D-day cover of Time magazine, must at
first have wondered what more Arnold could want. In his reply, prepared by
Anderson, Spaatz shared Arnold's "concern over the inadequate attention given
to air operations in press and radio accounts of the war in Eiu"ope and other the-
aters."157 After describing various measures taken to remedy the situation,
Spaatz noted, "In case of a stalemate on the ground, our operations should
become top news once more." He then asked for twelve additional public rela-
tions officers for the Ninth Air Force. He also wrote that he had asked DooUttle
and Vandenberg "to redouble their efforts to help us achieve the results you
want."

In November, Arnold escalated his criticism of Spaatz's public relations

effort. Having just gained Marshall's permission to establish the AAF Office of
Information Servicesl^S to issue press releases, he groused to Spaatz, "I am
increasingly concerned about the display given accomplishments of the Air
Forces in your area by the American newspapers. Since these stories originate in
the theater, the primary reason for the monotonous presentations must be over
there."i59 in typical fashion Arnold informed Spaatz of his intention to send an
officer. Col. Rex Smith, Chief of the AAF Office of Information Services, out
"for a complete study of this situation for such remedial recommendations as are
necessary." Arnold expressed his opinion in no uncertain terms: "I consider this
problem of the highest priority in the Air Forces now ."160

Arnold passed the word informally, too. On the previous day, he had asked
Brig. Gen. George C. McDonald, Spaatz's Chief of Intelligence, who had come
to Washington to attempt to justify a large increase in USSTAF's intelligence
staff, to convey his concern. McDonald recorded that Arnold told him

524

Stalemate

that at the present time one had to turn to the inside pages of the newspapers to
find any mention of the Air Forces. He stated that among the hundreds of thou-
sands of Air Force personnel under General Spaatz, someone should be able to
glamorize the stories of the Air Force and give them freshness, interest and
vitality. He pointed out that on the front page, bold head-lines would appear
that a certain town of three hundred inhabitants, that no one had ever heard of,
was captured by General Patton's troops while the tremendous contributions of
the Air Forces are found on the seventh page of the New York Times. General
Arnold stated that he had been informed that the fault lay on the other side and
that General Spaatz would have to correct it within his command, that he would
not do the necessary [work] over here — it would have to begin with USSTAF
and its commands.'*'

On November 30, Spaatz received yet another letter from Arnold, delivered
by Colonel Smith, which elaborated on Arnold's demands for improved public
relations:

As you are no doubt aware, my concern is that through proper presentation to
the press the American people be given the facts necessary to a correct evalua-
tion of the part air power has played in the war, to the end that the United States
should not make the mistake of allowing through lack of knowledge the tearing
down in postwar years of what has cost us so much blood and sweat to build
up.'o^

Like all the professional soldiers of his generation, Arnold had never forgotten
the pell-mell demobilization of the U.S. armed forces that had followed World
War I.

Smith, on the first leg of a trip to all the combat theaters where the AAF
operated, brought with him a list of fifty points applicable to the writing of com-
muniques and press releases. Arnold wanted the list distributed to all AAF pub-
lic relations officers (PROs) and told Spaatz, "I feel your personal attention is
needed in insuring that the point of view is adequately presented to each PRO."
As a parting shot Arnold observed, "I trust that with all of us approaching the
vital question of public relations along more or less the same lines, we may
regain with the American public the position which we now only hold in the
minds of our enemies. "163

By December 9 Spaatz had reorganized his public relations effort, installing
Col. Hal Bowman, whom he had described as a fine officer with a first-class
combat record, as a new Deputy Chief of Staff with the primary function of rep-
resenting USSTAF to the press. '64 Spaatz told Vandenberg to make a similar
appointment. 165 By the end of the month, with matters apparently satisfactorily
in hand, USSTAF passed Rex Smith on to Ira Eaker in the Mediterranean.l66

By then the Battle of the Bulge had thoroughly tested the new public rela-
tions organization, and had graphically demonstrated once again the importance
of air power. The American papers practically tumbled over one another prais-
ing the AAF's efforts to stem the German tide.

525

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe
Conclusions

The last third of 1944 was for Spaatz, USSTAF, and all of the Allied forces
in the European Theater of Operations a time of frustration. The goal of defeat-
ing the Third Reich, which had seemed tantalizingly close in the beginning of
September, receded as the ground forces halted on the German border and an
exceptionally wet autumn severely hampered operations both on the land and in
the air. True, the sun refused to shine on either side, but it cannot be denied that
this situation favored the German land forces, the Luftwaffe, and the battered oil
plants more than the Allies. What the Allied leaders did not fully appreciate was
that the still-imposing facade of the Nazi state was hiding a gutted, bombed-out
building. Once they toppled the wall, which would still take some doing, noth-
ing of consequence would remain.

Despite Spaatz's success in keeping oil the top priority, German oil produc-
tion increased throughout the last third of the year, but remained a mere fraction
of what it was before the campaign began. Spaatz's fears that the Luftwaffe's
relative inactivity in September and October, coupled with high fighter-plane
production and the introduction of jet fighter aircraft, presaged a resurgence in
its effectiveness, proved exaggerated. USSTAF bomber casualties decreased
dramatically in the fourth quarter of the year, especially in view of the fact that
the size of its total bomber force had more than doubled from January to
December. (See Table 6, USSTAF Bomber Losses by Quarter, 1944-1945.)

The table shows that during the latter half of the year German fighter aircraft
effectiveness declined and Allied losses from antiaircraft fire increased. Both
results were to some extent the fault of the oil offensive, which had reduced the
fuel available to German fighters for training and operations while exposing
USSTAF's bombers to extremely heavy concentrations of antiaircraft guns. The
Leuna-Merseburg oil complex, for example, had heavier flak defenses than
Berlin.167 in addition, the table, to some extent, demonstrates the often unsung
contributions of the Fifteenth Air Force. Throughout 1944 the Fifteenth Air
Force had only half as many bombers assigned to it as the Eighth Air Force.
Thus, its losses suffered in the last six months of 1944 stand out dramatically. In
fact, during the period covered by this chapter, the Fifteenth was suffering
almost twice the rate of casualties as the Eighth. 1^8 The Fifteenth's lower-flying
B-24s paid in blood for the range that enabled them to fly from Italy to the
Reich's synthetic oil facilities.

By mid-September 1944 U.S. air power in Europe far exceeded the strength
envisaged for it in AAF prewar planning. Air War Plans Division/1 (AWPD/1)
of July 1941 had called for 44 heavy-bombardment groups (2,992 aircraft), 10
medium-bombardment groups (850 planes), and 16 fighter groups (2,080 air-
craft) to operate against Germany from Britain and the Near East. By August
31, 1944, the AAF in the European and Mediterranean Theaters of Operations

526

Table 6

USSTAF Bomber Losses by Quarter, 1944-1945
(Combined Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces)

Ami- Enemy Other

Year Total Aircraft Aircraft Unknown

Eighth AF
Losses

1944

1 Qtr.

819

220

487

112

2Qtr.

1,116

389

637

3 Qtr.

1,057

646

278

133

4 Qtr.

505

332

114

1945

973

624

199

150

Total

4,470

2,211

1,715

544

Fifteenth AF

Losses

1 QAA

1 Qtr.

267

168

2 Qtr.

565

251

243

3 Qtr.

665

353

182

120

4 Qtr.

477

289

169

1945

481

321

153

Total

2,455

1,254

626

575

USSTAF
Losses

1944

1 Qtr.

2,086

260

655

171

2 Qtr.

1,681

640

877

164

3 Qtr.

1,722

999

470

253

4 Qtr.

982

621

133

228

1945

1,454

945

206

303

Total

6,925

3,465

2,341

1,119

Compiled from AAF Statistical Digest, World War II, pp. 255-256, Tables 159 and 1 60.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

possessed 62 heavy-bombardment groups (4,980 planes), 18 medium-bombard-
ment groups (1,513 planes), and 45 fighter groups (4,969 planes), almost twice
the force outlined by AWPD/1.169 British Bomber Command added 1,871 more
heavy bombers and the British 2d Tactical Air Force supplied 293 medium
bombers and 999 fighters.l^O Against this enormous force, the Luftwaffe com-
mand on the Western Front mustered 431 fighter aircraft.!''!

In addition to their numerical advantage, the Allied strategic air forces had
gained control of their own operations. They ended the Crossbow campaign and
succeeded in temporarily bombing out all production of aviation fuel. The stage
seemed set for the rapid extinction of the German economy. Yet, althouth it had
begun to stumble, it continued to function at least until the beginning of 1945.
As General Hansell put it, the strategic bombing offensive "fatally weakened"
Germany in the fall of 1944. The bombing of oil, with its side effects on the
explosives and synthetic rubber industries, and of transportation, with its disrup-
tion of coal, ball bearings, and semifinished goods distribution, wreaked havoc
on the German military machine and economy. Precision bombing had wrecked
the oil plants in the summer 1944, but blind bombing in the autumn, although
allowing a slight increase in production, kept the plants suppressed. Similarly,
the blind bombing of cities containing marshaling yards dealt a body blow to the
German rail system. Instead of being a quick, surgical means of destroying
enemy war industry and morale, strategic bombing had developed into a weapon
of attrition which bludgeoned Germany into submission.

Several factors contributed to the failure of strategic bombing to end the war
more quickly. The Combined Bomber Offensive was embraced in name only.
Harris, following his strategy of area bombing, refused to cooperate even with
his own Air Staff, thereby shortchanging the oil and transportation campaigns
alike. Bomber Command's heavy bombs inflicted more damage than the lighter
American bombs; more heavy bombs dropped on oil targets would have signifi-
cantly mcreased the total damage to the synthetic petroleum industry. Harris's
stratagem of area bombing of cities, merely because they appeared on his list of
sixty-three cities suitable for bombing, wreaked great damage but did not neces-
sarily contribute to a coherent anti-transportation campaign. The weather
allowed only a few days of visual bombing, which the Eighth used to bomb oil
targets; 70 to 80 percent of USSTAF's effort involved radar assistance.

Under pressure from Arnold, Spaatz had to put more bombers into the air
and use his increased bombing capacity to the fullest. After devoting the maxi-
mum of his resources that conditions allowed against oil plants, Spaatz had to
find targets for the rest of the bomblift. He wavered between ordnance and
motor vehicles, which were targets requested by the ground forces, and trans-
portation, the system advocated by Tedder. After considering such schemes as
the Hurricane morale sweeps throughout Germany, Spaatz finally chose trans-
portation. No other system could absorb the force he had available, and signal
intelligence revealed its vulnerability. The H2X radars in his heavy bombers

528

Stalemate

could at least pick out the cities that contained marshaling yards, and his fight-
ers, when they descended to ground level, could certainly follow the roads and
rails, shooting up any vehicles they encountered.

The decision to bomb transportation, concurred in by Spaatz, Tedder,
Bottomley, and, through him. Portal, would eventually result in the complete
disruption of German economic life. It would also firmly affix to the concept of
daylight strategic bombing the stigma of the wanton destruction of German
cities and the callous slaughter of thousands of German noncombatants.

529

Chapter 15

Victory:

(December 16, 1944-May 9, 1945)

In my opinion, Germany has been more completely
destroyed than any nation since Carthage. I believe from

now on that increasing evidence will become available to
the public as to the effect of the strategic bombing on
German War capacity.'

—Spaatz to Lovett, May 2, 1945

From December 16, 1944, when the Germans opened their counteroffensive
in the Ardennes, to May 9, 1945, when the Germans surrendered to the Soviets
in Berlin, Spaatz continued to direct the forces under his command toward the
goal of victory. His twofold mission remained as defined at the Casablanca
Conference in January 1943: the support of the Allied ground forces, when
required, and the strategic bombing of Germany to bring about "the progressive
destruction and dislocation of the German military, industrial and economic sys-
tem and the undermining of the morale of the German people to a point where
their capacity for armed resistance is fatally weakened."^ Until mid-January
1945, Spaatz concentrated on ground support in order to help defeat the last
major German offensive on the Western Front. After mid-January, he oversaw
the culmination of the American portion of the Combined Bomber Offensive,
which brought German industry to a standstill and witnessed the most controver-
sial bombing raid in the European war, the bombing of Dresden.

The Battle of the Bulge

On the morning of December 16, 1944, three German armies, the Seventh
Army, the Fifth Panzer and Sixth SS Panzer Armies, began the Ardennes coun-
teroffensive. German commando units, some dressed in Allied uniforms, spread

531

Spaatz and the Air War in Eurof»e

confusion behind Allied lines. The Germans had deliberately waited for a period
of severe weather to shield them from overwhelming Allied superiority in the
air. Carefully husbanded fuel, enough for only a few days of operations, allowed
the German armies to advance and the Luftwaffe to fly. When the weather
cleared, the Luftwaffe employed the last of its muscle to aid the ground troops
and defend them from Allied air power.

The surprise and confusion among American front-line troops was echoed at
Allied Headquarters in Paris, where wild rumors concerning Germans in Allied
uniforms circulated. Spaatz directed that all units under his control tighten secu-
rity against sabotage. His Deputy for Administration, Maj. Gen. Hugh Knerr,
even suggested that a restricted zone of blocked-off streets, sentry boxes, and
pillboxes be set up around the USSTAF Headquarters complex in Paris.3
Apparently this scheme was not carried out. As Spaatz later admitted to Arnold,
"The offensive undertaken by the Germans on December 16th undoubtedly
caught us off balance."'^

Spaatz responded decisively to the need of the Allied ground forces for addi-
tional air support. He directed two of the Eighth's fighter groups to move imme-
diately to the Continent, if they could find proper air fields, and place them-
selves under Vandenberg's operational control. Spaatz also designated the
Eighth's 2d Air Division, which had begun to specialize in Gee-H radar bomb-
ing, to act as a fire brigade that Vandenberg could call directly, without first
contacting USSTAF or SHAEF. Gee-H, with a range of 300 miles, employed an
airborne transmitter and two ground beacons to fix a target's position; it had a
bombing accuracy much superior to H2X alone. 5 The remaining two-thirds of
the heavy-bomber force would attack targets west of the Rhine, even if they
obtained only temporary results, until the emergency ended.^

Despite vile weather, which included thick ground fog in England that made
bomber takeoffs and landings extremely treacherous, the Eighth sent out mis-
sions on December 18 and 19. On December 18, only 411 of 985 bombers
bombed their targets; all used radar. The next day, 312 heavy bombers bombed
tactical targets behind German lines; again, all of them employed radar — H2X
for most of the targets and Gee-H for eight targets. On December 23, the Allies
received help from the east — not the start of the Soviet winter offensive, but an
area of high pressure, called by meteorologists a "Russian high," which cleared
away the clouds, providing five days of flying weather. The next day the Eighth
put up every bomber that could fly — 2,046 — and dropped 5,052 tons of bombs,
all visually, on airfields and communications centers in western Germany, its
largest single-day totals of the war.7 For the first four days of clear weather the
Luftwaffe vainly sought to keep the Allied air forces from scourging the
Wehrmacht's supply lines and railheads. The Eighth's fighters alone claimed
160 German aircraft, a figure added to the 69 claimed on December 23. The
Eighth's losses for December 24 to December 28 amounted to 21 bombers and
25 fighters, while it dispatched 4,535 bomber sorties and released 1 1,245 tons of

532

Victory

ordnance.8 On December 26, at a high-level staff meeting at SHAEF in Paris,
Spaatz urged the ground forces to follow up the air attack as soon as possible,
saying, "The Hun can't take the pounding we have been giving him in the
midriff indefinitely. "9 The whirlwind of bombs continued to fall. Between
December 16 and January 4, the Eighth and Ninth Air Forces dropped 35,747
tons on tactical targets. 10 For the month of January the Eighth flattened marshal-
ing yards and communications centers west and east of the Rhine with 24,496
tons of high explosives and incendiaries. H

The good flying days of the Russian high enabled the Eighth and Ninth Air
Forces to bomb airfields, communication centers, supply dumps, and enemy
troops so fiercely that the German attack lost much of its mobility. The lack of
mobility would soon contribute to supply shortages among German front-line
troops. Allied ground forces halted the Germans five miles short of the Meuse
River on December 24, and by December 26 the Americans had relieved the
surrounded U.S. 101st Airborne Division defending the key road junction at
Bastogne. Allied bombing began to take an increasing toll; on December 27 a
German unit reported that Allied heavy bombers had left the key crossroads of
St. Vith impassable.l2 In the meantime, on December 22, Patton's Third Army
had begun a counterattack along the southern flank of the Bulge and made
steady progress. Although much stubborn defensive fighting on the ground lay
ahead as the Allies reduced the Bulge, the German attack had crested and had
begun to recede. The crisis passed. The defenders on the ground stopped the
offensive, but air eased their task by strangling the enemy's supply lines. The
AAF official history put the claims of the Eighth and Ninth Air Forces for
destruction in the period of the Bulge (December 16, 1944, through January 31,
1945) at 11,378 motor transport vehicles, 1,161 tanks and armored fighting
vehicles, 507 locomotives, 6,266 railroad cars, 472 gun positions, 974 rail cuts,
421 road cuts, and 36 bridges.13

The British Government Code and Cypher School (GC and CS), which
decrypted the German Enigma codes and supplied high-grade signal intelligence
(Ultra), provided information beyond price. The Allied leadership had continu-
ous access to copious and immediate high-grade signal intelligence. Never
before in the history of warfare have one side's moves been known so quickly
and accurately to the other. In effect. Allied generals almost sat in their ene-
mies' command posts. They knew the daily attack plans, ration strength, and
supply status of every large German unit. They knew when and where the
German spearheads ran short of fuel and anmiunition. And they knew German
appreciations of Allied actions, Wehrmacht and Luftwaffe signals were an
open book to their foes.

On December 18, within six hours of its dispatch. Allied airmen knew of the
Germans' intention to give fighter cover against Allied fighter-bombers and
heavy bombers attacking the Wehrmacht spearheads. Four days later the Allies
learned of orders to have the fighters engage four-engine bombers; a subsequent

533

The Battle of the Bulge. The flight line (above) at a P-51 base in England, winter,
1944-1945; an Eighth Air Force fighter (below) tailing on a German locomotive,
January 1945. Wide-ranging and persistent attacks on Reichsbahn rolling stock added
to die enemy's difficulties during its last large-scale offensive effort in the west

Victory

message revealed heavy losses. By December 26, decryptions betrayed the
Luftwaffe's intention to suspend its policy of attacking heavy bombers and to
switch to the defense of German spearheads and thrust lines. On December 24,
RAF Air Intelligence (AI) concluded from its analysis of operational signal
intelligence that the Luftwaffe had committed all available forces to a do-or-die
effort in which it had suffered heavy losses and that if its current scale of activ-
ity continued, its efficiency might rapidly decline. Three days later AI observed
that Luftwaffe forces supporting the offensive had so lost in serviceability and
strength that they could no longer carry on without a period of bad weather for
recuperation. 15

At the end of December, Spaatz visited Bradley's and Patton's headquarters.
He and Bradley discussed the nature and extent of the strategic air forces' com-
mitment to halting the German attack. Bradley expressed satisfaction and
wanted more massive raids and bombing of communications centers behind
German lines. 16 They both agreed to play down several incidents in which
bombs fell short, one of which was the bombing of the U.S. 4th Armored
Division Headquarters, and the shooting down of many Allied planes by friendly
fire. 17 By not emphasizing those incidents, they apparently hoped to defuse hard
feelings in both branches of the service.

The Luftwaffe's increased effort in ground support during the battle had
prompted Allied ground troops to fire at all overhead aircraft. On Janaury 1, as
Spaatz flew to Hodges 's headquarters in Liege, his own plane came under
heavy, but fortunately inaccurate, antiaircraft fire from Patton's troops.

Spaatz found that Hodges, too, wanted to continue hitting communications
centers and marshaling yards in preference to carpet bombing in front of the
troops. Spaatz left Liege with the impression that the strain of the offensive had
begun to tell on Hodges. Spaatz commented in his Command Diary, "Hodges
and staff did not make a very good impression and seem to lack aggressive-
ness."i8 Bradley recorded a similar thought. 19 in his meetings with the generals,
Spaatz had urged them to attack immediately, while the Germans still reeled
under the full weight of nine days of successfully applied Allied air power.20

On New Year's Day, Spaatz saw firsthand the work of the Luftwaffe. That
morning a force of more than 800 German fighters, employing strict radio
silence, had swept over sixteen Allied airfields in Belgium and Holland. They
destroyed 196 airplanes, 36 of them American, but suffered catastrophic losses,
mostly as a result of Allied antiaircraft fire and their own poor training. Galland,
the German fighter chief, reported 220 planes lost, many of them piloted by irre-
placeable instructor pilots and veteran squadron leaders.2l That afternoon,
Spaatz landed at two of the attacked fields; he observed no damage at either.

The next day, he returned to Paris where he discussed his trip with Bedell
Smith, Eisenhower's Chief of Staff, who agreed that the ground forces ought to
move forward immediately. That evening, Spaatz had Air Marshal Robb,
SHAEF Deputy Chief of Staff for Air, to dinner. Robb recruited Spaatz into a

535

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

scheme, apparently hatched in Eisenhower's headquarters and in the British
Chiefs of Staff, to bring British Field Marshal Harold R.L.G. Alexander, Allied
Commander in Chief in the Mediterranean, into the European Theater as
Commander of the Allied Ground Forces under Eisenhower. Spaatz 's agree-
ment, based on his knowledge of Alexander, his disapproval of Montgomery,
and his recent unsatisfactory trip to the front, reflected his frustration with the
ground situation.22

Eisenhower himself waffled on the issue. On January 3, after talking to
Churchill and the British Chief of the Imperial General Staff, Field Marshal
Alan Brooke, he appeared to be receptive to the idea, but Marshall, the U.S.
Army Chief of Staff, vehemently opposed it. At the end of the month, when the
two men met in southern France before the meetings of the CCS at Malta and of
Churchill-Stalin-Roosevelt at Yalta, Marshall told Eisenhower that he would
resign rather than accept a British ground commander. Given the now dominant
position of the Americans in the Anglo-American coalition, Marshall's opposi-
tion decided the matter. At the subsequent Malta/Y alta meetings, however, the
Americans did agree that Tedder and Alexander should exchange positions in
mid-March. But by then the military situation had so changed that Churchill and
Brooke accepted Eisenhower's decision to leave Tedder and Alexander in
place.23 If Tedder had gone to the Mediterranean, Eisenhower wanted Spaatz as
his air commander in chief. 24

The Battle of the Bulge, an important chapter in the annals of U.S. ground
forces, also had an important effect on the U.S. sttategic bombing effort. First,
as a result of the battle, the Germans suffered heavy losses of conventional pro-
peller-driven fighters. In the first three weeks of the Ardennes counteroffensive,
the Americans alone claimed more than 600 German aircraft destroyed.25 These
losses, combined with a massive transfer of aircraft to the Eastern Front to
oppose the Soviets' winter offensive, which began on January 12, relegated the
Western Front to the status of a secondary air theater for the Luftwaffe. In addi-
tion, the Luftwaffe imposed a strict conservation policy on its remaining planes,
forbidding them to fly over enemy territory or to engage heavy bombers in any
but the most favorable circumstances.26 Luftwaffe inactivity gave the Eighth
and Fifteenth Air Forces even greater operational freedom.

Second, the Battle of the Bulge diverted the Eighth Air Force from strategic
operations. Between December 16, 1944, and January 8, 1945, the Eighth flew
only one strategic mission — on December 31, one-third of the force attacked oil
targets deep in Germany. Fortimately, the Fifteenth Air Force picked up much of
the slack; from December 17 through January 8, it made eleven attacks on
German and Austrian oil targets.27 Nonetheless, strategic targets in central
Germany gained some respite.

Third, the Battie of the Bulge delivered the coup de grace to the Reichsbahn.
The previous autumn's bombing had exhausted the repair crews and all stores of
spare parts and repair material. The system had already begun to falter, but the

536

Victory

Battle of the Bulge opened an imstaunchable wound. The Reichsbahn strained
every nerve and used every expedient to keep the troop and supply trains flow-
ing to the offensive. The priority given the Wehrmacht drained the entire system.
Thousands of cars were lost and even more mired in the huge backlogs created
by poor coordination due to attacks on marshaling yards and disruption of
telecommunications. By the end of the offensive, car placings (the forming of
incoming rail cars into separate outgoing trains) in Germany stood at only one-
third of what they had been during the same period in 1944. The Reichsbahn
Direktorate of Essen and Cologne, the main shipping points of hard coal and
brown coal respectively, fell to 39 percent and 16 percent of normal.28 Trains
cluttered yards and sidings. By Christmas, 1,100 trains and 75,000 to 100,000
cars stood idle.29 That number rose to 1,994 by January 18. This situation con-
tributed to ballooning car turnaround times up from six and a half days per car in
November 1943 to twenty days by January 1945. At times, even the highest-prior-
ity "Blitz" shipments were idled.30 Conditions were so bad that the Reichsbahn
even resorted to the self-defeating expedient of purposely derailing trains to clear
the tracks. On January 19, the system embargoed all freight everywhere except-
ing Wehrmacht and coal traffic. The resulting elimination of all piece-goods
traffic sounded the death knell for any coordinated industrial effort.3l

The paralysis of the transportation system spread quickly to the industrial
network. The disruption caused by the Ardennes air attacks shut down three
major power plants in the Ruhr for lack of coal. Transmission lines downed by
air attacks broke the region into power islands, halting production at plants that
lacked their own generating facilities. Delivery of iron ore to the Ruhr's smelters
plummeted by 80 percent in December, raw iron production sagged by 7 1 per-
cent the same month, raw steel slid by 66 percent in January, and rolling mill
activity collapsed to 20 percent of the average during the third quarter of 1943.
In central Germany the factories slowed. At the Krupp-Gruson Werke, shell and
gun forgings shops closed from the lack of natural gas because the local utility
company had no coal. Tank production declined from 1 14 in October to 65 in
January for lack of parts. In December 1944, the ball-bearing industry collapsed,
the victim of its own dispersion, which had made it extremely vulnerable to
transportation disruption. 32

Production of weapons tumbled. Thanks to the heavy issue of weapons to
the Volkssturm, or people's militia, and to the units involved in the Ardeimes
offensive, which were not replaced by the factories and the rail lines, by January
1945 Wehrmacht stocks of K-98 rifles went from ten to three days' supply;
stocks of Type 44 assault rifles dropped from four months' to three weeks' sup-
ply; and stocks of the 88mm antitank gun declined from one month's to two
weeks' supply. Supplies to combat units fell by 11 percent compared with
December.33

The Allies, however, did not fully appreciate the magnitude of the disaster
inflicted by their transportation bombing. For instance, they did not decrypt the

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Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

large commercial traffic of 20,000 weekly messages. Not until late February did
a report commissioned by Bottomley demonstrate the value of this traffic, which
contained a plethora of information on the German coal famine. On February 28,
Spaatz and Portal received a fresh commercial intercept detailing the increase in
unshipped coal tonnage at the mines and the closings of plants because of trans-
port disorganization. 3^

Higher level GC and CS interceptions partially filled in the picture. In mid-
January, German Army Group G reported the condition of the rail system as
"very strained" in the Mainz area, "strained" at Cologne, "extremely strained" in
the Saarbrucken district, and "unsatisfactory" in the Karlsruhe district. On
January 28, the Armaments Ministry complained of plant closings from the lack
of coal. In a February 3 decryption, the Japanese naval attache spoke of the
Germans' inability to move commodities such as coal from their production
points, which adversely affected various war supplies. RAF Air Intelligence col-
lected, by the beginning of February, massive evidence of coal shortages from
signals sent by local armaments production coordinators. By February 8, the
British Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC) suggested that halting all coal ship-
ments from the Ruhr would stop rail transport and have "effects as important as
oil. "35 It made little difference; by February coherent economic activity in
Germany had ceased.36

As for ammunition, a January 18 decryption of a January 10 message divulged
a general ammunition shortage due to raw material shortages and production and
transportation difficulties. Another decryption two days later advised that, in
certain cases, even worthwhile artillery targets would have to be passed over. On
March 2, a decryption revealed an order limiting expenditure of 88mm flak
ammunition to exceptional circumstances because of serious supply deficien-
cies.

Understandably, the Allies did not consider the woes of their opponents so
much as they did their own difficulties. Hence, the counteroffensive stimulated
unjustified pessimism within the higher echelons of the Allied command. Allied
commanders had not lost their faith in ultimate victory, but they now perceived
the road to victory as steeper than they had previously thought.

The Battle of the Bulge brought about a reappraisal of long-range goals in
USSTAF. Two weeks after the offensive started, Arnold, reflecting the thinking
in Washington, wrote to Spaatz, "General Marshall . . . has been pressing in
Washington for any and every plan to bring increased effort against the German
forces. . . . Periods of about sixty days have been discussed" [emphasis in origi-
nal]. 37 Arnold went on to state that he could not view "with complacency" esti-
mates that the war in Europe would not end until the summer of 1945.

In Paris, meanwhile, Spaatz and USSTAF had adopted a somewhat longer
perspective. By the end of 1944, they foresaw a war of several more months
duration if strategic air power did not return to the oil campaign and if German
jet production continued unabated. The specter of hundreds of twin-jet-engine

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Bomb damage from Ninth Air Force P-47s to a rail yard near Cologne, Germany.

Me 262s, each armed with four 30mm camions, launched against the slower
American escort fighters and lumbering heavy bombers haimted Spaatz's calcu-
lations.

A particularly hair-raising report from his chief of intelligence, Brig. Gen.
George C. McDonald, greatly impressed Spaatz when it crossed his desk on
January 3, 1945. This report, titled "Allied Air Supremacy and German Jet
Planes," opened by stating dramaticaUy,

Maintenance of Allied Air Supremacy over Europe in 1945 is confronted by a
serious threat. This threat menaces both continuance of our Strategic bombard-
ment and the superiority, both offensively and defensively, of the fighter
bomber cover under which our troops fight. This threat is the opposition of a
large and increasing German jet plane fighter force, sustained by rapidly
expanding capacity for . . . production "

McDonald expressed little doubt of the Germans' ability to have, at the most
conservative estimate, 300 to 400 jets available for daily use by July 1, 1945,

539

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

provided "they are given time and freedom from counter-measures." Because
the jets did not run on higii-octane aviation fuel but on kerosene and other
lesser-quality fuels, the bombing of oil facilities could not immobilize them as it
had conventional fighters. Although Allied bombing had halted at least 80 per-
cent of production at the large and complex hydrogenation and Fischer-Tropsch
process synthetic plants, which produced aviation and other high-quality fuels,
synthetic plants producing low-grade benzoil were more numerous, more widely
scattered, smaller, and less complex. Their production had only fallen by half, as
had the domestic refining of crude oil. In all, German production of finished oil
products declined from 900,000 tons in January 1944 to 303,000 tons in
December.39 But a small amount of almost any type of fuel would suffice for the
Me 262. According to the report, this situation left the Allies two options: (1)
either ignore the threat of the jets and gamble on the war's ending before July 1
or (2) initiate immediate countermeasures at considerable cost to the current
bombing effort.

Given the lowered expectations prevalent in the Allied High Command at
the turn of the year, McDonald's report recommended bombing the jet-engine
plants and the airfields associated with jet testing, training, and operation.
McDonald pointed to the successful dispersal and underground placement of
German jet assembly plants, and warned that since the same treatment of jet
engine plants was surely imminent, bombing had to begin immediately, not in
three months' time.'^O He noted, "The question is not so much whether we can
afford to initiate counter measures against jet development as whether we can
afford not to. Such a program will be expensive for us in the dearest of all our
resources which is visual bombing weather." McDonald realized that his sugges-
tion meant the diversion of substantial bomb tonnage from other strategic tar-
gets, but he added:

Failure to take every possible precaution to neutralize this threat now may
gravely compromise the capabilities of our entire bombardment effort within a
few months. What is more, Allied troops have never fought successfully under
anything less than overwhelming air superiority. The German jet program is
capable of reversing that superiority by mid-summer.'"

Finally, McDonald cautioned that "the Strategic Air Forces cannot be responsi-
ble for the maintenance of Allied Aerial Supremacy over Europe unless they are
given sufficient freedom from other demands to allocate the necessary propor-
tion of visual strategic bombing against German jet development," and he
requested a new directive making the priority of jet targets equal to that of oil.42
This report had an almost galvanic effect on Spaatz, who, with Doolittle,
visited Eisenhower on January 5 to recount their worries about the jets, and to
request permission to begin bombing "in the near future." They had estimated
that 10,000 tons of visual bombing would set back the German program three
months, which was "absolutely necessary to enable our own jet production to

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catch up." In addition, they emphasized the reported buildups in the Germans'
production of oil, construction of submarines, and manufacture of armored fight-
ing vehicles.43

As mentioned, the concentration of the Eighth Air Force on tactical bombing
related to the Battle of the Bulge had slightly eased the pressure on Germany's
oil industry. Also, early in 1945, new mass-produced, faster, snorkle-breathing
U-boats had begun to enter service. These new submarines might allow the
Nazis to successfully reopen the Battle of the Atlantic, jeopardizing the Allies'
supply lines from the United States. The Allies had also completely lost their
capability to decipher U-boat signals;44 a change in German code procedure had
deprived the Allied navies of much of their knowledge of the location and inten-
tions of the enemy. This loss accounted in part for the panic in Allied naval cir-
cles that led to pressure on the airmen to bomb submarine construction yards. As
for tanks, intelligence indicated that, upon manufacture, they reached the front in
less than a month. The Germans had suffered severe tank losses in the Bulge,
and the anticipated Soviet winter offensive would cause more; thus a campaign
against tank plants was essential in order to hamper the Germans' ability to
replace losses. All these factors, Spaatz and Doolittle told Eisenhower, meant
that the Eighth should return to strategic targeting at once. Eisenhower dis-
agreed; the critical battle situation, he insisted, still required all the strategic
bomber help that Spaatz could spare.45

Spaatz, however, did not give up. Latest intelligence, he said, had shown
that the Germans would produce more oil than their minimum requirements in
January, if unmolested by the Eighth. He probably expressed the general feeling
in USSTAF that continuing to bomb marshaling yards and other tactical targets
west of the Rhine would only lengthen the war^S by relieving German industry
of the pressure of strategic bombardment.

On January 6, with Bedell Smith's support, Spaatz gained Eisenhower's per-
mission for two-thirds of the bomber force to resume oil attacks as a top priority,
followed by tank plants and jet production, if necessary .47 The other third of his
force, the Gee-H-equipped 2d Air Division, would assist the ground forces.
Three days later, on January 9, Spaatz gained Smith's consent to bomb enemy
jet production at the same priority visual bombing level as oil .48

Spaatz 's concern about over commitment to tactical bombing reached the
newly constructed Pentagon in Washington. In a pair of "Eyes Only" letters to
Amold, both dated January 7, Spaatz expressed the general pessimism and fear
of German jets prevalent within USSTAF. In one letter he wrote: "Our estimate
of the situation concerning the whole German war proposition does not lead up
to the conclusion that German strength will crack in the near future." As for oil,
Spaatz 's intelligence estimates indicated that the Germans could operate along
defensive lines if they practiced the strictest economy. He predicted German
resistance to the bitter end and concluded: "Unless our ground armies succeed in
obtaining a significant victory over German ground armies west of the Rhine in

541

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

the reasonably near future, it will be necessary to reorient ourselves and prepare
for a long, drawn out war. "49

In the second letter, Spaatz addressed Arnold's fear of the growth of the
Germans' conventional fighter force. Arnold had even suggested that the CCS
might find it necessary "to revise current directives and to consider seriously the
issuance of an overriding directive aimed at reconquest of the Luftwaffe. "50
Spaatz replied, "All of us here feel, however, that the distinct threat is from the
German jet fighter rather than a buildup in strength of the [Bf] 109s and [FW]
190s. All past experience shows that our fighter force can amply take care of
any buildup of 109s and 190s."51

At a SHAEF meeting on January 9, Spaatz noted that the Bulge had kept
bombing concentrated in the battle area, allowing unhampered jet aircraft con-
struction. His revised intelligence estimates showed greater-than-expected
growth of jet production and predicted that the Germans might have 300 to 400
jets in operation by April. Jet assembly factories would have to be dealt with
very soon in order to push back production three months.52 A day later Spaatz
sent one of the theater's experts on German and British jets back to Washington
to brief Amold. In his cover letter, Spaatz reiterated, "The jet airplane represents
a very grave danger to us and could cause great trouble if employed in the
proper manner ."53

On January 11 at the Weekly Air Commanders' Conference, Spaatz, Ander-
son, and Doolittle reviewed the strategic bombing situation. "From the strategic
point of view," lamented Anderson, "the picture is very sad!" The strategic air
forces "were paying a tremendous price by concentrating on helping ground
forces." Now oil, ball bearings, aircraft factories, and submarine yards would
all have to be hit again. Doolittle backed up Anderson "100% or possibly even
more." Unless the bombing of strategic targets resumed at once, German jets
would prevent deep-penetration raids after July. Spaatz took note of Eisen-
hower's agreement to release two-thirds of the Eighth to attack oil and jets.
Then he suggested specific U-boat targets as well as armored fighting
vehicles.54 Support for hitting the vehicle plants had originated in Eisenhower's
headquarters55 and reflected the needs of the ground forces. Spaatz probably
added them as part of his agreement with Eisenhower allowing USSTAF partial
resumption of the strategic offensive.

"Directive No. 3 for the Strategic Air Forces in Europe," agreed upon by
Spaatz and Bottomley on January 12 and issued January 16, formalized the new
strategic priorities. In his cover letter to Amold, Spaatz stated simply, "A new
directive is necessary at this time since we have recently had to revise our esti-
mate of V-Day [Victory Day in Europe], and consequently must include the
attack of target systems with a longer range application. "56 After retaining oil,
transportation, and important industrial areas as priority targets, it added both
the authorization to employ "the necessary amount of strategic effort" required
to neutralize jets and the instruction that the U-boat organization "will be

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attacked whenever possible by marginal effort or incidental to operations cov-
ered by the proceeding priorities."^? In this case, the marginal effort would pro-
vide a substantial number of bombs for submarines because missions diverting
from visual targets could obtain excellent H2X resolution from coastal targets.
The Air Staff in Washington found the directive "a very much too conservative
approach to the problem." They asked Spaatz to consider raising the priority of
U-boats and ground support.58 Portal, who did not agree that jets constituted a
threat because he did not believe that the war would drag on, accepted the direc-
tive as temporary. He hoped to revise it during the CCS meetings at the end of
January.59

Thunderclap and Dresden

Even as Spaatz and Bottomley issued Directive No. 3, events had begun to
overtake it. The Soviets opened their winter offensive on January 12. Over-
whelming the German defenders, they drove hundreds of thousands of German
refugees before them, conquered the Silesian industrial area (Germany's last
intact, unbombed production base, which also included large coal deposits), and
reached the Oder River, forty-five miles east of Berlin, by January 31. As the
Red offensive steamroUed forward, the Western Allies prepared to renew their
own offensive. In the meantime, the Soviet and Anglo-American high com-
mands and political leadership finished plans for a series of American, Anglo-
American, and Tripartite conferences at Marseilles, Malta, and Yalta. The con-
junction of these events produced an aberration in strategic priorities that led
directly to the bombing of Dresden and the loss of at least 35,000 lives.

One impetus behind the Allies' decision to bomb cities in eastern Germany,
including Dresden, stemmed from a desire on the part of the British and
Americans to support the Soviet offensive by knocking out transportation cen-
ters serving the German Eastern Front, in order to prevent the rapid shifting of
forces among sectors along it and the transfer of troops from the west to the east.
Berlin, as the administrative center of the nation and the nerve center and trans-
portation nexus for a large section of the Eastern Front, would be an obvious target
of any effort to assist the Soviets' drive. Accordingly, on January 16 Spaatz's chief
of staff ordered Doolittle to take a new look at Operation Thunderclap and begin
planning its execution.60

As mentioned in Chapter 12, the Allies first conceived of Thunderclap as a
combined Bomber Command-USSTAF dayUght mission on Berlin in response
to the German V-1 offensive during the summer of 1944. Because of opposition
from Spaatz and others, it had been planned but not carried out. By early
September 1944, USSTAF planners had filed it away for reconsideration when
the situation in Germany deteriorated to the extent that one large blow on Berlin
might shock its government into surrender. With the Germans' Ardennes coun-

543

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

teroffensive turned back and the Soviets' shattering of the front in the east,
Spaatz must have believed that the crucial moment might come soon.

The British, too, began to consider Thunderclap. On January 22, Air
Commodore Sidney O. Bufton, Durector of Bomber Operations and Chairman of
the Combined Strategic Targeting Committee (a combined USSTAF and British
Air Staff agency that selected specific strategic targets and ranked them for
bombing by the strategic air forces) suggested to Air Marshal Bottomley the
launching of Thunderclap while the Soviet offensive was in full stride.61 He
feared that the psychological moment would pass if it was not implemented
before the Soviets' momentum slowed.62 The Assistant Chief of the Air Staff
for Operations, agreed, noting, "The German radio has recently shown signs of
hysteria in broadcasts to the people, and a heavy air attack on the capital and
other big towns now might well ruin already shaky morale."^^

Thunderclap soon gained adherents on the British JIC, which, while dis-
counting its effects on morale, suggested that it be adopted directly to assist the
Soviet offensive. In a detailed examination of its possible repercussions, the JIC,
on January 25, 1945, observed that it would "create great confusion, interfere
with the orderly movement of troops to the front and hamper the German mili-
tary and administrative machine."64 The committee suggested that attacks on
Berlin might have a "political value in demonstrating to the Russians, in the best
way open to us, a desire on the part of the British and Americans to assist them
in the present battle. "^5

Also on January 25, Harris and Spaatz both received notice that the time for
Thunderclap had come. Bottomley, after perusing the JIC's findings, tele-
phoned Harris to discuss them. Harris suggested supplementing the main attack
on Berlin with strikes against Chemnitz, Leipzig, and Dresden because these
cities, like Berlin, would have had their vital communication links stretched thin
by refugees from the east. They had also been relatively untouched by Harris's
area bombing campaign. Bottomley and Harris agreed that Spaatz must be con-
sulted. Meanwhile in Paris, at the Weekly Allied Air Commanders' Conference,
the airmen examined the possible uses "of the Heavies in the new military situa-
tion." At the end of their discussion Tedder asked whether the time had come to
stage Operation Thunderclap; presumably, he had either read the JIC report or
had heard about it from Bufton directly. Spaatz agreed, saying that he "felt that
this operation should be held in instant readiness, but not ordered until the
Russians were either on the Oder in strength, or across it." Tedder accepted
Spaatz's recommendation.66

Spaatz's consent to Thunderclap did not mean his wholehearted adoption
of terror-bombing. As will be seen, he did not believe that Thunderclap would
end the war, although he did feel that a big raid on Berlin would demonstrate
solidarity with the Soviets and disrupt the city's capability to aid the defense of
the Eastem Front. Spaatz was following events there closely. The day before the
Air Conraianders' meeting he had told a SHAEF meeting, "I don't think we are

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paying nearly enough attention to what is happening in the East. We are using
the wrong end of the telescope. "67

On the evening of January 25, the Prime Minister jumped into the question
of bombing cities in eastern Germany. Part of his concern may have sprung from
a British Joint Intelligence Subcommittee report, prepared for him alone, on
"German Strategy and Capacity to Resist." The document predicted that
Germany might collapse by mid-April if the Soviet offensive overran them at
their eastern defenses before they could consolidate. Alternatively, the Germans
might hold out until November if they could stop the Soviets from conquering
Silesia.68 Any help given the Russians on the Eastern Front would shorten the
conflict. Churchill asked the Secretary of War for Air, Archibald Sinclair, what
plans the RAF had made for "blasting the Germans in their retreat from
Breslau."69 Sinclair passed Churchill's inquiry to Portal. Portal, hard at work
preparing for the coming Malta and Yalta meetings, replied cautiously that oil,
subject to the demands of the jet assembly factories and submarine yards, should
continue to have top priority. However, he reluctantly allowed that the Allies
should use the "available effort in one big attack on Berlin and attacks on
Dresden, Leipzig, Chemnitz, or any other cities where a severe blitz will not
only cause confusion in the evacuation from the east but will hamper the move-
ment of troops from the west."70 Portal further recommended that the CCS,
Spaatz, and Tedder all have a chance to approve the new suggestion.

Portal's reply failed to assuage the Prime Minister, who shot back:

I did not ask you last night about plans for harrying the German retreat from
Breslau. On the contrary, I asked whether Berlin, and no doubt other large
cities in East Germany, should not now be considered attractive targets. I am
glad that this is under 'exEimination.' Pray report to me tomorrow what is going
to be done."

This sarcastic missive prodded Bottomley, who had begun to act as Chief of the
Air Staff because of Portal's scheduled departure for the Mediterranean, to write
to Harris, enclosing the JIC report and informing him of Portal's and Churchill's
desires. "I am therefore to request that subject to the qualifications stated above,
and as soon as moon and weather conditions allow, you will undertake such
attacks with the particular object of exploiting the confiised conditions which are
likely to exist in the above mentioned cities during the successful Russian
advance."'^2 Bottomley issued this unequivocal order before consulting with
either Spaatz or the CCS. He also informed Churchill that operations against
cities in eastern Germany would begin as soon as conditions permitted (the
moon would not allow deep penetrations until February 3 or 4). ''3

The next day, January 28, Spaatz flew to England to celebrate the third
anniversary of the Eighth's formation. He lunched with Bottomley, at which
time the two no doubt discussed bombing policy. Spaatz may also have spoken
to Portal before the latter left for the Malta conference.74 Spaatz did not agree to

545

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

bomb any cities in eastern Germany except Berlin. He verbally gave to Doolittle
the following priorities: (1) oil (visual), (2) Berlin (visual or blind), (3) the Ruhr,
(4) Munich, and (5) Hamburg. Spaatz further ordered the Eighth's fighters (1) to
cover the bombers, (2) to strafe oil targets, and (3) to interrupt "traffic from
West to East toward Berlin and Dresden."^^ This verbal order implies that
although Spaatz was sympathetic to the desire to help the Soviets, by limiting, if
possible, German west to east military movement, he rejected the bombing of
cities merely to produce more refugees.* This order clarified a previous one
given to Doolittle on January 24, that stated, "Anticipating that the enemy will
attempt to reinforce the Russian Front by rail movement of units which have
been engaged recently on the Western Front, it is desired that your fighters be
used until further notice to assist in an interdiction program by strafing rail
lines."'76 Also on January 28, Spaatz's headquarters delivered Thunderclap's
plan to the Eighth Air Force. Among the primary aiming points were the Air
Ministry, Gestapo headquarters, and the Alexanderplatz railway station, all in
the governmental and administrative center of Berlin. At this point USSTAF still
envisaged full implementation of the plan, including a follow-up raid by the
RAF on the night after the American bombing. '^'^ After meeting with Spaatz,
Bottomley visited Tedder in Paris. According to Tedder they agreed to maintain
oil as top priority when visual conditions existed, with first Berlin, then Leipzig,
and, finally, Dresden as the next targets.''^

In the meantime Spaatz had already put in train a large operation over
Berlin. He insisted, however, that this attack have specific aiming points such as
"industrial plants, Administrative Headquarters or, possibly, railway stations. "79
Thus, he confirmed the AAF's policy of at least attempting to hit strategic tar-
gets rather than resorting to intentional area bombing.

On January 31, Bottomley radioed the results of his meeting with Spaatz to
Portal in Malta. 80 The next day Spaatz read the same message at the Weekly
Allied Air Commanders' Conference, where no one present questioned it.8l
According to an intelligence briefing at the same conference, the German Sixth
S.S. Panzer Army had left the Bulge in the west and was presumed headed
toward the Eastern Front. In the message, Bottomley, after noting first priority to
the main synthetic oil plants, stated, "Next in order of priority for Air Forces
operating in the UK is attack of Berlin, Leipzig, Dresden and associated cities
where heavy attack will cause great confusion in civilian evacuation from the
east and hamper movement of reinforcements from other fronts. "S2

Like all the agreements between Spaatz and Bottomley since September 1944,
this one on bombing priorities did not mean that Spaatz accepted every word as
policy for USSTAF. Rather, it represented the usual compromise according to

* I have found no records in Spaatz's, Doolittle's, or the Eighth Air Force's files indicating a
desire to bomb for the sake of producing "refugees."

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capabilities as described in prior directives. The Eighth would attempt to bomb
strategic targets in Berlin, either visually or with blind-bombing techniques, while
its fighters, after flying escort, would descend to the deck and harass west-to-east
rail traffic. Spaatz had agreed only to continue long-standing procedures. As for
the RAF, it also continued its long-standing policy of night area bombing.

Even as Spaatz agreed to this new directive, the subject of strategic air tar-
gets became one of the topics of discussion at the Malta and Yalta conferences
between the Allies fighting Germany. A severe heart attack in early January had
temporarily removed Arnold from AAF affairs, thus depriving Marshall of his
most trusted and influential air power adviser and leaving the AAF scrambling
to fill the leadership void he had opened. Arnold's absence also handicapped the
AAF at the Malta/ Yalta Conferences. Maj. Gen. Laurence S. Kuter, who
attended for him, simply did not have the rank or prestige in those meetings that
would have been accorded to Arnold as a matter of course. Kuter wrote to
Arnold from Malta, "Without you we are just tolerated from bottom to top"
[emphasis in original].83 The AAF at this point had one five-star general,
Arnold, but no four-star generals. Whoever headed its delegation would have
had at least a two-grade disadvantage compared with the other chiefs, and Kuter
had a three-star disadvantage.

Parenthetically, the AAF delegation's lack of stature at the conferences gave
Spaatz the chance to strengthen his own role in its internal deliberations. At the
Second Quebec Conference he had learned of events only after they had taken

547

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

place. Spaatz in this case had his own representation within the AAF delegation.
On January 27, he sent Maj. Gen. Frederick L. Anderson, his Deputy for Opera-
tions, to Malta. Spaatz ensured that Anderson went equipped with briefs present-
ing USSTAF's views on the employment of U.S. air power in Europe and the
Mediterranean. Backed by Eisenhower, Spaatz wanted the Twelfth Air Force
transferred to the European Theater. He also instructed Anderson to emphasize
the German jet airplane problem in discussions with the CCS.84 Kuter, who had
some doubt as to the legitimacy of Anderson's presence, accepted him into his
own delegation.85

Events at the Malta Conference reinforced Spaatz 's determination to bomb
Berlin. General Giles, acting AAF Commander in Arnold's absence, observed in
a telegram to Kuter in Malta on January 31, "Indications are that pandemonium
reigns in Berlin as a result Soviet advances in the East suggest that you propose
action to have all available day and night heavy bomber aircraft directed against
Berlin for the next few days with a view towards accentuating this condition. "^6
Kuter replied that the Allies had scheduled the operation to begin as soon as
weather permitted.87

Meanwhile, General Marshall was expressing views on air power contrary to
Arnold's. At the first Malta CCS meeting on January 30, Marshall suggested
skip-bombing the entrances of underground German manufacturing plants. The
airmen present discouraged the idea. Next, he reportedly expressed "his desire to
see attacks over all of Germany, by fighters, in accordance with [what] he called
the 'Quesada plan,' which he said had been turned down by his air advisers in
Washington — and he still didn't know why ."88

Outside the formal meetings he indicated his desire to bomb Berlin and
other cities — without offending the Soviets.89 Anderson took advantage of these
informal discussions to tell Marshall of USSTAF's upcoming plans and pointed
out that USSTAF had already rejected the Quesada plan in favor of its own
Operation Clarion,90 a revision of the Hurricane plan for a mass air assault on
lesser communication points throughout Germany.

The Quesada plan, named for its originator, Maj. Gen. Elwood "Pete"
Quesada, Commander of the IX Air Support Command, called for the establish-
ment of a force of 500 fighter-bombers controlled by the strategic air forces to
bomb and strafe strategic targets and communications far beyond the tactical air
force zone immediately on or behind German lines. Quesada had persuaded the
Assistant Secretary of War for Air, Robert A. Lovett, to adopt this plan as his
own and to campaign vigorously for its acceptance. It was one of, perhaps, the
few instances in World War II in which a civilian War Department leader,
Lovett, actually supported and advocated an operational plan to the military
hierarchy. Lovett called the plan Jeb Stuart, after the Confederate Cavalry
leader, and submitted it to Arnold on January 9, 1945.91

The plan had a cool reception in AAF Headquarters. The Air Staff noted that
the allocation of an additional 500 aircraft plus support troops was "not within

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our current AAF capabilities." Kuter, speaking for the Air Staff, recommended
forwarding the proposal to Spaatz without comment.92 Because the plan pro-
vided no new forces, Spaatz turned it down.93 He hoped, instead, to implement
Clarion. By attacking numerous unbombed transportation/ communications tar-
gets in small towns throughout Germany, Clarion sought to demonstrate the
might of Allied air power to millions of Germans who had not yet witnessed it,
to overwhelm Reichsbahn repair crews, and to damage the infrastructure of the
transport system. According to Anderson, his exposition of USSTAF's plans,
including its rejection of the Jeb Stuart plan, "greatly reassured" Marshall.94

Marshall and Anderson also discussed Bottomley's message giving Berlin,
Leipzig, and Dresden a priority second only to oil targets. Marshall emphasized
that the Soviets must receive notification through current liaison channels (i.e.,
the U.S. Military Mission in Moscow). He also suggested that, in addition to the
attacks on Berlin and other eastern cities, "attacks on Munich would probably be
of great benefit because [they] would show the people that are being evacuated
to Munich that there is no hope. "95 His suggestion may have come from intelli-
gence reports indicating the evacuation of people and government offices from
Berlin to Munich. Although his suggestion did not necessarily imply that
Marshall supported indiscriminant bombing of civilians, it certainly indicated
his willingness to demoralize the population in general and the Nazi leadership
in particular.

The next day Spaatz ordered Twining to attack Munich when weather and
other priorities permitted, observing that the city was valuable not only as a
communications target but also as a future destination in "Some evacuation
[that] may take place from Berlin and Eastern Germany ... as result of Russian
advance."96 Spaatz also confirmed that the Soviet General Staff had been noti-
fied of the Berlin mission.^'? Weather and concentration on oil and on transporta-
tion prevented the Fifteenth from carrying out this order. Not until March 24 did
the Fifteenth bomb Munich, and then under strategic circumstances much differ-
ent from those at the beginning of February.

In the message to Twining, Spaatz further noted that the January 31 revision
of target priorities represented the usual division of labor between Bomber
Command and USSTAF. Spaatz explained that the Eighth would attack Berlin,
while Bomber Command had plans "to attack other large communications tar-
gets such as Leipzig and Dresden. "^8

The upcoming mission to Berlin, although not Thunderclap (because it was
not a combined RAF-AAF round-the-clock attack intended to kill or injure up to
275,000 persons), was out of the ordinary. Doolittle informed Spaatz that he was
prepared to undertake Thunderclap, but he vehemently objected to the targets
in the center of the city that USSTAF had instructed him to hit: "There are no
basically important strictly military targets in the designated area." Doolittle
pointed out that to bomb the center of the city accurately he would have to bomb
visually and take his forces over almost all the 300 heavy guns defending the

549

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

city and risk heavy casualties to his low-flying B-24s. He also questioned the
effectiveness of Thunderclap or any bombing attack aimed at morale. In his
opinion, the people of Berlin would have plenty of warning to take shelter, and
"the chances of terrorizing into submission, by merely an increased concentra-
tion of bombing, a people who have been subjected to intense bombing for four
years is extremely remote." Finally, Doolittle appealed to Spaatz saying, "We
will, in what may be one of our last and best remembered operations regardless
of its effectiveness, violate the basic American principle of precision bombing of
targets of strictly military significance for which our tactics were designed and
our crews trained and indoctrinated." He recommended to Spaatz that that area
bombing be left to the RAF and that the AAF confine itself to picking precision
military targets to assure an effective mission with a minimum of loss. 99
Doolittle felt that the raid definitely went over the line separating incidental
damage caused by an attack on military targets and area bombing.

Spaatz sent Doolittle a somewhat ambiguous reply. He did not even mention
Thunderclap; instead, he restated his target priorities. Visual attacks on syn-
thetic oil plants, especially those in the Leipzig area, had first priority. He antici-
pated that any bombing of Berlin would not be visual, but that city "at this time"
had a priority second only to oil. In closing, Spaatz observed, "With that in
mind, anticipate that you will hit Berlin whenever conditions do not repeat not
[sic] indicate possibility of visual bombing of oil targets but do permit opera-
tions to Berlin."l00

On February 2, bad weather forced the Eighth to postpone the Berlin mis-
sion by twenty-four hours. Weather forecasts indicated marginal weather with
only a chance for a shallow penetration the next day. That evening Spaatz's
headquarters called the Eighth and insisted on a Berlin mission. The Eighth's
planners drew up two plans: Plan A, a raid by all bomb divisions on Berlin's
industrial areas of Spandau, Tegel, and Seimenstadt; and Plan B, raids on oil and
transportation targets in western and central Germany, if weather proved too
inclement for a deep penetration. The weather deteriorated, ruling out visuals for
most of Germany. At USSTAF's insistence the Eighth drew up two more plans:
Plan C, "a Berlin attack by all B.D,s [Bombardment Divisions] on the heart of
the 'official' city, east of the Tiergarten"; and Plan D, "a similar attack on
Dresden."l0l At the same time, Spaatz recommended to Doolittle that his combat
camera unit send still and motion picture cameramen on the raid and that he offer
a "flight to any qualified correspondents quickly available." Spaatz further rec-
ommended that flash news summaries and mission communiques "stress effort to
disrupt reinforcement of Eastern Front and increase administrative confusion."l02
This language indicated that he did not intend to carry out Thunderclap. Instead,
he wished to emphasize the practical aspects of the raid. Pressure from AAF
Headquarters and Marshall must have added to his desire to punish the German
capital posthaste.

Doolittle complied, sending four combat cameramen with two groups and a

550

Victory

BBC correspondent with a third. Six more combat cameramen covered the
ground activities at three bases. In addition, the Eighth made plans to develop
the film quickly and to title it "Inter-Allied Cooperation: Eighth Air Force
Strategic Heavies Tactically Bomb Berlin for Soviets." Once the film was devel-
oped, the Eighth would rush it to the Combat Camera Unit Headquarters in New
York City and offer prints for the newsreels in London. The Eighth even went so
far as to take sound film of the target officer, the bomber controller, and the
fighter controller briefing Doolittle.l03

Before he received press recommendations, Doolittle double-checked Spaatz's
priorities, informing him via Redline that the uncertain weather might allow an
attack on Berlin but bad weather at home bases might divert the whole force to the
Continent on its return. Then he noted a bare chance of visual conditions over oil
targets with an alternative shallow penetration on transportation if all else failed.
Almost desperately he asked, "Is Berlin still open to air attack? Do you want prior-
ity oil targets hit in preference to Berlin if they definitely become visual? Do you
want center of city hit or definitely military targets, such as Spandau, on the
Westem outskirts?" 104 Spaatz replied by phone annotating his copy of the mes-
sage, "Told Doolittle to hit oil if visual assured; otherwise, Berlin — center of the
city."l05

Spaatz's answer clearly demonstrates his and the AAF's order of importance
in targeting: vital military targets, such as oil, first. He and Doolittle apparently
disagreed over what constituted a "definitely military target." From his position
close to Eisenhower's headquarters and as chief American airman in Europe,
Spaatz would naturally take a more expansive view of military targets than
Doolittle, who concentrated solely on operations. To Spaatz, a demonstration of
support for the Russians and the disruption of government and rail yards in
Berlin were justifiable goals. Doolittle thought the raid would tarnish the AAF's
reputation and expose his crews to too much danger for too little retum. Spaatz
thought it would show the ability of the AAF to cooperate at the highest levels
of the alliance while remaining independent. In any case, the raid pushed the
definition of military target to the limit, since Spaatz anticipated a nonvisual
attack and therefore knew the raid would be wildly inaccurate. Nonetheless, it
would seem that Spaatz hoped — albeit faintly — that a heavy raid on Berlin just
might crack the morale of the German High Command and produce a surrender.
In fact, he admitted at least that much when he acknowledged in 1969 that, "We
never had as our target, in foreign [German occupied?] Europe, anything except
a military target — except Berlin."106

On February 3, 1945, heavy bombers of Eighth Air Force mission No. 817
left their fields and turned to the East, toward Germany. What was their mission?
To give incidental aid to the Russians, assuredly yes. To comply with suggestions
from Washington and from the Chief of Staff, also yes. But Doolittle's and
Spaatz's reactions indicate an additional goal. The mission is unique among the
approximately eight hundred Eighth Air Force missions flown under USSTAF's

551

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

command, for the nature and vehemence of Doolittle's objection to his targets.
Eleven days later, for instance, Doolittle made no objection whatsoever to hitting
the marshaling yards in Dresden. Nor did he object to hitting the three rail yards
in Berlin on February 26. But the whole tenor of his communications with Spaatz
shows his perception that this was a terror raid as suggested by Thunderclap.

Likewise, Spaatz's direct orders to "hit the center of the city" are unique. He
knew that bombing rail yards meant bombing city centers. He often ordered
raids on transportation and other targets within cities, but in no other instance
did he specify it explicitly as he did for this mission. On January 16, four days
after the start of the Societ offensive, he had Thunderclap delivered to the
Eighth Air Force. On January 25, he agreed with Tedder to have the plan ready
for instant implementation. On January 30 and February 2, he insisted that
Doolittle bomb the Thunderclap targets. It is a reasonable surmise that Spaatz
hoped that Thunderclap might succeed.

But Spaatz the air force commander with three years of combat experience
differed gready from Spaatz the Washington plaiming officer of 1941, who had
approved of the morale bombing of Berlin in Air War Plan No. 1 (AWPD/1). By
February 1945, airmen such as Harris had repeatedly had to backtrack from
assurances about the effectiveness of bombing. If Spaatz were to espouse
Thunderclap publicly (it seems never to have been mentioned in the press
accounts of the time), he and air power would lose prestige if the operation
failed. Apparently, Spaatz judged the chances of the operation's success as
low — ^too low for advance publicity, but high enough to risk the effort of one
raid, which he was under pressure to fly in any case. To Spaatz, a man famous at
the poker table for his affinity to drawing to an inside straight, the gamble
seemed worth it.

The Eighth struck Berlin with more than 1,000 B-17s. Of these, 932,
employing mostly visual methods but hampered by the need for violent evasive
action to avoid intense flak, dropped 2,279 tons of bombs (250 tons of them
incendiaries), losing 23 of their number to flak and none to German fighters.
The 1st Air Division, which led the attack, bombed visually. The following 3d
Air Division bombed visually with H2X assisting. Post attack photo recoimais-
sance showed severe damage to the Anhalter rail station and moderate damage
to Tempelhof marshaling yard and the Schlesischer rail station (secondary aim-
ing points on the Thunderclap target list). In the center of the city, industrial
and residential property suffered severe damage, while government offices along
the Wilhelmstrasse, including the Air Ministry, Reich Chancellory, Foreign
Office, and Gestapo headquarters (primary aiming points on the Thunderclap
target list), received numerous hits. 107 Many bombs missed their aiming points
and fell into residential areas of the city. 108 For the tenth and last time the
Eighth had bombed the civil and military government area of Berlin. 109 But
Doolittle employed only his B-17s; the more vulnerable B-24s, in keeping with
Spaatz's verbal directive to send at least 400 bombers against oil whenever pos-

552

Victory

sible, went to bomb the Magdeburg synthetic oil plant. Of the 434 B-24s dis-
patched, 116 bombed the oil plant. Most of the rest bombed the Magdeburg mar-
shaling yard using H2X, when clouds obscured the primary target.

The Germans, in accordance with their standard policy, declared the Berlin
raid a terror-bombing attack, and stories in their own and neutral presses claimed
20,000 dead.110 in this instance the German government and propaganda organs
had been hit where they hurt. The AAF official history uncritically accepts a fig-
ure of 25,000.111 Recent figures based on records of the Berlin City Archives
and the Bundesarchiv indicated losses of 2,893 dead, 729 seriously injured,
1,205 slighdy injured, and 120,000 left homeless.ll2 Given the relative accuracy
of the visual bombing employed and the sparing use of fire bombs by the Eighth
on this mission, the lower figures were probably closer to the truth. This mis-
sion, unusual because of its accuracy and low volume of fire bombs, apparently
struck its assigned targets — rail junctions and the center of government. But the
heavy damage inflicted on residential areas showed that, even under favorable
conditions, AAF precision attacks on city areas had considerable "spillage" into
the civilian population. After-attack reports show that some groups managed to
miss the 883 square miles of Berlin altogether. 113 The Berlin Chamber of
Commerce called this raid the worst yet experienced and cited heavy damage to
the southwestern and southeastern business sections, which caused a significant
drop in industrial production. 114

That this mission greatly aggravated the calamitous situation in Berlin can-
not be doubted. There was no proof one way or the other, however, that it signif-
icantly delayed rail movement or added to the administrative confusion of the
capital. To the world the AAF emphasized both the "direct tactical aid" given to
Marshal Zhukov's advancing armies and the damage to rail stations and govern-
ment buildings. 115 The New York Times reported: "The raid was designed to fan
the flames of German civilian discontent, but even more important, to snarl the
enemy's administrative machinery, disrupt his communications and disorganize
his control of the Reich's military forces pouring eastward to man the Oder
River line."l 16

Berlin remained centered in the Eighth's sights. On February 5, Spaatz told

his staff that Berlin retained its priority after oil and before transportation.n?
Later in the day, he received word from Anderson at Yalta that the Soviets had
formally requested air attacks against Berlin and Leipzig. US Spaatz replied, "All
out effort will be placed against targets mentioned whenever weather conditions
pennit."ii5' In response to Marshall's request the Eighth planned a raid by all
three air divisions on the center of Munich on February 5, but it was canceled
because of weather. On February 6, weather again caused the cancellation of a
trip to Berlin. 120

That same day Spaatz replied to Arnold's pessimistic note of January 14,

informing him of the plans for Clarion, which he hoped would paralyze all traf-
fic in Germany. He rejected the Jeb Stuart plan but noted, "For the past two

553

Fratricide over Berlin. The death of a B-17 by friendly bombers, February 3,
1945. The low squadron has strayed beneath the lead squadron, directly into the
path of its just-released bombs. No parachutes were sighted as the pictured aircraft,
whose left stabilizer was struck and sheared off, plunged to the ground.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

weeks we have been using the returning escort fighters in a Jeb Stuart role with
the intention of preventing rapid movement of German troops from the Western
to the Eastern front by strafing rail traffic." As for Jeb Stuart, Thunderclap, and
Clarion, Spaatz observed, "Your comment on the decisiveness of results
achieved by air power leads me to believe you might be following the chimera
of the one air operation which will end the war." Spaatz no longer believed such
an animal existed. He spoke of the difficulty of exploiting and measuring the
results of air operations. Only in the aggregate could one see that Allied air
power had badly damaged the German economy and denied oil to the German
military.121

On February 6, the Eighth attempted to attack oil targets only to find clouds
over the synthetic plants, which meant that more than 1,300 bombers hit either
secondary targets or targets of opportunity. On February 9, another 1,300-plane
mission against the same targets was thwarted by the weather. Secondary targets
were again bombed. On February 13, USSTAF called the Eighth to report that
the weather would be "beautiful" over Dresden and Chemnitz. The Eighth drew
up three plans: Plan A, for a short mission over western Germany in case of
marginal weather; Plan B, for the 1st and 3d Air Divisions to bomb Dresden and
the 2d Division to bomb Chemnitz (after these cities' names, the planners noted,
"Beat 'em up"); and Plan C, for the 1st and 3d Air Divisions to bomb Dresden
and the 2d Division, in case it could not climb over the clouds to eastern
Germany, to bomb transport and jet targets in central Germany. 122 After post-
poning the attack for twenty-four hours because of the weather, 1,377 B-I7s and
B-24s set out on February 14 to bomb marshaling yards in Dresden and
Chemnitz and to bomb the oil plant in Magdeburg. The 340 B-24s of the 2d Air
Division that were redirected from Plan C because of the possibilty of visual oil
bombing and sent against synthetic plants found bad weather and diverted to
Magdeburg's marshaling yards, where they dropped 811 tons of bombs (215
tons of them fire bombs) by H2X; the 294 B-17s of the 3d Air Division that
were diverted from Plan C because of the heavy RAF raid on Dresden the previ-
ous night, employing H2X, dropped 718 tons of bombs (228 tons of fire bombs)
on the Chemnitz yards; and 311 B-17s of the 1st Air Division, using visually
assisted H2X, dropped 771 tons of bombs (including 294 tons of incendiary
bombs) on the Dresden marshaling yards. 123

But several eyewitnesses in Dresden never even noticed the American
bombs. 124 Some of the city's inhabitants failed to pay much attention to this
mission because on the previous night, February 13-14, 796 Lancaster heavy
bombers of Bomber Command, in a two- wave attack, had released 2,646 tons of
bombs, including 1,181 tons of incendiaries, into the very heart of the city.
Much of Dresden's antiaircraft defense, including almost all the heavy guns
capable of reaching high altitudes, had left to serve as antitank units on the
Eastern Front or to supplement flak defenses at points hit more often by the
Allies. Thus, British and American raids met no opposition. The British, in par-

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Victory

ticular, benefited from the lack of interference because their airborne controller
could bring his planes in undisturbed and direct them to drop their cargoes in a
newly developed fan-shaped pattern that maximized the coverage and effect of
incendiary bombs. The RAF conducted a technically perfect fire-raising attack

on the city. 125

Several factors had to combine to create the phenomenon of a fire storm.
Weather had to be favorable — dry with low humidity. Many large fires had to be
started in a short time. The built-up city area had to be blanketed with a bomb
mix, that included large percentages of incendiaries and high explosives. The
large percentage of incendiary bombs made it impossible for individual efforts
to stop the fires, while high-explosive bombs drove the populace and most fire
guards into shelters, discouraged fire fighters, smashed water-main networks,
created road blocks, broke windows, and opened up buildings and holed roofs.
Unlike a large fire, which starts at a single point and spreads by easy stages over
the course of several hours, a fire storm's huge blaze starts with incredible rapid-
ity. Within twenty minutes after the first attack wave struck Hamburg (in July
1943), two out of three buildings in a four-and-one-half square-mile area were
ablaze. This quick buildup made fire fighting impossible. As flames broke
through the roofs, a column of super-heated air shot up from the burning area to
a height exceeding 13,000 feet and sucked in cooler air at its base, creating a
street-level draft measured at thirty-three miles per hour. (To panicked individu-
als at ground level this wind blowing directly toward the maelstrom would have
seemed even fiercer.) The resultant gale carried burning material and sparks
down the streets and heated all combustibles in the area to the ignition point.
Thus, the fire spread toward its center and was, eventually, self-limiting.

Seventy percent of the deaths in the fire storm came as a result of carbon-
monoxide poisoning. The fire consumed the free oxygen in the area and
replaced it with the products of combustion, one of which, carbon monoxide,
seeped into basement bomb shelters killing the occupants painlessly and silently.
To avoid death people had to leave their shelters before the fire became too
intense, brave the fires along the streets, and face the bombs still coming down.
This prospect made it difficult for the authorities to convince people of the dan-
ger they risked if they stayed too long in the shelters.i26

By early morning on February 14, Ash Wednesday, a fire storm engulfed the
middle of Dresden causing staggering loss of life. Estimates of the death toll
range from a low of 35,000, now accepted as the best guess, to a high of
250,000. No one will ever know the exact figure with certainty, because Silesian
refugees, evacuees from other bombed cities, slave laborers, and other displaced
persons had jammed into the almost untouched city. Few of the city's residents
and recent arrivals had ever experienced a major bombing. They had little idea
of how to protect themselves.i27

The 311 American B-17s, which for this mission carried approximately the
same percentage of fire bombs as the Lancasters, attacked shortly after 12:00

557

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

P.M. After releasing 771 tons of ordnance, they reported a low-lying haze of
smoke that prevented observation of their bombs' fall. Nevertheless, immediate
post-raid analysis of strike photos taken by the attacking bombers, indicated
"that the majority of the bombs dropped fell into heavily built-up areas of the
city," and stated, "damage to the city should be severe."l28 The next day, at an
Allied Air Commanders' Conference, Doolittle reported that "the fires lit by
Bomber Command the previous night had been re-kindled," and he noted with
"greatest reticence" that the smoke had risen to 15,000 feet.l29 That same day,
210 B-17s unable to bomb their primary target, the synthetic oil plant at
Ruhland, diverted to their secondary target, Dresden. Using H2X, they dropped
461 tons of bombs, all high explosives, on the stricken city. '30 In all, the planes
under Spaatz 's command had flown 521 heavy-bomber sorties and had dropped
1,232 tons of bombs on Dresden. Their bombs mattered little, for the RAF had
already virtually leveled the city. As a result of these raids the AAF official his-
tory, relying, in part, on immediate postmission aerial photography, stated, "If
casualties were exceptionally high and damage to residential areas great, it was
also evident that the city's industrial and transportation establishments had been
blotted out."13l

The Dresden raids, like earlier missions against Berlin, evoked bitter accusa-
tions of terror bombing from the German propaganda machine and strong reac-
tion in the neutral press. A February 17 broadcast by the German Overseas
Service in English for North America awarded Spaatz the "Order of the White
Feather" for "acts of exceptional cowardice in bombing German cities filled
with pitiful refugees."i32

This time, however, the American press joined in the uproar. On February
16, Air Commodore C. M. Grierson of the SHAEF Air Staff held a background
press conference. He spoke only for the SHAEF Air Staff Section, but the nature
of the conference, which dealt with strategic bombing policy, gave some
reporters the impression that he represented Spaatz and Harris as well. After
touching on oil and communications bombing, Grierson, an RAF intelligence
officer before his posting to SHAEF, discussed the use of heavy bombers
against centers of population. He noted that large raids on population centers
always led the Germans to bring in numerous trainloads of extra supplies and to
evacuate the homeless. That type of relief relied, stated Grierson,

on rapid and sound communication between the big cities and the whole of the
interior of Germany itself, so that the destruction of not only communications

centres, but also of towns where the relief comes from and where the evacuees
go to, are very definitely operations which contribute greatly toward the break
up of the German economic system.

When Grierson was asked about the attack on Dresden and other points

ahead of the Russian front he responded, "I should say the reasons for the attack
are probably at least twofold. First of all they are centres to which evacuees are

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Victory

being moved. They are centres of communication through which traffic is mov-
ing across to the Russian front, and from the Western front to the East." When
asked for further cities on the Hst he repHed, "I cannot give the list offhand. I
think all those places through which the communications passed from West to
East and those from North to South, and then the obvious centres of evacuation
of population and probably emergency food storage." When asked whether the
aim of the Dresden attack was "to cause confusion among refugees or to blast
communications carrying military supplies," Grierson answered, "Primarily
communications to prevent them moving military supplies. To stop movement
in all directions if possible — movement of everything. "133

In response to other questions, the air commodore said that "further bomb-
ing attacks of German cities which are incidental and complementary to the
communications attacks must have an affect on her [sic] internal economic sys-
tem and what morale there is left to have any effect on." Finally, Grierson
implied that the Allies hoped to stop coal from leaving the Ruhr for, among
other reasons, the purpose of increasing civilian suffering.i34

Grierson had denied that the attack on Dresden was terror bombing. He had out-
lined a program aimed primarily on causing confusion and lowering morale by
bombing civilian evacuees, chivying them from point to point, and denying them
comfort, food, and heating supplies. Although he denied that the Allies had begun a
terror-bombing campaign, he implied that the bombing of eastern German cities was
mainly intended to produce hordes of refugees and to increase civilian suffering.

An Associated Press correspondent at the briefing, Howard Cowan, sent a
slightly embellished account of Grierson's remarks to SHAEF's censor who,
instead of passing the story on to USSTAF's censor because it dealt with strate-
gic bombing policy, allowed it to go forward.l35 On February 18, the Washington
Star and other papers across the nation gave the story front-page treatment, much
to the dismay of Amold, who, along with Marshall and Secretary of War Henry L.
Stimson, promptly asked Spaatz for an explanation. Three days after the story's
release, Kuter, who had returned to Washington, observed, "The Cowan story
has given us a heavy set-back in the American Press on the question of precision
bombing and the basic principle of the employment of the American Strategic
AirForces."i36

Cowan had written:

The Allied Air Commanders have made the long awaited decision to adopt
deliberate terror bombing of the great German population centers as a ruthless

expedient to hasten Hitler's doom. . . . Their avowed purpose will be creating
more confusion in the German traffic tangle and sapping German morale.

Cowan went on to describe Grierson's remarks pertaining to the strains placed
on the German transportation system by the relief work associated with cities
either bombed out or jammed with civilians fleeing the Soviet advance from the
east. 137

559

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

The series of queries and responses that this story initiated between
Washington and Paris followed on the heels of a preliminary exchange between
Kuter and Spaatz. On February 13, Kuter, visiting Eaker at the latter's headquar-
ters, read, he claimed for the first time, Bottomley's January 31 directive. There
can be little doubt that Kuter had already seen the new directive at Yalta.l38
Apparently Baker's opposition to city bombirig led Kuter to reexamine his own
views. He felt that the directive varied too far from Directive No. 3, which the
CCS had tacitly agreed to at Malta. He complained in a cable to Spaatz that the
"insertion of what can be read as indiscriminate bombing of German cities is
priority second only to synthetic oil plants." This, said Kuter, would divert too
much strength from the effort devoted to submarines, violating the informal
agreements reached in Malta between the Army, the AAF, and the Navy on the
amount of air effort to be expended on the submersibles. Kuter added that unless
intelligence showed that the bombing of German cities would have a dramatic
effect on ultimate victory "we are not keeping good faith with the US JCS." He
therefore requested the data supporting the decision to add east German cities to
bombing priorities. Kuter did not, however, ask that the January 31 directive be
rescinded. "It is understood," he said, "that my questioning of your directive in
General Arnold's name does not interfere with current execution of your direc-
tive."i39

Giles, who had received an information copy of the cable, told Kuter that
AAF Headquarters had no information "as to the basis of decision to attack
German cities on a continuous number two priority." Giles also noted that AAF
Headquarters considered the cities as targets of opportunity that should not
retain second priority. '40

In his reply to Kuter and Giles on February 14, Spaatz detailed his thoughts
on the Bottomley directive and defined current USSTAF strategic policy. He
maintained that Bottomley's directive referred only to Bomber Command, and
differed in detail from his own instructions to USSTAF, which were intended to
be temporary. He had based them on "the premise that the Russian offensive and
the maintenance of same was [sic] of primary strategical importance." His most
important contribution to the Soviets' winter offensive, he said, was the contin-
ued bombing of oil production facilities. His second most important was the
attacking of

transportation in major cities feeding the Russian front and concomitant disrup-
tion of administradon particularly in such centers as Berlin. That these were

important contributions to Allied solidEirity is evidenced by the Russian reac-
tion to this program and the fact that they themselves requested attacks on
Berlin and Leipzig.''"

Spaatz refuted Kuter's imputation of bad faith with the JCS:

This program was concurred in by Gen. Marshall and he suggested its exten-
sion to include attacks on Munich. My directive at that time specified that

560

Victory

attacks would be made on Berlin when overcast conditions prevented visual
attacks on oil. This has since been expanded to include attacks against Dresden,
Leipzig and Munich, of which Dresden had this date been attacked. Since these
attacks are primarily aimed at transportation, [emphasis added] it represents
no change in priority but merely a change in emphasis from the battle in the
West to the battle in the East.

As for submarines, Spaatz stated, "It is not considered that this situation has any
influence on the amount of effort which will be placed on the submarine system
under current directive since attacks are influenced almost entirely by weather
areas."l42

Giles and Arnold, who did not know exactly how Spaatz's instructions dif-
fered from Bottomley's directive, accepted Spaatz's answer on faith. Speaking
for himself and Arnold, Giles stated that Spaatz's views, as expressed in the
cable of February 14, were acceptable: "Providing that not involved are instruc-
tions or implications for promiscuous bombing of German cities for the purpose
of causing civilian confusion. It has always been our view that the conmiunica-
tions objectives in large cities were to be attacked under existing priorities as
stated in directive number 3. "143

This cable had hardly left Giles's desk when Cowan's front-page story hit
the streets of America. Arnold radioed another message to Spaatz: "Complete
clarification has become essential to resolve my now existing confusion as to
directives and priorities under which the Strategic Air Forces are presently oper-
ating." Arnold requested urgent transmission of the text of USSTAF's current
operating directive along with any comments Spaatz cared to make. '44

Both Giles's and Arnold's cables arrived in Paris after Spaatz had left for the
Mediterranean to confer, as he did periodically, with Eaker. Because the situa-
tion required speedy response, Frederick Anderson, speaking for Spaatz, replied
to the worried communications from the Pentagon. 145 To Giles, who passed the
messages on to Arnold, Anderson rejoined, "It has always been my policy that
civilian populations are not suitable military objectives." Anderson went on to
explain the differences between Bottomley's directives and Spaatz's: "Although
in general parallel in priorities and issued after mutual consultation, [they] often
reflect the difference in capabilities of the two forces. On this occasion, I did not
issue a complete new Directive since it was necessary only to change emphasis
within the Priorities of Directive Number Three." Finally, Anderson observed
that "such changes within the broad framework of formal Directives are almost a
daily occurrence to keep abreast of the changing situation. "146 Anderson next
paraphrased for Giles the current directive to the Eighth Air Force dated January
30, 1945. It differed little from Spaatz's verbal orders to Doolittle on January
28. Visual attacks on oil had first priority, bombing attacks (probably through
overcast) on Berlin had second priority, and attacks on the Cologne-Ruhr-Kassel
area had third priority. "With above in mind," stated Spaatz's directive to
Doolittle, "anticipate you will hit Berlin whenever weather conditions do not

561

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

indicate possibility of visual bombing of oil targets but do permit operations to
Berlin."i47

In his cables to Giles and then to Arnold, Anderson justified Berlin as a tar-
get on several grounds. The city served as a focal point in the supply and
defense against the Red Army's attack and as a suspected transshipment point
for the Sixth S.S. Panzer ArmyM^ Furthermore, Berlin's position as a center of
communications, administration, and industry required some effort. Such effort
would force the Luftwaffe into the air to fight; require the Luftwaffe to station
fighters close to the city, thus removing them from the Western Front; and con-
tain a large flak defense that, if left alone, would disperse to defend other tar-
gets. 149

Anderson told Washington that USSTAF still operated according to Directive
No. 3 but added, "I believe that the power of the Russian advance is the greatest
strategic factor at the present time in this war and as the situation dictates, I
believe it should be strongly supported."150 These answers satisfied Arnold. On
February 19, he informed Spaatz that the two messages so far received had
"resolved all open questions. It is now understood that you are proceeding along
lines consistent with Directive No. Three. "i^i

Anderson next turned to limiting any public relations damage done by Cowan's
story. After discussions with Eisenhower, they agreed not to stir up aheady muddy
waters by issuing an official statement denying the story, which would only keep it
alive.152 With Virgil Pinkley, European manager of United Press, Anderson
reviewed USSTAF's position on bombing. Col. Max Boyd, USSTAF's chief
public relations officer, also told several reporters that there had been no change
in policy, only "a shift of emphasis from West to East to weaken German
defenses against the Russian Offensive." In these talks USSTAF acknowledged
that "attacks against targets in populous centers always have and always will
endanger civilian lives" but emphasized that the AAF would continue to
improve its technique to obtain the greatest possible concentration of bombs
directly on military targets selected for attack.153

Spaatz summarized the whole affair in a letter to Robert Lovett on February

21:

As you know, our strategic policy directives and the Air Ministry directives to
R.A.F. Bomber Command parallel except that the technique of the R.A.F. oper-
ation requires the accomplishment of the same results by the use of area bomb-
ing. Our policy, of course, has remained unchanged. The technique of setting
up on the transportation system in our recent raid on Berlin was the same as
that used in our raids on the same city throughout last year. If there is a point of
difference, it is merely in effectiveness since the strike was unusually good.
The SHAEF officer giving out the interview was not authorized to talk concern-
ing strategic air bombing policies and did not present General Eisenhower's or
my views.'**

562

Victory

In the years since the bombing of Dresden, several questions have recurred,
four of which definitely touch on Spaatz's decisions or responsibilities:

1. Who ordered the bombing of Dresden? Although the Joint Intelligence
Committee, the British Air Staff, Tedder, and Spaatz had all begun to consider
aiding the Soviet offensive, Churchill must bear the responsibility for shifting
the heavy-bomber effort to the Eastern Front. He prodded the RAF to place east
German cities at the top of its priority list. Harris was the first to suggest
E)resden in this connection. Spaatz, as the chief American official involved in
setting priorities for the U.S. strategic air forces, accepted the change of target-
ing locale proposed by the British and ordered attacks on Berlin, Dresden,
Munich, and associated cities.

2. Did the Soviets request the bombing of Dresden? No, the Soviets never
specifically asked for it. They were aware from the Tripartite negotiations at
Yalta, however, that the British and the Americans had reserved the right to
bomb it whenever they chose. 155 in addition, at Yalta the Soviets requested "an
action on communications [to] hinder the enemy from carrying out the shifting
of his troops to the East from the Western Front, from Norway, and from Italy,
in particular, to paralyze Berlin and Leipzig. "156 Spaatz, in accordance with pre-
vious agreements, notified the Soviets twenty-four hours before the February 13
mission and twenty-four hours prior to the February 14 mission of his intention
to attack Dresden. 157 At no time did the Soviets express a wish to halt the bomb-
ing of Dresden.

3. Was Dresden a legitimate military target? Dresden, as the seventh-largest
city in Germany, possessed many small workshops, factories, and perhaps
50,000 workers employed in the arms industry; 158 none of these alone had
attracted the interest of Allied targeting officers. In February 1945, however,
Dresden's position as a communications center became all important once the
Soviets neutralized Breslau. It then became a communications linchpin of the
southern part of the Eastern Front. The main rail lines from Leipzig and Berlin
joined just outside the city, while the chief rail line to Prague and to Hungary
and a main line due east to Breslau radiated from within the city. If the AUies
could significantly retard or halt communications through Dresden, the German
effort against the Soviets in that sector would weaken, perhaps fatally. Dresden's
importance as a communications center made it a legitimate military target.

4. Did the Allied air attacks on Dresden deviate from established bombing
policy? They did not. The RAF employed a main-force attack, as it had often
done before, which started a fire storm — the intended, but seldom achieved,
result of all main-force attacks on city areas. As a matter of policy, the RAF rou-
tinely bombed city areas in order, as the RAF official historians state, "to dislo-
cate the German war economy by the destruction of what were regarded as prof-
itable targets in it, namely the residential centres of the industrial population."l59
Harris, Bomber Command's chief, believed absolutely in area bombing and kept
a Ust of sixty-three German cities he meant to destroy. Two weeks after Dresden,

563

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

in reference to a main force attack on Pforzheim, the RAF's last area attack of the
war, Harris, according to the minutes of an Allied Air Commanders' Conference,
boasted to his fellow air commanders "the whole place has been burned out. This
attack had been what was popularly known as a deliberate terror attack." Harris
said that he knew "that in certain quarters, the value of these area attacks was
disputed. Pforzheim was a town which contained innumerable small workshops
for the manufacture of precision instruments. This attack must have destroyed
the 'home-work' of the population and their equipment." Harris finished by not-
ing, "Bomber Command had now destroyed 63 German towns in this fash-
ion."l«> Of the 389 main-force attacks and 482,437 tons of bombs the RAF sent
against German towns, Dresden had received only a single raid and 2,978 tons
of bombs. In comparison, the RAF subjected Berlin to 24 main-force attacks
(49,400 tons of bombs) and Essen to 28 such attacks (39,907 tons of bombs).i6l
Nor did the American attack on Dresden deviate from established AAF pol-
icy. Long after the war, in 1969, Spaatz succinctly stated his and USSTAF's rea-
soning during this period, "When the Dresden operation came down, we
bombed the military targets . . . some marshaling yards. This is what we did.
Now maybe some of the bombs fell on Dresden, but the target was a military
target." Only one-third of the Eighth Air Force, carrying a high but not unusual
percentage of incendiary bombs, attacked Dresden. As usual, when confronted
with less-than-adequate visual conditions, the Eighth resorted to H2X to make
its drops, which, assuming 30 to 50 percent cloud cover and standard acciu'acy,
meant that only 30 percent of the bombs fell within half a mile of aiming
points.162 Following standard procedures, the B-17s had aimed for Dresden's
marshaling yards located in the center of the city, and therefore dropped a good
many bombs on the already devastated residential area. The Dresden raid was
business as usual for the Eighth Air Force in the winter of 1944-1945.

U.S. Bombing Policy during the Winter of 1944-1945

The Dresden mission, however, did highlight USSTAF's use of incendiary
bombs and blind-bombing techniques over major German towns and cities. The
U.S. Strategic Air Forces in Europe freely employed both over German cities
but rarely over cities in German-occupied Europe. One week after Dresden and
after the Cowan story as well, Frederick Anderson informed the RAF Director
of Bomber Operations, "It is the policy of the U.S. Strategic Air Forces in
Europe to limit attacks to military objectives and to use precision bombing tech-
niques. When weather conditions preclude visual bombing, military objectives
in Germany proper suitable for 'bombing through overcast' technique are
selected for attack." Then Anderson differentiated between Germany proper and
German-occupied territory: "Under normal conditions it is not our policy to
attack targets in enemy occupied territory unless the target can be identified by
visual means."i63

564

Victory

The weather of central Europe forced the Americans to develop a technologi-
cal alternative to precision daylight bombing, which, except for fairly accurate
short-range systems such as Gee-H and Oboe, meant H2X. H2X was, of course,
inaccurate and fit only for locating large cities. Without H2X the Eighth Air
Force could operate for only a handful of days in the fall and winter. During the
fourth quarter of 1944, Berlin had only seven days of visual (less than 50 percent
cloud cover) bombing weather; Munich, southern Germany, and southern Austria
had five days; and central and western Germany had only three days of visual
weather. Adding days of visually assisted weather (50 percent to 80 percent cloud
cover or more than 80 percent with large local breaks in the clouds) doubled
these numbers.164 The AAF could not justify a force of 2,000 bombers if it flew
only once or twice a month. Hence, inaccurate radar missions went out as often
as weather permitted safe takeoff, landing, and travel to the target. Spaatz took
pride in the ability of his force to fly in foul weather. In mid-March, he noted
proudly to both Arnold and Marshall that the Eighth had become an all-weather
force. To Marshall he wrote, "It has been my constant aim to develop an all-
weather air force capable of placing its impact on the enemy every day of the
year. Progress in this field has developed at an outstanding rate and the crews fly-
ing the missions have kept pace with the developments in admirable fashion."l65
Similarly, he informed Arnold, "Both fighters and bombers operate in weather
which was never conceived to be suitable for combat operations, and, as a result,
we have been able to maintain approximately five times the pressure on the
enemy that would have been possible if we were restricted to visual bombing. "166

In its use of incendiary bombs, the Eighth Air Force again demonstrated a
policy of greater harshness toward German cities than targets in occupied terri-
tory. The standard American incendiary bomb from January 1944 on was the
four-pound magnesium, thermite-filled, incendiary M50A1, dropped in 500-
pound clusters. On ignition, it burned for six to eight minutes at a temperature of
2,300 degrees Fahrenheit.l67 These incendiary bombs had no blast or fragmenta-
tion effects, consequently they were useless against personnel or hardened struc-
tures, such as concrete fortifications. Nor could they significantly damage field
fortifications, marshaling yards, or, in the opinion of the Eighth Air Force, major
industrial facilities. The Eighth did not even employ fire bombs against oil tar-
gets, which postwar studies indicate could well have suffered worse damage if a
higher percentage had been included in the mix of bombs dropped on them. 168
Incendiary bombs had one function— the destruction of soft targets, that is,
houses, commercial buildings, and administrative/governmental offices.

In March 1945, the Eighth Air Force conducted a bombing campaign against
German military bases, including barracks (Kasernes), the closest military
equivalent to the civilian structures just mentioned. This campaign indicated the
Eighth's desired mix of bombs to achieve maximum damage on soft targets, a
shade under 40 percent of total tonnage of fire bombs and 60 percent of total
tonnage of high explosives. 169 On February 14, the Eighth dropped 40 percent

565

Cities in Crisis. The Eighth Air Force
attacked military objectives located well inside
populated areas. Clockwise from above: Before
and after photographs of the Tiergarten in
Berlin show the damage to residential sections
of the city. Incendiary and high-explosive ord-
nance (right) descend toward the cloud cover
over Berlin, February 26, 1945. The roof of the
Potsdam railroad station (opposite, below) col-
lapsed under bombardment that same day. The
shadow of a B-24 Liberator (opposite, left,
above) races along the tracks leading into
Munich's main railroad station. The twin tow-
ers of the city's famed Frauenkirche are on the
horizon. Munich is laid out on the H2X radar
screen (opposite, right, above) of a Fifteenth Air
Force bomber.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

of total tonnage in fire bombs on Dresden, as did the RAF, whose policy and
operational techniques called for the greatest possible damage to city areas.

Examination of the Eighth's attacks on Berlin from March 1944 to March
1945 and of those in France during May and June 1944 show a dramatic contrast
in their use of incendiaries. In May 1944, the Eighth's heavy bombers dropped
19,854 tons on France, 745 of them incendiaries. l™ Of these, 685 tons hit
German-occupied military airfields, targets by their very nature located at some
distance from city areas. In June 1944, 44,209 tons of the Eighth's bombs fell on
France, only 103 tons of them incendiaries (dropped mostly on airfields).!^!
Given Churchill's pressure to limit civilian casualties and destruction in occu-
pied countries and the Eighth's policy of employing only visual bombing tech-
niques over occupied territory, these figures seem to demonstrate the Eighth's
desire and ability to limit damage as much as possible to purely military targets.

The bombing of Berlin showed the other side of the coin. From March 4,
1944, to March 18, 1945, the Eighth sent fifteen major missions of at least 700
tons of bombs each, and four minor missions over Berlin. These missions lost
264 aircraft and placed 21,733 tons on the city, including 8,089 tons of incendi-
aries or 37 percent of the total, a figure very close to the optimum for maximum
destruction of soft targets. Of the four major raids with the least number of
incendiaries (less than 20 percent apiece), three including the February 3, 1945,
raid used visual bombing methods. More than 90 percent of all bombs fell on
three targets: military and civil government areas (12,440 tons, 4,475 tons incen-
diary), railroad stations (5,259 tons, 2,494 tons incendiary), and industrial tar-
gets (2,410 tons, 937 tons incendiary). Those were legitimate military targets
and served as aiming points for the Eighth's bombardiers. Berlin's size and the
location of its targets, mostly in the heart of the city, meant that every bomb
missing a target hit housing or other nonmilitary targets.

On February 26, 1945, all three air divisions of the Eighth — 1,135 heavy
bombers — attacked three railroad stations with 2,778 tons of bombs, 44 percent
of them fire bombs. The Schlesischer, Alexanderplatz, and Berlin-North stations
were all located within two miles of the center of Berlin. Using H2X through
complete overcast, the mission started large fires and killed many civilians. RAF
Mosquito night-intruder bombers attacking twelve hours later reported fires still
burning. After the February 26 mission, with its 500,000 fire bomblets, the
typical Berliner, with reason, would have been hard put to distinguish between
RAF area bombing and AAF precision bombing.

A fiuther look a!t Eighth Air Force operations has revealed two egregious
examples of the gap between bombing practice and stated bombing policy: the
target categories "city areas" and "marshaling yards." The two most cited Eighth
Air Force statistical simimaries that cover the entire war do not list a target cate-
gory "city areas" or "towns and cities."i74 Both summaries were prepared from
the same set of data within a month of the end of the war in Europe.

Monthly statistical summaries of the Eighth's operations prepared during the

568

Victory

war, almost contemporaneously with the events they recorded, tell a different
story. The Eighth Air Force Monthly Statistical Summary of Operations, gener-
ated at the end of each month from May 1944 to April 1945, listed a "city areas"
target category. For calendar year 1944, the summary reported that the Eighth
dropped 43,611 tons on "city areas. "1^5 Nor did these reports make any bones
about their targets. The report for the May 8, 1944, Berlin raid baldly states,
"Berlin city area attacked. Bombing raid done through 10/10 undercast on PFF
markers. Believed that the center of Berlin was well hit."l76 After reaching a
high of 9,886 tons (41 percent incendiaries) in July 1944, when the Eighth con-
ducted a series of H2X raids on Munich, the monthly "city area" totals steadily
declined to 383 tons in December.

A summary in a working paper from a USSTAF file, "Review of Bombing
Results," shows a similar dichotomy according to time period. From January
1944 through January 1945, the Eighth dropped 45,036 tons on "towns and
cities. "177 From February 1945 through the end of the war, this summary
showed not a single ton of bombs falling on a city area. Unless the Eighth had
developed a perfect technique for bombing through overcast, such a result was
simply impossible. Obviously, the word had come down to deemphasize reports
on civilian damage. For instance, when Anderson cabled Arnold about USSTAF' s
press policy on the Dresden controversy in February 1945, he noted, "Public rela-
tions officers have been advised to take exceptional care that the military nature
of targets attacked in the future be specified and emphasized in all cases. As in
the past the statement that an attack was made on such and such a city will be
avoided; specific targets will be described."!'^^

The U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, although not explicitly listing a target
category such as cities or towns, had an interesting definition of "industrial
areas." The survey placed three types of targets in "industrial areas": (1) cities,
towns, and urban areas; (2) public utihties (electric, gas, water, and telephone
companies); and (3) government buildings. Given that definition the survey even
managed to describe RAF area raids as strikes against "industrial targets."i79

The target category "marshaling yards" received more of the Eighth's bomb
tonnage than any other, somewhere between 175,000 and 200,0(X) tons of bombs.iso
At least 25 percent of all the Eighth Air Force bombs dropped over Europe fell on
"marshaling yards." One-third of the American incendiary bombs dropped over
Germany fell on the same system. As a matter of directive and policy for most
of the period between September 1944 and April 1945, the same period in which
the Eighth delivered 90 percent of the total tonnage dropped on the system, mar-
shaling yards had the highest nonvisual bombing priority. During that period the
Eighth Air Force dropped 168,038 tons of bombs, 70 percent (117,816 tons)
blind and 30 percent (50,222 tons) visually.181 Postwar research showed that
only 2 percent of bombs dropped by nonvisual means landed within 1,000 feet
of their aiming points. Rail yards as such, however, were poor targets for
incendiaries. If the fire bombs landed direcdy on or near rail cars, they destroyed

569

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

or damaged them; otherwise, they could do little harm to the heavy equipment or
trackage. The Eighth realized this. Of the 9,042 tons of bombs dropped on
French rail yards, mostly during the pre-OvERLORD transportation bombing
phase, when the Americans took scrupulous care to avoid French civilian casual-
ties, 90 percent were visually sighted and only 33 tons were incendiaries. 1^3
Even over Germany itself, during Operation Clarion, when the Eighth bombed
dozens of small yards and junctions in lesser German towns, it dropped, over a
two-day period of visual conditions, 7,164 tons of bombs in all, but less than 3
tons of fire bombs. 184

In contrast, using H2X, the Eighth pummeled marshaling yards and rail sta-
tions in large German cities with high percentages of incendiary bombs. For
example, rail targets in at least four major cities garnered the following percent-
ages of fire bombs out of all bombs dropped on them: Cologne, 27 percent;
Nuremberg, 30 percent; Berlin, 37 percent; and Munich, 41 percent.
"Marshaling yards" undoubtedly served as a euphemism for city areas. Because
the yards themselves were not good targets for incendiaries, the prime purpose
in employing such weapons was to take advantage of the known inaccuracy of
H2X bombing in order to maximize the destruction of warehouses, commercial
buildings, and residences in the general vicinity of the target. Large numbers of
planes scattering their bombs around their mostly unseen and unverifiable aim-
ing points surely would cause great collateral damage to any soft structiues
located nearby.

The AAF never officially acknowledged that it had bombed German city

areas as a matter of policy. Analysis of the Eighth's bombardment policy, of its
employment of incendiary bombs, and of its targeting of "city areas" and "mar-
shaling yards" clearly reveals that, despite denials, it did engage in the deliberate
bombing of German population centers. There were only two discernible, but
important, differences between the AAF's practice and the RAF's admitted pol-
icy. First, unlike RAF Bomber Command, under the direction of Harris, the
AAF did not consider city areas its chief and preferred target. Whereas Harris
repeatedly and sarcastically scoffed at any other target system as a "panacea,"
the AAF preferred to bomb oil and other recognizable and identifiable target
systems whenever visual methods would allow. Spaatz correctly believed that
the bombing of crucial oil and transportation targets would end the war sooner,
with less loss of life, than area bombing. Second, the AAF in Europe never
developed, trained for, or employed the specialized fire-raising techniques used
by Bomber Command. To do so would have openly acknowledged a city area
bombing policy. Under nonvisual bombing conditions (night or heavy overcast),
however, the points of attack and the bomb loadings of the RAF and the AAF
were virtually indistinguishable, as were their results.

Yet American air commanders were neither fools nor hypocrites. Michael S.
Sherry far overstates the case when he brands them technological fanatics and
speaks of the "evil of American bombing." His pairing them with Adolf Eich-

570

Victory

mann, the Nazi S.S. officer responsible for the deaths of millions of Jews
because they, like Eichmann, seemed to personify the "banality of evil" and
were neither frenzied nor hateful seems particularly overblown. 186 The Germans
could have stopped the bombing by surrender. The victims of the Holocaust
could not stop the slaughter by any means, and their numbers of casualties were
vastly greater than the numbers of casualties inflicted by Allied bombing — even
if the two types of death are comparable in other respects, which they are not.
The contradiction of American bombing was that although the target category
"marshaUng yards" served as a euphemism for area bombing, the bombardment
of marshaling yards also broke the back of the German war economy. It was the
bombing of the yards, not the paralysis of the inland waterway system or the
destruction of rolling stock and locomotives, that disrupted the vital car plac-
ings, severing the coal/transport nexus, shattering the geographic division of
labor, and toppling the production edifice built by Speer.l87

Operations to the End of the War

On February 21, 1945, Allied weather forecasters predicted clear skies over
much of Germany for the next day, whereupon Allied air leaders, at the request
of Eisenhower's headquarters, 188 scheduled Operation Clarion for execution on
February 22. Clarion, a descendant of the Hurricane plans of autumn 1944,
called for attacks by all available Allied strategic and tactical air power on
German rail and water communications in the hope of disrupting the Germans'
economic life and front-line tactical situation. By attacking numerous unbombed
targets near small cities and towns, the Allies also hoped to provide millions of
Germans with proof of Allied air superiority. British and American fighters and
bombers would spread out all over Germany blasting transport targets such as
grade crossings, stations, barges, docks, signals, tracks, bridges, and marshaling
yards. The plan purposely selected targets near small towns heretofore untouched
by the war and therefore not likely to have strong antiaircraft defenses. To
heighten their accuracy, the Eighth's and Fifteenth's heavy bombers came in at
unusually low altitudes. Some of them bombed from 6,000 feet, while the Ninth's
medium bombers buzzed up and down the rail lines destroying locomotives and
disrupting traffic. More than 3,500 heavy bombers and 4,900 fighters took part.
The bombers attacked 219 transportation targets, while the fighters destroyed or
damaged 594 locomotives and 3,803 rail cars.l89

Eisenhower's headquarters had requested Clarion in order to assist an
offensive by Lt. Gen. William G. Simpson's U.S. Ninth Army, scheduled to
begin the night of February 22-23. The Ninth meant to stage an assault crossing
of the Ruhr River, clear the Cologne plain, seize Cologne itself, and close up to
the Rhine, all of which he accomplished by March 7. Spaatz had been itching for
months to go ahead with Clarion. As discussed in the previous chapter, he had
hoped to carry out Hurricane in October, but the weather had proved unsuit-

571

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

able. On February 1, at the Allied Air Commanders' Conference, he had pressed
for immediate execution of Clarion. 190 On February 2, Anderson had presented
Clarion to Marshall at Malta as USSTAF's alternative to the Jeb Stuart plan.l9l
The same day Spaatz informed Twining and Eaker of his intention to order
Clarion when conditions allowed it. When Twining objected to the special tac-
tics called for in the plan but not the concept behind it, 192 Spaatz accommodated
him with some slight modifications to provide more safety for the heavy bombers.
On February 5, Spaatz told Arnold that Clarion was cocked and primed, although
he also noted that he no longer expected any single air operation to win the war. 193

The results of Clarion justified Spaatz's caution. The operation, which took
place on February 22-23, failed to achieve its lofty goals. It did not precipitate a
crisis among the railway workers, overwhelm the Reichsbahn's repair facihties,
disrupt the railways enough to affect the front-line troops immediately, or drive
home the war to the German people. Clarion did, however, destroy a consider-
able amount of rolling stock and lowered the throughput capacity of several
main rail lines for the duration of the war. The operation added further strain and
attrition to a system already collapsing from the cumulative effects of the
destruction being rained upon it. 194 Although Anderson probably spoke for all
of USSTAF when, a month later, he proclaimed it "singularly effective,"l95 nei-
ther USSTAF nor the rest of the AUied airmen repeated the operation — first,
because it required a special set of weather conditions and, second, because it
required all Allied air forces to give up their primary missions to concentrate on
a special project with unquantifiable results.

Clarion did provide a side benefit for the AAF, however — the opportunity
for USSTAF to stage a press blitz to counteract the reporting of the Dresden
bombing. USSTAF had a United Press correspondent at Eighth Air Force to
cover the planning; briefed the press in London and Paris; sent a planeload of
reporters to front-line fields to cover the story; sent its own combat camera
crews out to get movie and still footage of the operation, which it promptly
released; and gained a fifteen-minute news spot on the domestic U.S. National
Broadcasting Company network. 196

Each day from February 19 through March 4 the Eighth sent out more than
1,000 heavy bombers. With the exception of Clarion, which consumed two pre-
cious days of visual bombing, the rest of the attacks — ^including a massive one
on Berlin (February 26) and others on the communications centers at Munich
(February 25), Leipzig (February 27), Halle (February 27), and Chemnitz
(March 3) — used combinations of mostly radar and some visual bombing. 197 In
February the Luftwaffe moimted only one interception of more than 100 planes,
for the February 9 attack on oil plants; otherwise, it offered only feeble resis-
tance because most of its fighter effort was devoted to the hard-pressed Eastern
Front. Ultra intercepts showed that by the end of January the Luftwaffe had
transferred 800 single-engine fighters to the east. 198 Nonetheless, Allied intelli-
gence noted darkly that German jets had begun to attack in numbers and forma-

572

Victory

tions, indicating that problems in their deployment and tactics may have been
solved. 199 February repeated the pattern of January when the Luftwaffe, heavily
committed to the Battle of the Bulge and the Soviet offensive, had, for the most
part, failed to oppose strategic bombing missions. Of course, in January, 75 per-
cent of the Eighth's bomber effort went for tactical targets to aid the ground
forces rather than to dislocate Germany's economy .200

The Eighth lost 314 bombers (49 to fighters) in January 1945 and another
227 bombers (14 to fighters) in February .201 The Fifteenth did not lose a single
bomber to fighters in either month, although overall it suffered heavy bomber
losses (88 in January and 147 in February).202 USSTAF lost large numbers of
bombers to flak when it attacked targets defended by men and materiel released
from other parts of Hitler's shrinking domain. The 24 bombers lost to flak over
Berlin on February 3 amounted to almost 15 percent of the month's total lost to
antiaircraft fire. Even as Germany fell from the precipice, its defenses still fiinc-
tioned.

In February, freed from the support requirements imposed by the Battle of
the Bulge, the Eighth renewed its all-out war on Germany's economy. It fielded
missions on twenty days in February, as did the Fifteenth. These raids, plus
those of Bomber Command, lowered German Bergius and Fischer-Tropsch pro-
cess oil production from 37,000 to 13,0(X) tons a month, less than 4 percent of
January's 1944 figure.203 For the month, USSTAF dropped more than 74,400
tons, including some 54,000 tons on transportation targets, while Bomber
Command added another 45,900.204 The German economy, gravely weakened
by the loss of Silesian industry and coal, Hungarian natural oil, and Polish syn-
thetic oil, and with its railcars creaking to a halt, collapsed under this rain of
bombs. "By the end of February," stated the AAF official history, "Nazi
Germany was no longer an industrial nation."205

In March the twin titans of USSTAF and Bomber Connmand piled Ossa on
Pelion, ranging over all parts of Germany. They dropped a wartime monthly
high of almost 170,000 tons of death and destruction on the nearly prostrate
Germans; USSTAF contributed 102,000 tons to that total.206 The Soviet army
paused in its offensive, except in Hungary and East Prussia, to establish supply
lines and organize the large territory they had taken from the Germans. The
Western Allies drove the Nazis from the Rhineland and the Palatinate. After
capturing the Ludendorff Bridge across the Rhine at Remagen on March 7, the
Americans rapidly built up a strong bridgehead. In the last week of March,
Montgomery's 21 Army Group crossed the Rhine, while Bradley's 12th Army
Group and Devers's 6th Army Group broke out of their Rhine bridgeheads.

By April 1, Montgomery's and Bradley's troops linked up at Lippstadt, sur-
roimding the Ruhr and pocketing an entire German army group. This group sur-
rendered on April 18, yielding 317,000 prisoners of war. In the meantime the
Allies had continued their drive east to the River Elbe, which they reached also
on April 18. The Soviets renewed their offensive on April 16. They surroimded

573

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Berlin on April 25; after grim house-to-house fighting, they completely occu-
pied the city on May 2. German forces in Italy surrendered the same day. Hitler,
who had refused to leave his air-raid shelter in the Nazi capital, committed sui-
cide on April 30, issuing orders for counterattacks and scorched-earth resistance
until the last. At 2:42 a.m. on May 7, at Reims, France, the Germans capitulated,
effective 11:01 p.m.. May 8, to Eisenhower. At 2:00 a.m.. May 9, in Berlin, the
Germans surrendered to the Soviets.

For most of the last ten hectic weeks of the war, business at USSTAF con-
tinued as usual. The German Me 262 jet continued to trouble the American air
command. During March the Luftwaffe seldom sent up its piston-driven aircraft
to contest the Eighth's strategic raids. Those Bf 109s and FW 190s that had fuel
used it in ground- support roles, especially on the Eastern Front. The Me 262s,
perhaps no more than fifty at any one time, showed "considerable improvement"
in their tactics and organization.207 The number of Eighth Air Force bombers
lost to enemy fighters rose from fourteen in February to sixty-three in March 208 —
the greatest number of bombers lost to fighters in six months. This situation
caused concern but fell far short of the monthly totals suffered by a smaller Eighth
Air Force in the first six months of 1944. The Fifteenth lost seven bombers to
fighters in March — the only bombers it lost to enemy aircraft for all of 1945.209

On March 11, Spaatz wrote to Giles that because the American jet, the P-80,
would not become operational until autumn 1945, the German's "technical
advantage must be countered by overwhelmirtg numbers of conventional fight-
ers manned by pilots trained to both outthink and outshoot [the enemy]. . . ."
Spaatz added, "There is little doubt that part, if not all of this force, will be com-
mitted to the task of countering our strategic operations as soon as suitable tac-
tics have been developed."2io

A week later, March 18, Me 262s shot down at least six bombers. The next
day, March 19, they made a concentrated attack on another bomber formation,
causing Anderson to tell Spaatz, "A touch of the Hun's old cunning and aggres-
sive spirit was apparent today."2ii In addition, the Americans spotted at least
one formation of thirty-six jets, the largest seen up to that time. Allied intelli-
gence remarked that the formation "betokened a much more advanced state of
development than previous reaction seemed to indicate."2i2 At the Air Com-
manders' Conference on March 21, Doolittle informed the assembled airmen
that "the threat which they had been anticipating had now materialized. Jets
were now attacking in formations as large as 36 aircraft and were using more
effective tactics." He also spoke of new tactics employed by the Germans:
"Besides attacking the bombers, they were attacking the fighter escort immedi-
ately on penetration in the hope of making them drop their tanks. "The time had
come," he said, "for an all-out operation against the G.A.F. by both the Tactical
and Strategic Air Forces."2i3 According to Doolittle, a massive two-day opera-
tion to "posthole" jet airfield runways and to drop fragmentation bombs on dis-
persal areas would reduce the Luftwaffe to a point at which USSTAF's fighters

574

Victory

could engage in offensive operations rather than tie themselves to bomber escort.
Bottomley expressed some doubt about the necessity of such an operation, but
Tedder recommended antiair strikes as soon as the air forces finished their com-
mitments to support both Montgomery's assault crossing of the Rhine and the
massive paratroop drop planned to assist it.2l4

In the last week of March the Eighth attacked the German jet airfields,
achieving some success. Nevertheless, Doolittle reported at the next Allied Air
Commanders' Conference that "the jet strength of the G.A.F. was increasing
uncomfortably."2i5 A discussion of bomber priorities followed. Doolittle reiter-
ated that the Eighth's losses to fighters had risen sharply since an "all-time" low
in February. At the end. Tedder summed up the feeling of the airmen present,
including Spaatz, "that more effort should be directed against the G.A.F. to pro-
vide greater immunity to the Eighth Air Force, the Army, and supply aircraft."2l6
As Tedder apparently realized, the Allies had such overwhelming superiority
they could easily spare more effort to extinguish the Luftwaffe completely.

Spaatz did not spend all of March worrying about the Luftwaffe's relatively
feeble efforts. Other events gave him the opportunity to play the diplomat.
During Clarion and again in early March, AAF units accidentally bombed
Switzerland. An attack on February 22 on Schaffhausen which killed sixteen
persons, and the attacks of March 4 on the Basel marshaling yards (fortunately,
only nine heavy bombers dropped 21.5 tons by visual means) and on the "indus-
trial area" of Zurich (heavy bombers using H2X dropped 12.7 tons of bombs)
naturally created a fiiror. The February 22 attack had provoked Marshall to cable
Eisenhower, "Will you please have someone look into this and let me know
what can be done toward preventing recurrence of these incidents?"2l'7 The
March bombing incidents elicited a stronger response from Marshall, who
cabled Spaatz directly: "The successive bombing of Swiss territory now demands
more than expressions of regret." He ordered Spaatz to leave immediately for
Geneva and to present to the appropriate Swiss officials information as to the
cause of the incidents, Spaatz's plans for corrective action, and "a formal apol-
ogy." Marshall further requested that Spaatz undertake the mission in "maximum
secrecy" with "no publicity."2i8

This message reached Spaatz on March 6. By March 8, in Bern and in the
company of U.S. Minister to Switzerland Leland Harrison, Spaatz extended offi-
cial and personal regrets to the Swiss Foreign Minister, the Minister of War, the
Commander in Chief of the Swiss army, and the Chief of the Swiss Air Corps.
He briefly explained the difficulties of winter bomber operations, emphasizing
the prohibition, previously agreed to by the Allies, against bombing within 50
miles of the Swiss border.2l9

He promised to set up two zones: one from 150 to 50 miles outside
Switzerland within which he would forbid attacks without positive identifica-
tion, and the other within 50 miles of the Swiss border, where no attacks could
be made without his express permission. All this appeased the Swiss. In keeping

575

Ruin and Risk. Amid the destruction of the Reich, the Germans could mount a sometimes

effective defense against the Allies' aerial onslaught. Clockwise from above: Fifteenth Air Force
raids flattened large fuel storage tanks at Torgau. The Fieseler aircraft plant (opposite, above) is
a nearly complete wreck as an Allied soldier tours the works after war's end. Marshaling yards
at Eleinberg (opposite, middle) show heavy cratering in a photographic survey taken in May
1945. The alarming successes of Me 262 fighters against American bombers and fighters in
March 1945 led to heavy raids on jet assembly plants and airfields. An assembly line for the
Messerschmitt wonder weapon (opposite, below) in a wooded area near Obertraubling in
Bavaria was struck by the Fifteenth Air Force late in the war. A B-24 Liberator (below), severed
by German flak, tumbles across the sky during a raid on submarine construction yards in Kiel,
April 12, 1945, barely three weeks before all German resistance collapsed.

Spaatz and the Am War in Europe

General Carl A. Spaatz, Lt. Gen. James H. Doolittle, and the crews of the 303d
Bomb Group discussing the results of a raid on the oil refinery at Halle, Germany,
March 31, 1945.

with their neutrality, they agreed to keep the forbidden zones strictly confiden-
tial in order to keep the Germans from moving additional tempting targets close
to the Swiss borders. The Swiss, for the purposes of domestic public opinion,
issued a communique after Spaatz's departure describing the visit in general
terms. To Marshall, Spaatz reported, "It seems evident to me that with the pre-
sent restrictions which have been established, plus the fact that the importance
of these incidents has been most forcibly impressed on our Air Forces, there
should be little danger of any recurrence of any such violations of Swiss
sovereignty."220 Spaatz's visit satisfied Marshall.22i Both men went back to
fighting the war.

Four days after his return from Bern, Spaatz received official word of his
nomination as a full four-star general with date of rank from March 11, making
him senior, by one day, to Bradley. The news found him seated at the poker
table in his headquarters near Paris. Eisenhower's naval aide. Captain Butcher,
described Spaatz's reaction. First, he ordered champagne for the house; then he
growled, "Come on and deal."222

Arnold had long sought Spaatz's promotion. In September 1944, he had
asked Eisenhower to recommend Spaatz for a fourth star.223 Eisenhower turned
Arnold down, writing, "I can start off by saying that in my opinion there is no
better all-round an* officer than Spaatz. His common sense, loyalty, technical

578

Victory

knowledge and complete readiness to cooperate are unexcelled and I wouldn't
trade him for any other field commander of the Air Forces that I know. "224
Eisenhower believed that only the top American officer in a theater should hold
four-star rank; otherwise the grade would become "spread too far."

Eisenhower's promotion to the newly created five-star rank. General of the
Army, on December 16, 1944, however, eased his objections to additional four-
star officers. On December 21, he asked Marshall to ask the President to propose
Bradley and Spaatz for promotion. 225 Congress, however, had adjourned.
Confirmation of any nominations would have to wait. Eisenhower repeated his
requests on January 12 and 14.226 At Marseilles on January 28, he consulted
with Marshall, who, about to depart for the conferences at Malta and Yalta,
agreed to nominate Bradley and Spaatz when the time came. He would not make
any recommendations to the President, however, until he had decided on what
other four-star promotions to send forward.227

The same day, Eisenhower told Kuter, "no one could tell him that Tooey
Spaatz was not the best operational air man in the world." Kuter passed the assess-
ment along to Arnold, saying that Eisenhower "then qualified his statement by
saying Tooey was not a paper man, couldn't write what he wanted, and couldn't
conduct himself adequately at a conference, but he had the utmost respect from
everybody, ground and air, in the Theater." Kuter also reported Eisenhower's view
that Spaatz's decisions were "sound and he knew exactly what he was doing."228

Eventually, Marshall sent his recommendations to Roosevelt. Shortly there-
after. Congress approved them. Spaatz became the fourth most senior officer in
the Army Air Forces. He ranked below Arnold, a five-star general, and two
other four-star officers — Joseph T. McNamey, Deputy Supreme Commander in
the Mediterranean, who had served as Marshall's deputy; and George C. Kenney,
Mac Arthur's air commander. McNamey and Kenney achieved their four-star rank
five days and two days, respectively, before Spaatz's elevation to full general.

The Eighth operated bombers on twenty-six days in March, dispatching
1,000 or more bombers on twenty of them.229 On March 15, the Eighth flew a
special mission at the request of the Manhattan Project, the code name for the
American atomic bomb program. Intelligence available to the project indicated
that the Germans were engaged in manufacturing thorium and uranium at
Oranienburg, a town fifteen miles north of Berlin. Because this town was in the
projected Soviet zone of occupation and would not therefore be open for
exploitation by western scientists, the head of the Manhattan Project, Maj. Gen.
Leslie R. Groves, asked Spaatz to bomb it. The Eighth sent 675 bombers with
more than 1,400 tons of ordnance against it. Covering the true purpose of its
mission by attacking the headquarters of the German army in nearby Zossen, the
Eighth unleashed 672 additional bombers. Both missions succeeded in damaging
their targets. All above-ground structures of the uranium plant were destroyed
and the attack at Zossen incapacitated the Chief of the German General Staff,
General Heinz Guderian.230

579

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

The Eighth maintained its plans of operation, encountering no substantial
interference. On March 15, Doolittle reported that only a deficiency of mainte-
nance personnel limited his operations, not the Luftwaffe.23i As the Allied air-
men watched the German economy wither under their assaults, they shifted their
operations to targets not yet bombed to complete devastation. On March 13,
Spaatz observed to Marshall, "There is much evidence that the German railroad
system is becoming more and more demoralized, and that their [sic] oil position
has almost reached the starvation point."232 The Allies' land advances in the
west and the east, their violations of Swiss territory, and their discovery that the
Germans had begun to shift large numbers of POWs still in their hands to the
south, forced the Eighth in early March to close "the era of unrestricted straf-
ing," much to the relief of American fighter pilots, who had suffered most of
their casualties from light flak on low-level missions. They would now fly spe-
cific strafing missions instead of free-lancing.233

By midmonth, Spaatz informed Washington of a change in priorities: "We
have our strategic program well in hand and are shifting the emphasis of our
attacks closer to the Ground Forces, first to help them across the Rhine and then
to exploit the crossing."234 At the beginning of April, with the end of German
resistance clearly in view, Spaatz cautioned his forces against making any mis-
takes, such as shooting down Allied planes or dropping bombs in the wrong
places; American and Soviet fighters had engaged in a dogfight on March 18
with a loss of six Soviet aircraft.235 "Incidents do not get severe criticism when
the war is intense," remarked Spaatz, "but as soon as the war is about knocked
over ... a small mistake is magnified. "236

While Spaatz worried about peacetime reactions to what he regarded as
small mistakes, political leaders concerned themselves with reactions to possible
major blunders. On March 28, Churchill, in a note to Portal, questioned the need
for continued area bombing:

The moment has come when the question of bombing German cities simply for
the sake of increasing the terror, though under other pretexts should be
reviewed. Otherwise we shall come into control of an utterly ruined land. The
destruction of Dresden remains a serious query against the conduct of Allied
bombing. I am of the opinion that military objectives must henceforward be
more strictly studied in our own interests rather than that of the enemy. The
Foreign Secretary has spoken to me on this subject, and I feel the need for more
precise concentration upon military objectives such as oil and communications
behind the immediate battle-zone, rather than on mere acts of terror and wanton
destruction, however impressive.^"

This minute, with its implication that the airmen were running amok, rocked
Portal, who found it unacceptable. 238 Given Churchill's support of Harris's
methods throughout the war and his bullying of the Air Staff into bombing east
German cities, one of which, he was specifically informed would be Dresden,
the minute seemed at best churlish and at worst an attempt to shift the entire

580

Victory

responsibility for the policy of area bombing from civilian to military leadership.
Portal suggested that Churchill withdraw the minute. 239

Portal also asked Bottomley to obtain Harris's comments immediately.
Bottomley wrote of Churchill's note to Harris, "1 am sure you will agree that [it]
misinterprets the purpose of our attacks on industrial areas in the past, and
appears to ignore the aim given by the Combined Chiefs of Staff in their direc-
tives which have been blessed by the Heads of Govemment."240

Harris, after three years of implementing official policy, erupted in anger.
He termed Churchill's note "abusive" and "an insult both to the bombing policy
of the Air Ministry and to the marmer in which that policy has been executed by
Bomber Command." As for Dresden, Harris commented,

The feeling, such as there is, over Dresden, could be easily explained by any
psychiatrist. It is connected with German bands and Dresden shepherdesses.
Actually, Dresden was a mass of munitions works, an intact government centre,
and a key transportation point to the East. It is none of those things now.

Not satisfied with that observation, Harris argued that area bombing ought to
continue precisely because the Germans no longer had the ability to recover
from it, adding:

I therefore assume that the view under consideration is something like this: no
doubt in the past we were justified in attacking German cities. But to do so was
always repugnant and now that the Germans are beaten anyway we can prop-
erly abstain from proceeding with these attacks.

He also said that he could never agree to such reasoning:

Attacks on cities like any other act of war are intolerable unless they are strate-
gically justified. But they are strategically justified in so far as they tend to
shorten the war and so preserve the lives of Allied soldiers. To my mind, we
have absolutely no right to give them up unless it is certain that they will not
have that effect.

Harris then paraphrased Bismarck, "I do not personally regard the whole of the
remaining cities of Germany as worth the bones of one British Grenadier."
Besides, he pointed out, technical factors, such as a shortage of high-explosive
bombs but ample supplies of incendiaries also meant either continuing area
bombing or standing down the entire force. Finally, Harris mentioned Japan.
"Are we going to bomb their cities flat" to help the army? Or are we going to
bomb only their outlying factories, largely underground by the time we get
going, and subsequently invade at the cost of 3 to 6 million casualties?"24l

On March 30, Churchill withdrew the original minute, substituting on
April 1 a much milder one that merely requested the Air Staff to investigate
whether "our attacks do more harm to ourselves in the long run than they do to
the enemy's immediate war effort."242 On April 4, Portal replied that "at this
advanced stage of the war no great or immediate additional advantage can be

581

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

expected from the attack of the remaining industrial centres of Germany."243
The Air Staff, however, did reserve the right to use area bombing to assist the
advance of the Allied armies or to meet any stiffened German resistance. The
Air Staff recommended no change in current strategic directives. USSTAF's
comment on the British discontinuation of area bombing revealed the contradic-
tions in its own policies: "The U.S. Strategic Air Forces in Europe have not at
any time had a policy of making area bombing attacks upon German cities. Even
our attacks against the Berlin area were always directed against military objec-
tives." However, USSTAF acknowledged that "our Pathfinder [H2X] attacks
against communications centers have often resulted in an area type of bombing
because of the inaccuracy of this type of bombing."244

By the beginning of April, the question of continuing to engage in area
bombing or, indeed, of even going on with the strategic bomber offensive had
become moot. The Allied airmen could scarcely find a strategic target in the
detritus of the Nazi state that justified the expense of attack.

By April 5, USSTAF acknowledged that, except for U-boat yards, all targets
"should now be regarded as tactical targets." Of the tactical targets, USSTAF
accorded first priority to the Luftwaffe and second priority to communications
centers in central and southern Germany .245 This change in emphasis did not
affect the pace of operations: USSTAF heavy bombers flew on nineteen of the
first twenty-five days of the month, dropping 46,628 tons of bombs mostly on
marshaling yards (17,006 tons, less than 10 percent incendiaries), airfields
(8,597 tons), and in ground support (10,885 tons).246

On April 10, Tedder, noting that the strategic air forces had agreed that their
primary objective was now direct support of the land campaign, requested
Spaatz to put full effort on enemy rail communications, especially those in cen-
tral Germany.247 Apparently Tedder and Eisenhower hoped to prevent effective
north-to-south as well as west-to-east transfers of German men and materiel.
Spaatz ordered Doolittle to give enemy communications top priority and push
airfield bombing back a notch. Spaatz added hopefully, "Wherever suitable.
Clarion low altitude, small formation technique should be used to obtain maxi-
mum effectiveness."248

At last, on April 12, Spaatz and Bottomley, after consulting Tedder, agreed on
a final directive. Strategic Directive No. 4, which brought the strategic air war in
Europe to a close. The top priority mission of the strategic air forces was "to give
direct assistance to the land campaign." Operations to support the Soviet armies
would occur only if directiy requested by the Soviet High Command. Second pri-
ority went to oil supplies, particularly gasoline in storage depots, enemy lines of
communications, and "such other missions as may be requested by the Supreme
Commanders." The directive next allowed policing attacks against the Luftwaffe
and provided that the marginal effort would remain concentrated on U-boats. The
area bombing catchall category "Important Industrial Areas" disappeared, as did
the requirement to support clandestine intelligence activities.249

582

War's End. Top to bottom: General Henry H. Arnold, General Carl A. Spaatz, and
Lt. Gen. Hoyt S. Vandenberg celebrate victory at decoration ceremonies in
Luxembourg on April 7, 1945; General Eisenhower and Prime Minister Churchill
share a joke in the final days of the conflict; and General Carl A. Spaatz, Command-
ing General, U.S. Strategic Air Forces in Europe, and General Jean de Lattre de
Tassigny, Commanding General, First French Army, sign the German surrender to
the Soviet Union in Berlin as observers for their countries, early on the morning of
May 9, 1945.

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Four days later, Spaatz formally signaled the end of the strategic effort to
Doolittle and Twining:

The advances of the Ground Forces have brought to a close the Strategic Air
War waged by the United States Strategic Air Forces and the Royal Air Force
Bomber Command. It has been won with a decisiveness becoming increasingly
evident as our armies overrun Germany. From now on, our Strategic Air Forces
must operate with our Tactical Air Forces in close cooperation with our
armies.^'"

On April 25, 1945, the Eighth Air Force sent out its last European bombardment
mission. Mission no. 968 dispatched 589 B-17s and B-24s, 554 of which, using
visual methods, unloaded 1,386 tons on the Skoda arms plant and airfields at
Pilsen, Czechoslovakia, and on marshaling yards at Salzburg, Bad Reichenhall,
and Hallein. The B-17s attacking Pilsen lost 6 bombers to enemy action and
wrote off 4 more as not repairable. 251 The same day the Fifteenth sent 519
heavy bombers to Linz, losing 15. On April 26, the Fifteenth dispatched the last
U.S. heavy-bomber mission over greater Germany to bomb targets near Klagenfurt
in the Austrian Alps.

The AAF in Europe and Spaatz had fought their way down a long, hard road
from the tentative publicity mission on July 4, 1942, and the first heavy-bomber
mission over the Rouen marshaling yards on August 17, 1942. The Luftwaffe
had countered their operations until the very last. The Eighth lost 266 bombers
(63 to fighters) in March 1945 and 190 more (72 to fighters) in April,252 while
the Fifteenth lost 149 bombers (7 to fighters) in March and 83 (none to fighters)
in April. 253 As late as April 10, when the Eighth made its last raid on the Berlin
area, German jets shot down 10 bombers, their highest single day's toll. 254

The war in Europe had not yet ended for Spaatz. After witnessing the
German surrender to the British and Americans at Reims on May 7, at Eisen-
hower's behest, he accompanied Tedder to Berlin for the German suiTender to
the Soviets. The C-47 carrying Tedder, Spaatz, French General Jean de Lattre de
Tassigny, their assistants, and press representatives, left Reims airfield at
8:25 a.m. on May 8 and landed first at an ex-Luftwaffe field held by the Ameri-
cans at Stendal, near the Elbe River. For an hour they poked about the field lit-
tered with about 150 derelict German planes in various stages of disrepair.
When the Soviet fighter escort arrived, they flew on to Berlin. A half-hour later,
they arrived over Berlin; the city was cloaked in haze and smoke from still-
smoldering buildings. The destruction, they testified, was awesome.255

After reviewing a Soviet honor guard at Tempelhof airfield, they boarded
confiscated German automobiles and drove through the outskirts of the city to
Karlshorst, a suburb in the northeast. Their route led through numerous former
German roadblocks. The Soviets, afraid of snipers, had cleared all Germans
from the area. For the most part the company rode in deathly silence.

Once they arrived, most of the party sat while Tedder, Soviet Marshal

584

Victory

Zhukov, and other Soviet functionaries debated armistice terms. Tedder had
brought a draft instrument of surrender similar to the one signed at Reims. For
the next twelve hours, the Soviets tediously contested every outstanding issue
with Tedder. At first, they refused to allow either Spaatz or de Lattre de Tassigny
to sign but eventually relented. At 11:00 p.m., the Soviets presented the terms to
the German plenipotentiaries, headed by Field Marshal Keitel, who signed after
some momentary and pointless haggling.256

Pandemonium broke loose as Soviet photographers practically mobbed the
participants. After the signing, the Germans departed, while the Soviets laid out
a banquet, with bottles of champagne, red wine, white wine, brandy, and vodka
beside each plate. Toast followed toast, shots of vodka followed shots of vodka.
Several celebrants succumbed to alcohol; one of these was Butcher, who after-
wards couldn't even remember the next few hours. Later that morning, at
Tedder's request, the party returned to Tempelhof directly through the heart of
Berlin so that they could take a fuller measure of the German defeat. Then they
returned to Reims. Spaatz had finished his part in the war against Germany.

585

Chapter 16

An Assessment

In the final phase of the war, when air superiority had been
achieved, the potential of the strategic air offensive was
greater than its achievement. This was primarily due to the
difficulty of obtaining a unified and concentrated policy
through the channels of divided command and in the condi-
tions of divided opinion.'

— Ojficial British history of the bomber offensive, 1961

Of all the accomplishments of the air forces, the attainment

of air supremacy was the most significant, for it made pos-
sible the invasions of the continent and gave the heavy
bombers their opportunity to wreck the industries of the
Reich.^

—Ojficial AAF history of World War II, 1951

Because of Spaatz's close wartime association with strategic bombing, any
assessment of his role in the air war in Europe of necessity becomes an analysis
of the Anglo-American strategic bombing campaign against Germany. The bald
facts concerning that offensive have remained undisputed for over forty years.
The heavy bombers of the Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces flew 488,065 sorties,
their fighters an additional 350,864. The two air forces dropped 1,005,729 tons
of bombs, 28 percent of them on marshaling yards, 13 percent of them (133,807)
on oil targets, 18 percent on aircraft targets, and the remaining 41 percent on
lower priority targets. They claimed 15,426 German aircraft destroyed in the air,
8,435 by heavy bombers, and lost 8,759 heavy bombers and 3,546 fighters.3 The
AAF in the European and Mediterranean Theaters lost 35,844 men dead, 13,727
wounded, 33,414 captured or interned, and 5,958 missing. U.S. Navy and
Marine battle dead for all theaters totaled 36,950 and 19,733 respectively .4 The
British Royal Air Force Bomber Command dropped an additional 1,047,412

587

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

tons of bombs5 and lost 8,325 bombers and 55,573 personnel.^ Given the compa-
rable quality of the manpower involved, Bomber Command's dead exceeded the
number of British Empire officers killed in World War I by 40 percent^ From
October 1939 through May 1945, the RAF and the two U.S. strategic air forces
dropped 543,054 tons of bombs (31 percent of them incendiaries) in raids
specifically directed against the sixty-one German cities with populations
exceeding 100,000. The strategic bombing campaign, at a minimum, killed
250,000 people and left 7,500,000 homeless.8 Tactical Allied bombing in
Germany added 55,000 more dead and 360,000 wounded.^ Allied air power
destroyed 3,600,000 dwelling units, 20 percent of the German total. Overall,
Anglo-American air power in Europe dropped 2,700,000 tons of bombs, flew
1 ,440,000 bomber sorties and 2,680,000 fighter sorties, and reached peaks of
1,300,000 men and 28,000 aircraft in combat commands.io

Spaatz drove home a strategic air offensive that had faltered from lack of
resources. From January 1, 1944, through May 8, 1945, he wielded a weapon of
frightful power. That a single modem strategic multiple warhead missile, or a
nuclear missile submarine, or a strategic bomber can each carry several times the
one megaton dropped by USSTAF in no way diminishes the issues raised by
Spaatz's direction of the U.S. strategic bomber offensive. He more than any
other person must bear the responsibility and consequences for the application
of U.S. strategic air power to Germany.

Some analysts have criticized the selection of targets. Maj. Gen. Haywood
S. Hansen, Jr., one of the AAF's chief strategic and targeting planners, who par-
ticipated in both AWPD/1 and AWPD/42 and led a B-29 bomber command
against Japan, has faulted the failure to bomb the eight grinding-wheel manufac-
turing plants* and electric power generation network. n The United States
Strategic Bombing Survey suggested that an investment of 12,000 to 15,000
tons per month on German transportation targets beginning in February 1944
instead of September 1944 would have caused the German war economy to col-
lapse months earlier, in time for the effect of that collapse to be fully felt by the
troops at the front. Although such arguments presuppose more detailed intelli-
gence and more accurate intelligence evaluation than were available, their pro-
ponents were correct in concluding that the strategic bombing effort could have
been employed more efficiently, but only if Spaatz had been free to operate in a
vacuum, with no necessity to respond to the bureaucratic, institutional, and oper-
ational forces surrounding him.

From March through July 1944, the needs of Overlord and the beachhead
undermined USSTAF's ability to conduct unfettered strategic bombing. Once
Spaatz and Doolittle had obtained a measure of air superiority through their
aggressive use of long-range escort fighters, the all-consuming bureaucratic bat-

* The loss of abrasive grinding wheels would have crippled the German armaments industry by
denying it the ability to machine metal castings such as gun barrels, shells, and crankshafts.

588

Assessment

tie between the oil and transportation plans began. Having committed himself to
the oil plan, Spaatz could hardly shift gears by pointing to other target systems
even more likely to bring the Nazis to heel without appearing fickle or foolish.
Crossbow bombing, a requirement imposed on the strategic bombers by British
domestic political considerations, was by far the biggest waste of blood, aircraft,
and bombs of the entire strategic campaign.

In the summer of 1944, USSTAF crushed the German oil industry and, by
September 14, was able to bomb where it willed, but nature robbed the strategic
bombing campaign of its opportunity. Four months of bad weather did not pro-
vide enough days of visual bombing to strike and restrike, if necessary, the oil
plants, let alone other target systems requiring precise bombmg. Bad weather
forced Spaatz to condone transportation attacks on major urban marshaling yards
which razed the yards and the towns, strangled the Reichsbahn in its own roUmg
stock, and wrecked the German war economy. By the end of January 1945 no
new industrial target system would have made a significant difference.

On the basis of performance, the American strategic bombing campaign ful-
filled three-quarters of the Casablanca directive: it brought about "the progres-
sive destruction and dislocation of the German military, industrial, and economic
system;" it did not, however, undermine the morale of the German people. The
oil campaign of the summer of 1944 was the fulfillment of the prewar doctrines
of precision bombardment. American strategic bombers selected an indispens-
able military target system (oil shortages had a far greater effect on German
armed forces than on German industry), attacked it by visual means, and brought
aviation gasoline production to a virtual halt by September 1944. That was what
American heavy bombers were supposed to do.

The transportation campaign demonstrated the triumph of wartime necessity
over prewar theory. Spaatz had produced an almost all-weather force of limited
acciu-acy. The constant cloud cover during the autumn of 1944 negated any hope
of consistent precision bombing — whence the selection of the marshaling yards, a
target system of more economic than military importance. Any significant break-
down of the German wartime economy would eventually have dramatic conse-
quences at the front line. Employing bombing-through-clouds techniques, often
partially assisted by visual means, USSTAF bombed out the marshaling yards,
wrecked the coal transportation nexus, and brought German industry to its knees.

The U.S. strategic bombing effort inflicted severe, if not fatal, damage to the
German military and German war economy. Independently, the effort did not
defeat Germany, as air power advocates had hoped. The slow buildup of forces,
thanks in part to the bottleneck in Anglo-American shipping availability, the
diversion of strength to the Pacific and the Mediterranean, operational difficul-
ties, intelligence errors that led to overestimation of damage inflicted, and
debates concerning targeting prevented the most efficient application of air
power to crucial sectors of the German war economy. However, what the bomb-
ing did accomplish was substantial in contributing to Germany's defeat. The

589

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Anglo-American bombing offensive brought the war to the German people long
before their armies were forced back onto German soil. In a war in which the
effort of civilian workers on the production lines was as essential to victory as
the fighting of soldiers on the front lines, the very existence of the strategic
bombing offensive encouraged U.S. and British civilians and inflicted pain and
suffering on the enemy. The British may have devoted 40 to 50 percent of their
total war production to the air forces; the U.S. expended up to 35 percent; and
the Germans up to 40 percent. German war production increased throughout the
war, reaching its peak in the third quarter of 1944. Strategic air bombardment
undoubtedly kept that increase from going higher still. It forced the dispersion of
factories and the building of underground facilities, made German production
more vulnerable to transportation disruption, lowered production by forcing
smaller, more labor-intensive production units which denied the Germans the
manufacturing economies of scale available to their enemies, disorganized work-
ers' lives, and probably lowered their productivity. In ways great and small —
and utterly incalculable — strategic bombing made German war production less
efficient and less effective than it would have been if the bombers had not flown
night after night and day after day.

Strategic bombing also forced the Germans into an enormous defense and
reconstruction effort, diverting their aircraft manufacture almost exclusively into
fighter and interceptor production. The bombing of oil not only limited mobility
but, as a side effect, also greatly reduced nitrogen production, hampering the
manufacture of explosives and fertilizers. By 1944 Germany had two million
soldiers, civilians, and prisoners of war engaged in ground antiaircraft defense,
more than the total number of workers in its aircraft industry. An additional mil-
lion workers were engaged in repair and rebuilding; the oil industry alone
absorbed a quarter of a million. Speer estimated that 30 percent of total gun out-
put and 20 percent of heavy ammunition output was intended for air defense, a
significant loss to the ground forces of high velocity weapons suitable for anti-
tank defense. Speer further estimated that 50 percent of electrotechnical produc-
tion and one-third of the optical industry was devoted to radar and signals
equipment for the antiaircraft effort, further starving the front lines of essential
communications equipment. 12

The Allied strategic bombing effort could not reasonably have been expected
to do more. It vindicated the treasure expended on it. If in the final analysis it
accomplished its ends more by brute force than by elegant precision, the fault lay
in the unrealistic assumptions of prewar doctrine as to wartime accuracy,
European weather, and radar technology. The AAF was fortunate that the great
mass of bombers that arrived in Europe in 1944 were accompanied by large
numbers of long-range escort fighters. If production, shipping, and manpower
had allowed those bombers to arrive six months earlier, they might well have
been impaled on the German air defense system.

Strategic bombing did not achieve the last task imposed by the Casablanca

590

Assessment

directive: undermining "the morale of the German people to a point where their
capacity for armed resistance" was fatally weakened. In its pursuit of that goal,
chiefly by means of city or area bombing, Allied strategic bombing raised ques-
tions of moral and ethical significance. During the war, area bombing was ques-
tioned on the floor of Parliament, first by the bishop of Chichester in February
1944, and then by Richard Stokes in March 1945. Twenty-five years ago David
Irving resurrected the ghosts of Dresden. One recent critic has written of the
"evil of American bombing," calling it a "sin of a peculiarly modem kind because
it seemed so inadvertent, seemed to have involved so little choice."'^ Another has
noted, "The most important factor moving the AAF toward Douhetian war was
the attitude of the country's top civilian and military leaders," specifically blam-
ing Arnold, Marshall, Eisenhower, Lovett, Stimson, and Roosevelt, but not
Spaatz, as responsible for the shift to area bombing. 14 These critics and many
others have recoiled at a policy that resulted in the death of more than 300,000
persons.

It was the RAF that conducted most of the area bombing and, like the AAF,
the RAF resorted to it because weaknesses in its operational technique left it no
choice. Bomber Command persisted in area bombing after it had developed an
accuracy surpassing even visual bombing, as practiced by USSTAF. To belabor
the enemy with the only weapon available was one thing, but to continue to use
it when better means were at hand delayed the end of the war and needlessly
killed tens of thousands. If the RAF earned any blame for its conduct of the air
war, it was for its area bombing conducted after June 1944.

In the autumn of 1944 and the following winter, the AAF also turned to city
bombing, ostensibly to destroy the rail yards. Lowering of morale, although sel-
dom mentioned, was almost certainly an added and hoped-for consequence. In
contrast to RAF bombing, AAF nonvisual bombing never became particularly
accurate. Arnold, Lovett, Spaatz, Eisenhower, and Marshall knew that bombing-
through-overcast techniques produced wildly imprecise results. If Stimson and
Roosevelt did not know, it was because they did not ask. However wrong it may
have been, the AAF's area bombing hastened the war's end.

The RAF killed its hundreds of thousands, the AAF its tens of thousands.
But opprobrium cannot be added up in a ledger book with exact amounts entered
in each account. To whom should one assign the guilt for the 125,000 German
civilians killed during the Russian storming of Berlin? '5 How should one weigh
the murder of 325,000 Jews by the SS at the Treblinka death camp between July
28 and September 21, 1942? 16 To those who accepted the truism that two
wrongs never make a right, then nothing can excuse the area bombing of the
Allied strategic campaign no matter how evil the German state. At the other
extreme, those who believed that any means justified the end find nothing abhor-
rent in area bombing. Between those opinions lies a vast middle ground. Area
bombing cannot be examined as a separate, unique phenomenon judged only by
numbers of missions flown and bombs dropped versus people killed. A more

591

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

valid yardstick would be the extent to which the action contributed to ending the
war as quickly as possible with minimum loss of life.

Placed in the context of the entire war against the European Axis, area bomb-
ing caused more civilian casualties than any other type of warfare employed by the
British and American Allies, but area bombing — ^the bombing of rail yards is an
exception — did not decisively influence the war's outcome. Hence area bombing
failed on both military and humanitarian grounds: it did not shorten the war and
it took lives unnecessarily.

For three years Spaatz commanded AAF units that were either destined for
or serving in the war against the European Axis. From the start, on his assump-
tion of command of the Eighth Air Force on May 10, 1942, almost until the
German surrender in Berlin on May 9, 1945, his responsibilities grew. From the
command of an incompletely trained force of five groups, his authority increased
imtil he controlled, in one way or another, an armada of four air forces made up of
135 groups, including 61 heavy-bomber groups and 42 fighter groups. On
February 1, 1945, Eisenhower rated Spaatz and Bradley equally as the two
American general officers in the Combined European and Mediterranean Theaters
of Operation who had rendered the most valuable service in the war against the
Germans. Of Spaatz, he commented, "Experienced and able air leader; loyal and
cooperative; modest and selfless; always reliable."l7 Bradley prepared a similar
list on December 1, 1944; he ranked Spaatz second, after Bedell Smith.l^ Spaatz's
subordinates appreciated him as well. Years after the war Doolittle observed,

1 suppose if it were possible for one man to love another man, I love Gen.
Spaatz. I guess it's . . . better ... [to say] that I idolize Gen. Spaatz. He is per-
haps the only man that 1 have ever been closely associated with whom I have
never known to make a bad decision."

According to Doolittle, it was soundness of judgment that earned Spaatz Eisen-
hower's trust. 19

Spaatz must be ranked as one of the premier airmen of World War II with
Harris and Tedder. Spaatz commanded the largest heavy-bomber force of all
time at the same time he had de facto control over two large tactical air forces.
No other airman of the war had so vast an operational responsibility. His com-
bined force was three times larger than that commanded by Harris, the British
strategic bomber commander. Like Harris, Spaatz eventually resorted to a type
of area bombing, but never with the unseemly relish of his British counterpart.
Spaatz's effort was directed at a particular target system, rail yards, unlike
Harris's which was aimed at the broad target category of industrial areas.
Although Spaatz was more cooperative with his superiors than Harris, he did not
gain the amount of respect and admiration from the air crews that Harris did —
probably because he eschewed the limelight. No government-sponsored press
campaign extolled his efforts at the head of his command. Spaatz did not have
the depth of strategic vision or the intellectual bent of Tedder, but he proved a

592

Assessment

good coalition soldier, and his advocacy of oil was as great a factor in Germany's
defeat as Tedder's advocacy of transportation.

Coningham, Leigh-Mallory, and Eaker must rank below Spaatz. None of
them commanded a force of comparable size. The first two were far too
parochial in their views, and their difficult personalities did not fit them for
larger roles. Eaker had abilities different from but equal to Spaatz's. He was
more outgoing, articulate, and technologically interested in his trade. Eaker
made an excellent coalition soldier, cooperating loyally with Wilson and Slessor
in the Mediterranean. From November 1942 to December 1943, no one could
have done better than, and few as well as, he did as commander of the Eighth
Air Force. Eaker was almost as close to Arnold as Spaatz was. What he didn't
have was Spaatz's luck. Eaker was the right man at the right place at the wrong
time. He lacked the bombers and crews, long-range escort fighters, drop tanks,
and H2X radar sets his successor had in abundance. Spaatz would have done no
better and would have suffered the same inevitable defeat over Schweinfurt, but
he probably would have outlasted Eaker, by virtue of his stronger relationship
with Arnold, by about two months — ^long enough to get to Big Week and to stay
in command for the rest of the war. Ira Eaker knew his business, but in some
indefinable way he lacked Spaatz's "fire in the gut" and the ability to extract the
last ounce of effort from his force or to stand up to Arnold.

By the time the United States entered World War II, Spaatz had a set of
fixed character traits, firm beliefs, and over three decades' experience as a mili-
tary aviator, all of which greatly influenced his subsequent career. He was a
drinker and gambler before and during the war. His personal correspondence is
heavily laced with liquor bills and gambling checks. Like Churchill, he appar-
ently had a large capacity for alcohol. There is no evidence whatsoever, how-
ever, of errors in judgment or decorum attributable to indulgence in spirits. Nor
were there any whispers of overindulgence, such as those that plagued Ulysses
S. Grant before and after the Battle of Shiloh. Spaatz's gambling for relatively
high stakes had no effect on the conduct of his command. (He seems to have
broken even over the long term.)

Spaatz had a quick mind and did not suffer fools gladly. He was taciturn and
shy in public. As a result, he abhored staff meetings and the day-to-day minutiae
of a vast headquarters. He surrounded himself with men he knew and trusted
who screened out unimportant details and kept them from reaching his desk.
This distaste for staff routine dovelailed neatly with the ways he relaxed — ^play-
ing cards, darts, and guitar in his headquarters' houses.

Spaatz's methods left him open to charges of cronyism. Many key members
of his headquarters/household were World War I retreads; some had even
trained under him at Issoudun. His chief of staff, Edward P. Curtis, and his
director of intelligence, George C. McDonald, had both been fighter pilots in
World War I. Each had several credited victories for shooting down German
planes. Spaatz fought to obtain high rank for those men and others such as

593

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Doolittle, Vandenberg, and Norstad. He did much for his friends, but he also
chose wisely. Spaatz naturally promoted people he knew well, but he also knew
them to be competent and capable of handling greater responsibility.

Similarly, Spaatz benefited from his close personal relationship with Arnold.
In the small prewar Air Corps, they served together several times; chance and per-
sonal chemistry made them friends. In those years Arnold had the opportunity to
gauge Spaatz's operational competence, reliability, loyalty, and dedication to the
cause of air autonomy. Consequently, as Arnold rose in position, he gave Spaatz
increasing responsibility. Spaatz was Arnold's favorite. Arnold repeatedly
placed him in positions, such as Air Corps Plans Section Chief, Special Observer
to England, and Chief of the Air Staff, which challenged him and gave him the
chance to prepare for the coming war as well as to advance his career. Without
Arnold, Spaatz would not have been in the right place at the right time. Arnold
deserves full credit for having the judgment and foresight to back Spaatz, but
Spaatz deserves equal credit for the manner in which he fulfilled Arnold's expec-
tations. One need only to look at the way Arnold treated his other favorite, Ira
Eaker, to realize that he valued achievement over friendship. If Spaatz had failed
to perform, Arnold would surely have put him aside, too.

Spaatz, strengthened by Arnold's abiding friendship and support, was able
to resist the demands of the British, the ground forces, transportation plan advo-
cates, and others to divert his resources from daylight strategic bombing and
autonomy for the AAF. Their relationship eased Spaatz's administrative tasks.
Although Arnold on occasion might gibe at his handling of men and materiel,
each had faith that the other was doing his utmost and was doing it competently.
Spaatz was lucky to have Arnold's friendship and to return to Britain when sup-
plies had begun to arrive in abundance. Good luck, however, was also the
residue of skill. Without character and ability Spaatz could scarcely have per-
formed so well in his climb to the heights.

At the beginning of the war, Spaatz, as did many senior Army Air Force
officers, espoused particular doctrines associated with daylight precision bomb-
ing and advocated the creation of U.S. military aviation as an independent ser-
vice equal to the Army and the Navy. These views, which did not change,
colored most of his wartime decisions. His years of experience with mossbacked
ground force and naval officers and his own ignorance of and antipathy toward
ground matters gave him little appreciation of military problems other than those
dealing directly with air. Spaatz did poorly at Leavenworth; the curriculum of its
Command and General Staff School concentrated almost solely on ground prob-
lems.

Spaatz's judgment was not infallible. Passionate beliefs in the doctrine of
precision bombing and in the independence of air power served him well in the
great strategic debates revolving around air power, but they limited his ability to
judge questions affecting the combined roles of all the services. He opposed the
North African invasion because it weakened and delayed the strategic offensive

594

Assessment

against Germany. He shared an unwarranted optimism with Eisenhower and
Eisenhower's staff as to the feasibility of an invasion of France in 1942 or 1943.
Given the poor initial performance of U.S. forces in French North Africa and the
far greater resources that would have been available to the German defenders,
such an invasion could only have resulted in disaster — as the British, based on
their intelligence, argued. Even in mid- 1943 Spaatz so overrated the effective-
ness of his bombers that he boasted to Arnold that he could defeat Germany if
only he could consistently get 200 heavy bombers airborne for each mission.
Two years later, six or seven times that number could still not bring about
Germany's fall without the help of a tremendous ground campaign.

Spaatz's appreciation of Overlord was flawed as well. As an airman he
doubted that the resources and materiel expended on it justified its cost. He mis-
trusted the ground forces' fighting capacity — without the support of facts.
Similarly, in the operations before the Normandy breakout, he and the other air-
men failed to understand fully the problems faced by the Army. Their criticisms
and constant prodding for action did them little credit. Spaatz's suggestion to
U.S. Ambassor to Britain John G. Winant, in February 1944, of a thrust through
Norway and Sweden might have brought his heavy bombers closer to Germany,
but it still left the ground forces a sea away. Spaatz's earlier suggestion to Hopkins,
in November 1943, to seize northern Italy would have advanced the bombers but
would have left the ground forces confronted with the difficulties of mounting a
major campaign across the Alps.

Although Spaatz could not view strategy broadly because of his ignorance of
geopolitics and his dismissal of the ground forces' perspective, he could,
because of his expertise, bring great insight to the selection of bombing targets.
The issue of the transportation plan versus the oil plan was such a complex skein
of conflicting priorities and personalities that it defied a simple answer. Spaatz
was undoubtedly correct in his contentions that the heavy-bomber offensive
would gain air superiority over western Europe by defeating the Luftwaffe over
Germany and that the Luftwaffe would only fight to defend vital targets within
Germany.

It does not follow from those contentions, however, that an attack directed
against German tactical mobility in France was unnecessary or required no
assistance from the heavy bombers. The transportation plan in its original form,
which required massive air strikes from both Bomber Command and the Eighth
Air Force, would probably have damaged the French railway system enough to
seriously delay German reinforcements bound for Normandy. But the plan could
not guarantee air superiority, and it implied that U.S. heavy bombers would
serve under a British commander who did not sufficiently value strategic bom-
bardment. Predictably, Spaatz rejected it out of hand. Even if his and Leigh-
Mallory's personalities had meshed perfectly, he would have fought the plan
because of its mishandling of strategic bombers and stifling of AAF pretensions
to autonomy. Spaatz's fight against the transportation plan delayed its imposi-

595

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

tion and resulted in its modification. As a result, attritional air battles over
Germany were ensured and an effective bridge-busting campaign was launched,
which, even the transportation plan's supporters admitted, added to its success.

The oil plan, as all observers recognized, was Spaatz's finest moment. It
ruined the Luftwaffe as a viable air force and dashed the weapon of mobility
from the hands of the German ground forces. He selected a compact, crucial,
vulnerable system of targets and pursued it relentlessly. Unfortunately, the oil
campaign was only one of two such efforts mounted by the strategic bomber
forces; Harris pursued his area bombing of German cities with equal tenacity.

Spaatz's experiences in training and operations made him an excellent combat
commander. Building on the foimdation prepared by Eaker, Spaatz established the
Eighth Air Force in Britain. He did not commit it to action until he was sure that
he had at least trained it adequately, building on the little it had been given in the
States. Similarly, in North Africa, he set up the Northwest African Training
Command to bring his crews closer to the standards of his Allies and opponents.
Yet his insistence on thorough training for and maximum performance by Ms air
crews led directly to the ultimate irony of the strategic campaign.

Given the technology available to him, Spaatz helped to produce a nearly
all-weather force. He used the most modem radar, employed electronic counter-
measures, took full advantage of Ultra, and pushed his commanders and their
men and machines to their limits in order to exploit all the force available to
him. Once he had created this available force, it had to be employed. Spaatz,
who violently objected to the killing of French civilians, sanctioned the bombing
of transportation centers in eastern Germany, the smashing of rail stations in
Berlin, and the demolition of marshaling yards in numerous German cities. He
did not relish destruction for destruction's sake; rather he faced the problem of
how to wield an expanding force of limited accuracy against an opponent who
had large reserves of manpower (slave labor, women, and domestic servants)
and machine tools (most German industry worked single shifts for much of the
war and had ample stocks of machine tools on hand) without causing excessive
or uimecessary collateral damage. To Spaatz, to most of his fellow soldiers, to
his government, and to the people his government represented it was better to err
on the side of excessive force by pulverizing the Reich, than to leave it the
strength to resist and to kill more Allied soldiers. In the merciless logic of total
war, Spaatz decided correctly.

Without Spaatz and his insistence on the oil plan and his devastating cam-
paign against the Luftwaffe before the Normandy invasion, the Allies would still
have defeated Nazi Germany. With Spaatz, the Allies defeated Hitler and his
henchmen months earlier than they otherwise might have. Each day beyond May
8 would have seen the ovens of the Third Reich still operating and the combat-
ants of both sides still suffering in battle lines throughout Europe. That the war
in Europe ended when it did is reason enough to place Spaatz in the front rank of
the Allied leaders of World War II.

596

★ * * *

Although Spaatz's war in Europe ended with the German surrender in

Berlin, his service to his country continued. On July 29, 1945, he arrived
on the island of Guam to assume command of the U.S. Strategic Air
Forces in the Pacific, which included the Mariana Islands-based
Twentieth Air Force, under Lt. Gen. Nathan F. Twining, and the Eighth
Air Force, still under Lt. Gen. James H. Doolittle and soon to be based
on the island of Okinawa. After receiving authorization from President
Harry S. Truman and General George C. Marshall, Spaatz ordered the
dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Three weeks
later, on September 1, 1945, Spaatz stood on the deck of the USS
Missouri to witness the surrender of the last of the Axis powers. He was
the only U.S. military officer to attend aU three surrenders, the first in
Reims, the second in Berlin, and the third in Tokyo Bay. After the war,
Spaatz succeeded General Henry H. Arnold as Commanding General,
U.S. Army Air Forces. From that post he directed the AAF's campaign to
separate itself from the Army. When the U.S. Air Force was established
by Congress in September 1947, Spaatz became its first Chief of Staff.
He retired in April 1948. Shortly thereafter, he became a columnist on
military matters for Newsweek magazine. He worked for Newsweek until
1961, when, at the age of seventy, he retired again. Spaatz died on July
14, 1974. He is buried at the U.S. Air Force Academy, whose site he
helped to select, in Colorado Springs, Colorado.

597

Statistical Appendices

Source for all Statistical Appendices: Army Air Forces Statistical Digest, World War II
(Washington, D.C.: Office of Statistical Control, 1945).

Appendix 1

Aviation Personnel in the Army

(Percent of Total Anny Strength)

Percent

Year

Number

of Total

1912 (1 Nov)

0.1

1913 (30 Sep)

114

0.1

1914

122

0.1

1915

208

0.2

1916

311

0.3

1917 (6 Apr)

1,218

0.6

1918 (11 Nov)

195,023

25.3

1919

25,603

2.7

1920

9.050

4.5

1921

11,649

5.1

1922

9,642

6.5

1923

9,441

7.2

1924

10,547

7.4

1925

9.670

7.1

1926

9,674

7.2

1927

10,008

7.5

1928

10,549

7.8

1929

12,131

7.8

1930

13,531

9.8

1931

14,780

10.6

15, 028

1 1

11.2

1933

15,099

11.1

1934

15,861

11.5

1935

16,427

11.7

1936

17,233

10.3

1937

19,147

10.7

1938

21,089

11.5

1939

23.455

12.4

1940

51,165

19.1

1941

152,125

10.4

1942

764,415

24.9

1943

2,197.114

31.4

1944

2.372.292

29.7

1945

2,282.259

24.1

Appendix 2

Direct Cash Appropriations and Expenditures

Fiscsa Years 1899 to 1946

Direct Cash

Year

Appropriations*

Expenditures^

1899

50,000*

1909

30,000'

inn 000

101/1

1 / JjUUU

Vixj

ZUUjUUU

101 A

ion

1 X ^Xl A^A

1 Of UO 1 fUUO

lOlfi

7'?<; finn nnn

1010

QS9 ^fid T;a

109n

1091

17^1

'IK 194 -ion

^n 01 708

0% n05 257

18 141 688

lO, lH'l,UOO

1094

1 9 fofi nnn

1 1 ni5 ^65

n 476 619

1 J / VJ,VJ 1 7

1 1 68n 955

1 S 01 1 101

711,171

14 9n0 264

1097

17^ /

1 5 IVi 604

16 750 286

91 1 17 404

19 437 722

9X911 431

^Oj7 1 1 1

23 261 643

34 9in 0S9

28 051 563

A-fO^V/J 1)^U*J

17J1

3X 045 068

38 651^04

31 R50 802

33 046254

1 ,7 J J

95 673 236

21 929 302

Xy^ 4^ ^ y^\J^

31 037 769

17 372 277

27 917 702

20 337 871

17 JU

45 600444

32 026 622

1937

59,619,694

41,055,082

1938

58,851,266

50,875,129

1939

71,099,532

83,164,156

1940

186,562,847

108,169,717

1941

2,173,608,961

605,409,021

1942

23.049,935,463

2,554,863,420

1943

11,317,416,790

9,391,855,445

1944

23,655,998.000

13,087,279,848

1945

1,610,717,000

11,357,390,523

1946

517,100

1,349,030,427*

Grand Total

$64,336,985,712

$38,989,713,839

^Includes appropriations for salaries. Office, Chief of Air Corps.
Expenditures for Jul 1920-Aug 1946, dau unavailable for 1899-Jun 1920.
'Allotted to Dr. S. P. Langley for experiments in aerodynamics.
^Allotted to pay for Wright airplane which completed tests in 1909.
Expenditures for July and August only.

Appendix 3

Combat Groups Overseas

December 1941 to August 1945

European T heater of Operations

Heavy Med/Lt Troop

Bomb Bomb Fighter Carrier Recoi Total

Mediterranean Theater of Operations

Heavy Med/Lt Troop

Bomb Bomb Fighto' Carrio- Recon Total

1941 Dec

1942 Jan

reo

Mar

Ap)r

May

Jun

Jul

Ausf

141

Sep

1711

Oct

23^6

Nov

15J

21^

Dec

24-i

1943 Jan

12?

/r
0

1Z4

11
12

ThaK

rCD

■i

1
2

12a

311

Mar

1
2

121

Apr

1
i

171

32-i

May

361

Jun

1
2

261

Jul

1
2

28-i

40i

Aus

1
2

30i

Sep

35^

Oct

20^

381

37i

Nov

221

411

37^

Dec

38^

1944 Jan

284

195

■i

9
0

141

451

111

Mar

131

84-J

Apr

May

102

Jun

102

Jul

103

Au&

103

Sep

103

Oct

104

Nov

106

Dec

105

1945 Jan

105

Feb

107

Mar

108

Apr

109

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Pacific Ocean Area

Far East Air Forces

Heavy M edA^ Troop

Bomb Bomb Fighter Carrier Recon ToUl

Heavy MeiJU Troc^

Bomb Bomb Fighter Carria Recon Total

2 5

■J
D

1
1

■3
J

- 41

21 -

- 31

4.1

1
2

'^^
J4

1
2

•^^

1
2

24- -

4-i

3
4

2i -

- 3i

2k -

- 3i

7i^

1
3

■J

I - 8

I - 9

1 - 6

2
3
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
10
11
12

13
14
14
15
17
19
21
22
22
23
24
26

27
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
29
3C
3C

3C
3C
3C
3C
3C
3(
3(
3(

Appendix 3 (continued)

Combat Groups Overseas
December 1941 to August 1945

China and India-Burma Alaslca

Heavy Med/Lt

Troop

Heavy Med/Lt Troop

Bomb

Bomb Fighter Carrier Recon

Total

Bomb Bomb Fighter Carrier Recon

Total

1941 Dec

1942 Jan

- -

- _ _ -

Feb

■ " ~ ■

IViol

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

_ ^

Aug

_ _

Sep

- 1 -

Oct

1 2 _

Nov

_ _

1 1

Dec

1 1 1 -

1943 Jan

4 4 1 -

Feb

IVlol

3 3 j '

Apr

~ 4

i i 1 -

May

- 4

- - 1 -

Jun

2
3

Jul

2
3

J 3 1 1

Aug

1
3

3 3 -12

4 4 15

»-'o

Sep

1
3

Oct

4 4 1 -

Nov

1 1

8-J

Dec

3 I

4 2

1944 Jan

t 1 1

2 2 1 -

reb

1 1

1 1 1

2 2 1 -

Mar

1 1

x 1.

1 t 1

2 5 1"

Apr

1 1

\ \ \ -

May

2 1

1 "X

1 1 t

2 2 i "

Jun

3 1

1 1 1

2 2 1 ~

Jul

3 1

1 1 1

2 2 1 -

Aug

4 1

1 1 1

2 2 1 -

Sep

4 1

2 2 1 ■

Oct

4 1

1 1 1

2 2 1 "

Nov

6 1

I 1 1

i S 1 -

Dec

6 1

> 1 1

2 2 1 -

1945 Jan

6 1

1 /

1 1 -1

2 2 1-

Feb

6 1

1 1 1

i I 1 -

Mar

6 1

1 1 1

2 2 1-

Apr

6 1

1 1 1

2 2 1 -

May

6 1

1 1 ■>

2 2 1 -

Jun

6 1

1 - 1 -

Jul

6 1

1 - 1 -

Aug

6 1

1 - 1 -

Twentieth Air Force

Latin America and Atlantic Bases

Heavy Mcd/Lt Troop

Bomb Bomb Fighter CairiCT Recon Total

Heavy Med/Lt
Bomb BomI

Troop

Fighter Carrier Recon Total

3 1

1 10

3 1

1 10

3 1

1 10

3 1

1 10

3 1

1 10

3^ 1

1 105

3k 1

1 105

35 1

1 105

35 1

1 105

35 1

1 105

25 1

1 95

25 1

1 85

2 1

1 8

2 1

1 8

2 1

1 8

2 1

1 8

2 1

1 9

1 1

1 7

- 10

- 13

- 18

- 20

- 22

- 29

- 32

Appendix 4

Total Battle Casualties in Theaters against Germany
December 1941 to August 1945

Officers Enlisted Personnel Total Personnel

Died Wounded* Missing^ Total Died Wounded* Missing* Total Died Wounded* Missing* Total

1941 Dec

1042 Jan

■ 7^^ J All

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

142

Nov

115

135

134

250

Dec

159

184

318

Total 1942

298

108

477

281

162

102

545

579

233

210

1.022

1943 Jan

234

390

284

178

105

567

518

256

183

957

Feb

226

122

399

272

180

208

660

498

231

330

1.059

Mar

133

252

142

286

275

144

119

538

Apr

161

157

377

180

110

136

426

341

169

293

803

May

245

170

513

330

156

192

678

575

254

362

1.191

Jun

211

478

325

143

221

689

536

199

432

1,167

Jul

454

127

304

885

544

256

397

1,197

998

383

701

2,082

Aug

395

452

920

549

176

590

1.315

944

249

1.042

2,235

Sep

233

231

538

278

136

338

752

511

210

569

1,290

Oct

343

527

943

510

166

759

1.435

853

239

1.286

2.378

Nov

267

293

631

1,091

269

357

1,717

1.358

340

650

2.348

Dec

277

504

852

413

252

605

1,270

690

323

1.109

2.122

Total 1943

3,179

887

3,112

7,178

4,918

2,110

3,964

10,992

8.097

2,997

7.076

18.170

1944 Jan

474

114

655

1,243

633

257

851

1,741

1.107

371

1.506

2.984

Feb

626

136

1,111

1,873

792

370

1,618

2,780

1,418

506

2.729

4,653

Mar

639

168

1,125

1.932

874

360

1,578

2,812

1,513

528

2.703

4,744

Apr

792

260

1,780

2,832

1,441

464

2,482

4,387

2,233

724

4,262

7,219

May

790

306

1.455

2.551

1,146

561

1,830

3,537

1,936

867

3.285

6,088

Jun

1,155

485

1,434

3.074

1,191

528

1,718

3,437

2,346

1,013

3.152

6,511

Jul

996

375

1,515

2.886

1,206

543

2,014

3,763

2,202

918

3.529

6,649

Aug

851

373

1,485

2.709

791

460

1,893

3,144

1,642

833

3.378

5,853

Sep

615

314

1,365

2.294

647

422

1.499

2,568

1,262

736

2,864

4,862

Oct

411

183

923

1,517

456

268

1.157

1.881

867

451

2,080

3.398

Nov

555

183

1,116

1.854

525

322

1.304

2.151

1,080

505

2,420

4.005

Dec

476

245

1,344

2,065

479

372

1.544

2.395

955

617

2,888

4,460

Total 1944

8,380

3,142

15.308

26.830

10,181

4,927

19.488

34,596

18,561

8,069

34,796

6l',426

1945 Ian

349

219

659

1,227

337

309

806

1,452

686

528

1,465

2,679

Feb

278

186

1,089

1,553

299

261

1.318

1,878

577

667

2,407

3.431

Mar

522

318

1,264

2,104

417

308

1,544

2,269

939

626

2,808

4,373

Apr

289

127

777

1,193

252

218

918

1.388

541

345

1.695

2,581

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Total 194S

1,446

854

3,810

6,110

1,310

1,098

4.603

7,011

2,756

1.952

8,413

13,121

Date unknown 38

277

348

134

477

106

108

611

825

Grand Total

13,341

4,988

22.615

40,944

16,758

8,372

28.491

53.621

30.099

13.360

51.106

94,565

•Wounded and evaciuted.
^Missing, interned, and captured.

Appendix 5

Total Battle Casualties in European Theater of Operations
December 1941 to August 1945

Officers Enlisted Personnel Total Personnel

Died Wounded* Missing^ Total Died Wounded* Missing^ Total Died Wounded* Missing^ Total

1041 T\af*

■

1942 Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

t
1

Jul

Aug

o
Z

5ep

1 o

Uct

Oft

INOV

O 0
JO

1 /

141

Dec

Ifi
JO

1 /

166

local ivhz

IOj

VIA

2/4

145

312

310

136

140

586

1943 Jan

142

215

182

107

371

324

140

122

586

151

236

213

107

132

452

364

136

188

688

Mar

in
11 /

1 (8

136

1 1

295

Apr

1U3

14/

101

206

114

206

353

May

131

Al
*\l

13z

1Cf\

J3U

1/7

332

416

137

329

882

Jun

13J

101

111

Z84

oil

212

579

437

116

403

956

Till

Jul

AC^

zjy

469

j04

114

331

749

505

163

570

1.238

Aug

lJU

5\ 1

4oo

234

407

TOO

733

364

131

724

1,219

oep

loz

1£.£.
JOO

190

280

537

329

112

462

903

An£.
4/0

TOI

414

114

709

1.237

670

163

1.185

2,018

INov

246

All

261

112

288

661

441

163

534

1,138

Dec

204

420

676

313

181

531

1.025

517

233

951

1,701

lotal 1^43

1 or\o
l.oUK

A CI

43 /

z,43z

A Tn
4,/l /

2,829

1,147

3,284

7,260

4,637

1,604

5,736

11,977

1944 Jan

329

522

923

467

189

675

1,331

796

261

1,197

2,254

Feb

468

102

812

1382

587

268

1,223

2.078

1,055

370

2,035

3,460

Mar

IxD

Voj

ipoJ

3/0

OIVJ

ZUJ

1,403

2.182

1,028

329

2,388

3,745

Apr

1R7
10 f

z.uu

Ooo

JJZ

i,/y3

Z.oi3

l,ZiJ

^1Q

3iy

j,uyo

A 600

May

1 fYXA

1 T^ifi
l,/40

zyu

1,Z63

Z.300

1,jj3

ACA

4o4

2,31/

A 1 1£

4,116

Jun

onfl

j/y

Zy^JU

oj3

4U1

1 lYTt

Z,313

/8U

1 AOA

2.U2U

A CAt

4p43

Till
JUL

zzo

VZU

1 "Ton

/JO

zyo

1 Ml

1.U13

o nAl

1 OOA

CiA
324

1,933

3,837

Aug

DUO

Zi(3

l,/3o

3Jo

Z54

1 IVIA

1.034

t* 9CA

1,834

1.142

509

1,959

3,610

oep

Z3U

l.UoU

1,833

336

303

1.074

1,933

1.081

553

2,154

3,788

WCL

KY?
lUZ

VZJ

Zy5

iOZ

coy

3/9

Zo4

1,1 /4

1 An
Z,U1/

Nov

410

114

760

1,284

385

206

850

1,441

795

320

1,610

2,725

Dec

365

150

810

U25

333

224

788

1^345

698

374

1^598

2!670

Total 1944

6.056

2.109

10,629

18.794

6.789

3.158

12,852

22,799

12.845

5.267

23,481

41,593

1945 Jan

263

167

457

887

270

234

541

1.045

533

401

998

1,932

Feb

180

104

646

930

197

155

731

1.083

377

259

1,377

2,013

Mar

429

256

811

1.496

331

224

892

1.447

760

480

1,703

2,943

Apr

201

547

823

161

127

655

943

362

202

1,202

1,766

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Total 1945

1,078

605

2,471

4,154

963

741

2,829

4.533

2.041

1.346

5,300

8,687

Date unknown

209

251

255

316

464

567

Grand Total

9.125

3.236

15.829

28.190

10.751

5.177

19.292

35.220

19.876

8.413

35.121

63,410

*Wounded and evaciuted.
^Missing, interned, and captured.

Appendix 6

Total Battle Casualties in Mediterranean Theater of Operations
December 1941 to August 1945

Officers Enlisted Personnel Total Personnel

Died Wounded* Missing^

Died Wounded* Missii^* Total

Died Wounded* Missing^

' total

1941 Dec

ly4Z Jan

reo

Mar

Apr

•

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

109

Dec

108

152

Total 1942

133

203

136

233

269

436

1V4J Jan

1'7<
1 ID

102

196

194

116

371

reD

208

134

142

Mar

135

108

119

243

Apr

126

230

101

220

227

136

450

May

163

146

159

117

309

Jun

131

110

211

Jul

253

396

240

142

448

493

220

131

844

Aug

265

135

434

315

183

582

580

118

318

1,016

Sep

172

215

182

137

387

Oct

162

198

183

101

360

Nov

154

830

157

1,056

917

177

116

1,210

Dec

176

100

245

173

158

421

Total 1943

1,371

430

660

2.461

2.089

963

680

3.732

3.460

1.393

1,340

6,193

ly'm Jan

145

133

166

176

410

311

110

309

/JU

reo

158

299

^01

205

102

395

702

363

136

694

Mar

187

140

369

298

157

175

630

485

199

315

999

Apr

267

477

817

753

132

689

1474

1.020

205

1.166

2,391

May

250

132

421

803

351

271

547

1.169

601

403

968

1,972

Jun

247

106

491

844

356

127

641

1.124

603

233

1,132

1,968

Jul

J34

in
11 /

1.0%

468

247

1.001

1,/16

o22

394

1,596

2,812

Aug

245

148

560

933

255

176

859

1.290

500

324

1,419

2,243

Sep

285

439

119

425

635

181

183

710

1,074

Oct

1Z3

594

1£Q

loi

lUo

<i fi
jlo

tot

Zoo

1 QT
IS/

yuo

1381

Nov

145

356

570

140

116

454

710

285

185

810

1,280

Dec

534

740

146

148

756

1,050

257

243

1,290

1.790

Total 1944

2.324

1.033

4.679

8.036

3.392

1,769

6.636

11,797

5.716

2,80a

11.315

19,833

1945 Jan

202

340

265

407

153

127

467

747

Feb

443

623

102

106

587

795

200

188

1,530

1,418

Mar

453

608

652

822

179

146

1,105

1,430

Apr

230

370

263

445

179

143

493

815

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Total 1945

368

249

1.339

1.956

347

357

1,774

2,478

715

606

3,113

4,434

Date unknown

161

147

258

Grand Total

a;zi6

1,752

6.784

12.754

6,007

3,195

9,199

18,401

10.223

4.944

15,985

31,155

♦Wounded and evacuated.
^Missing, interned, and captured.

Appendix 7

Heavy Bomber and Day Fighter Crew Losses*
June 1943 to August 1945

19« 1944

Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar

Heavy Bomber Crew Losses
European Theater of Operations

Combat and

Accident Losses

114

103

186

131

248

264

308

Retiiements

167

Other Losses

(26)

(27)

(22)

156

Total Losses

173

123

117

211

126

329

410

631

Mediterranean Theater of Operations

Combat and

Accident Losses

109

Retiiements

Other Losses

(19)

(5)

(17)

(11)

Total Losses

166

All Theaters

Combat and

Accident Losses

110

172

206

128

217

135

194

309

378

400

Retiiements

103

188

238

Other Losses

141

(37)

(1)

(41)

(55)

150

Total Losses

251

233

173

251

305

131

187

465

622

788

Day Fighter Crew Losses
European Theater of Operations

Combat and

Accident Losses

105

192

Retirements

Other Losses

(6)

(19)

101

(52)

Total Losses

(4)

154

118

219

Mediterranean Theater of Operations

Combat and

Accident Losses

Retirements

156

Other Losses

136

(25)

(18)

(54)

(6)

(10)

Total Losses

130

245

184

181

146

156

148

Ail Theaters

Combat and

Accident Losses

135

158

112

137

211

196

274

Retirements

182

125

101

155

174

167

197

Other Losses

162

227

174

(59)

(26)

Total Losses

238

410

217

322

237

197

466

326

337

562

* Figures in parentheses indicate the excess over losses of gains resulting from formation of additional
crews oat of personnel returned from missing, reclassified bom ground to air duties, and received fnnn the
U.S. as individuals rather than as crew members.

Appendix 7 (continued)

Heavy Bomber and Day Fighter Crew Losses*

June 1943 to August 1945

1944

Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Heavy Bomber Crew Losses
European Theater of Operations

Combat and

Accident Losses

371

308

239

302

203

274

130

211

119

Retirements

167

191

257

342

451

347

410

347

Other Losses

124

(59)

(8)

(30)

(4)

Total Losses

662

544

437

679

741

681

532

591

462

Mediterranean Tlieater of Operatii

»ns

Combat and

Accident Losses

183

169

175

255

149

111

151

Retirements

206

366

216

131

218

107

Otlier Lx>sses

(22)

122

(9)

(7)

(1)

Total Losses

181

263

386

452

522

264

241

303

280

All Tlieaters

Combat and

Accident Losses

589

500

438

571

367

347

276

316

290

Retirements

220

274

380

640

850

590

602

677

533

Other Losses

114

(20)

Total Losses

923

867

896 1,242

1,298

1,025

882

973

846

Day Fighter Crew Losses
European Theater of Operations

Combat and

Accident Losses

207

245

458

297

385

191

144

246

Retirements

118

319

353

340

221

Other Losses

(7)

(21)

(66)

(9)

224

106

(63)

125

Total Losses

258

271

435

354

727

616

434

662

592

Mediterranean Tlieater of Operations

Combat and

Accident Losses

123

137

104

113

Retirements

119

112

138

150

124

Otlier Ix}sses

(45)

(25)

116

Total Lxisses

159

236

202

358

279

217

127

237

174

All Theaters

Combat and

Accident Losses

338

403

628

440

536

317

283

396

399

Retirements

276

242

188

260

373

527

582

552

370

Otlier Losses

(123)

(109)

106

209

197

121

Total Losses

491

674

707

806

1,118

1.041

908 1,001

890

'Tigures in paientheses indicate the excess ova losses of gains resulting from fomiation ot
additional crews out of personnel relumed from missing, reclassified from ground to air duties, and
received from die U.S. as individuals rather than as crew monbers.

1945

1943

1944

1945

Total

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May Jun

Jul

Auc

(Jun-Dec)

(Jan-Aug)

157

101

167

150

791

2.977

590

4358

420

379

597

690

3,233

2,086

5389

(63) (23) (103)

(13)

(53)

489

(191)

334

514

457

661

827

(47)

897

6,699

2.485

10.081

(7)

217

1,546

257

2.020

126

196

426

124

1,514

853

2.491

(63)

(7)

(11)

163

222

104

259

301

507

(20)

(7)

330

3,223

1,180

4.733

217

201

279

208

J 1

1,162

4,781

992

6,935

550

572

890 1,237

179

103

108

144

256

5,295

3,783

9334

(39)

(99)

(37)

(36)

113

751

(97)

767

728

800

1,070 1.476

159

177

170

1,531

10,827

4,678

17.036

190

232

267

230

(1)

151

2,801

978

3,930

219

162

212

307

480

1.572

1388

2.967

(24)

108

370

212

690

432

451

520

584

534

(2)

266

4.743

2.578

7.587

(11)

347

1,046

298

1,691

141

405

1,183

469

2,057

(27)

210

158

446

137

161

166

243

102

(24)

962

2387

845

4,194

322

353

456

388

117

114

776

4,421

1,886

7,083

372

302

391

560

736

236

200

216

611

3,908

3,013

7,532

150

118

144

100

124

700

532

849

2.081

844

773

938

1.092

907

477

363

354

2,087

8.861

5,748

16,696

Appendix 8

Aircraft in all Theaters against Germany
June 1942 to August 1945

1942 1943

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Combat Airplanes

1st Line

369

567

613

1,060

1,426

1,744

1,905

Total

393

592

638

1,089

1,458

1,780

1,935

Heavy Bombers

1st Line

160

241

361

368

413

B-17

114

155

245

244

246

293

B-24

116

124

122

120

?TiH T

Total

161

242

362

369

414

Medium Bombers

1st Line

105

116

179

212

B-25

104

125

B-26

7tiH T inp

Total

105

116

179

212

Light Bombers

1st Line

A-20

A-26

2nd Line

Total

Fighters

1st Line

283

355

294

556

884

1,058

1,117

P-38

131

133

184

253

302

293

P-39

177

251

210

177

P-40

190

259

366

P-47

120

P-51

Night Fighters

Other

159

164

102

123

190

199

161

2nd Line

Total

283

355

294

556

884

1,058

1,117

1st Line

120

F-4, F-5

F-6

F-7

F-8

Other

2nd Line

Total

115

134

Grand Total*

445

692

762

1,286

1,690

2.065

2,245

'''Incliides other airciaft not shown (transports, trainers, and oommunications aircraft.)

1943

Feb

Mar

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

2,416

2.888

3.682

4.522

5.107

5.283

5.277

5,371

5.532

6.273

7.003

105

120

133

166

184

198

235

i445

2,918

3.732

4.596

5.212

5,403

5.410

5,537

5.716

6.471

7.238

462

557

891

1,028

1,295

1,388

1,348

1,448

1,520

843

2,167

328

396

697

828

1,052

1.134

1,124

1,148

1,205

1,434

1,591

134

161

194

200

243

254

224

300

315

409

576

112

463

558

892

1.042

1.308

1,401

1,361

1.489

1.554

1.955

2.263

250

317

424

722

1.051

1,152

1,161

1,121

984

1 OT7

1 074

161

232

236

369

'438

423

'399

'360

252

341

378

188

353

613

729

762

761

732

696

250

317

424

722

1.051

1,152

1,161

1,122

985

1,051

1.084

101

157

165

166

155

137

126

116

112

134

101

157

165

166

155

137

126

116

112

134

114

189

202

203

192

168

155

144

145

167

1,457

1,797

2,022

2,443

2,394

2,366

2.407

2,451

2,744

3,042

3,392

336

472

558

567

516

450

374

389

372

441

596

180

224

294

359

350

333

393

259

251

232

241

571

649

668

733

717

690

625

579

491

456

432

176

203

263

307

341

421

653

811

1,084

1,320

1,514

298

290

260

231

221

322

369

399

194

198

150

179

180

189

188

149

185

182

165

1.457

1.797

2,022

2,447

2,413

2,386

2.414

2,459

2,775

3.077

3.456

185

116

188

164

201

222

224

225

168

239

236

108

127

114

126

125

113

109

199

132

203

183

237

272

306

312

258

243

268

2,758

3,291

4,101

5,263

5,928

6,099

6,152

6.354

6,582

7,395

8,237

Appendix 8 (continued)

Aircraft in all Theaters against Germany
June 1942 to August 1945

1944

J3I1

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

V.'i/lllUIti AUpiollCA

1 ct I mA

in Qin

11,593

11,844 11,522 12,538

19 401

2nd Une

216

206

431

469

954

907

868

1,206

1,257

Total

8,483

9,619

11,341

12,062 12,798

12,429 13,406

13,699

13,949

KiAQW KfMnlinrc
ncttvjr ijuiiiucia

1 Ct I JTIA

2,608

2,842

3,524

3,900

4,347

4,226

4,605

4,880

4995

B-17

1,650

1,701

1,884

1,860

1,863

1,786

2,011

2,195

2,334

B-24

958

1,141

1,640

2,040

^484

2,440

2,594

2,685

2,661

2nd Line

' 57

' 63

122

289

266

294

'353

384

Total

2,672

2,899

3,587

4,022

4,636

4,492

4,899

5,233

5,379

1 Cl" 1

1 917

1 4.01

1,640

1,561

1,471

1,604

1 S^O

HVJ

453

465

395

440

t JO

1,187

1,096

1,076

1.164

1 19S

2nd Line

100

101

237

278

230

271

203

Total

1,227

1,402

1,591

1.741

1,798

1,749

1,834

1,772

1^1 gni xjoniDcrs

1 ct T mo

410

444

488

501

541

fi17

A-20

150

247

410

444

488

501

541

514

549

A-26

Total

184

289

457

493

546

557

602

611

692

Pi olitArfi

1 fit T 1T1P

4 033

4 665

5 179

5,260

4,969

4,844

5.277

4,969

4,844

P-38

809

'893

1,048

1,063

1,050

905

842

643

'678

P-39

248

366

375

336

293

244

241

175

P-40

391

328

298

274

181

139

103

P-47

1 696

2 009

2,288

2,335

2,241

2,176

2,355

2,465

2,457

P-51

659

819

989

1,175

1,132

1,284

1,642

1,588

1,616

Q(\

Other

180

199

134

^Tlfl 1 ITIP

166

155

326

258

475

572

Total

4,111

4,730

5,345

5,415

5,295

5,102

5,535

5,444

5,416

Reconnaissance

1st Line

259

274

306

349

479

480

511

550

667

F-4, F-5

128

149

160

174

196

218

234

242

288

F-6

101

119

205

192

177

195

265

F-7

F-8

Other

2nd Line

Total

289

299

361

391

523

529

536

577

690

Grand Total*

9.644

10,897

13,163

14,169

15.461

15.210

16,485

16.913

17,027

""Includes other aircraft not shown (transports, trainers, and communications aircraft.)

1944 1945

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

13.030 13.174 12.707 12.612 12.889 13.242 13.378 12,292

9,301

6,914

6,004

1.469

1,511

1.554

1,523

1.517

1,443

1.467

1,246

1,077

1,381

1,127

14,499

14,685

14,261

14,135

14,406 14,685

14,845

13,538

10,378

8,295

7,131

5,054

4,894

1,460

4,727

4,899

5,072

4,925

4,047

1,854

1,189

1,135

2,619

2,599

2,677

2,663

2,790

2,891

2,788

2,517

1,604

1,164

1,123

2,435

2,295

2,134

2,064

2,109

2,181

2,137

1,530

250

575

614

631

607

644

590

634

473

419

270

5,629

5.508

5,442

5,334

5,543

5,662

5,559

4,520

2.273

1,459

1,205

1.533

1.507

1,395

1,363

1.376

1,297

1.220

1,177

951

720

715

436

402

375

397

423

414

393

367

217

1,097

1,105

1,020

966

953

883

827

810

734

717

714

215

219

222

216

194

195

224

227

157

151

128

1,748

1,726

1,617

1,579

1,570

1,492

1,444

1,404

1,108

871

843

648

802

782

791

827

889

977

942

802

564

378

517

490

459

439

420

395

358

315

308

297

295

131

312

323

352

407

494

619

627

494

267

111

719

868

845

862

897

963

1,069

1,053

OTA

879

623

430

5,053

5,203

4,955

5,002

5,079

5,268

1,284

5,423

5,099

3,924

3,381

684

661
-

575

562

570

'625

579

555
-

518

311

182

2,477

2,435

2,244

2,285

2,319

2,283

2,355

2,292

2,183

1,829

1,749

1.796

2.019

2.039

2.053

2,086

2.228

2.455

2,427

2,279

1,670

1.368

102

104

'l32

145

148

117

114

588

594

619

612

589

538

469

417

406

834

141

5,641

5.797

5,574

5,614

5.668

5,806

6,003

5,840

5,505

A ICO

4,758

4,128

742

768

764

729

708

716

722

703

595

517

395

307

346

352

332

317

330

338

318

317

309

296

270

255

248

259

254

247

242

216

130

762

786

783

746

728

762

770

721

613

584

525

17,999

18,134

17,787

17,575

17,906

18,367

18,736

17,061

13,568

10,854

9,329

Appendix 9

Aircraft in the European Theater of Operations

June 1942 to August 1945

10/11

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Combat Airplanes

1st Line

283

401

445

879

840

823

739

2nd Line

1 \IlitU

307

425

469

907

859

847

763

Heavy Bombers

1st Line

104

178

296

247

219

214

B-17

104

144

234

180

178

175

B-24

2nd Line

Total

178

296

247

219

214

Medium Bombors

1st Line

B-25

B-26

2nd Line

Tnral
1 uuu

Light Bomb«-s

1st Line

A-20

A-26

2nd Line

Total

Fighters

1st Line

239

295

235

484

495

516

458

P-38

131

133

184

138

168

163

P-39

177

251

\11

102

P-40

P-47

120

P-51

Night Fighters

Other

159

164

102

123

106

2nd Line

Total

239

295

235

484

495

516

458

1st Line

F-4, F-5

F-6

F-8

Other

2nd Line

Total

Grand Total*

359

520

588

1,100

932

944

860

'''bidudes other aircraft not shown (transports, traiiiers, and CQRununications aircraft.)

1943

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

781

718

1,047

1,213

1,613

1,826

2,177

2,485

2,936

3,708

4,111

134

127

131

805

729

1,076

1,260

1,671

1,895

2,275

2,619

3,063

3,835

4,242

255

303

590

692

834

844

895

931

1,104

1,460

1,610

186

229

502

599

783

820

786

835

907

1,166

1,302

109

197

294

308

255

303

590

705

846

856

907

971

1,138

1,554

1,686

121

336

450

493

484

479

467

443

120

335

449

492

484

479

467

443

121

336

450

493

485

480

468

444

o
8

■

o
0

"
9

oo
28

432

358

297

332

346

426

668

939

1,270

1,621

1,862

100

105

188

380

176

203

263

307

341

421

653

811

1,005

1,201

1,215

139

231

2oo

432

358

297

332

346

426

668

943

1,274

1 i0<

1,623

l,ooo

/ 1

lUO

iUO

1^1

\.j 1

107

110

130

176

191

143

152

193

903

873

1.211

1,420

1,841

2,069

i452

2,827

3,310

4,152

4.618

Appendix 9 (continued)

Aircraft in the European Theater of Operations

June 1942 to August 1945

1944

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep

Combat Airplanes

1st Line 5,035 5,952 7.035 7,700 7,834 7,505 8,423 8,605 8,735

2nd Line

136

175

517

460

473

609

637

Total

5.133

6,045

7.171

7.875

8.351

7,965

8,896

9,214

9.372

Heavy Bombers

1st Line

1 11 A
1,1 IH

1,965

2,562

2,93/

2,929

3,304

3,435

3,398

B-17

1,341

1,412

1,487

1,492

1,502

1,471

1,695

1,829

1,927

B-24

433

553

772

1.070

1.435

1,458

1,609

1,606

1,471

2nd Line

200

171

188

227

261

Total

1.817

1,998

2.295

2.647

3.137

3,100

3.492

3,662

3.659

Medium Bombers

1st Line

0 /U

Hj /

ODD

loo

oU4

ODD

o5U

843

B-25

B-26

506

670

837

866

788

804

853

850

843

2nd Line

Total

507

671

838

878

846

845

892

915

876

Light Bombers

1st line

121

289

331

385

387

430

436

508

A-20

121

289

331

385

387

430

419

440

A-26

2nd Line

Total

158

324

366

425

426

473

482

552

Fighters

1st Line

2,528

2,998

3,419

3,685

3,382

3,046

3,480

3,470

P-38

637

669

707

750

673

568

584

477

379

P-39

P-40

P-47

1.348

1,630

1,920

1,985

1,870

1,632

1,706

1,768

1.840

P-51

543

699

792

950

819

803

1,143

1,177

1,203

Night Fighters

utner

2nd Line

188

173

191

258

289

Total

2.532

3,002

3.440

3,697

3,570

3,219

3,671

3,728

3.759

Reconnaissance

1st Line

187

198

231

256

342

339

356

414

516

F-4, F-5

118

117

115

134

131

156

184

F-6

152

138

128

153

222

F-8

Other

2nd Line

Total

208

216

274

287

373

375

368

427

526

Grand Total*

5.685

6.917

8.562

9,645

10,637

10,343

11.091

11,835

11,951

""Includes other aircraft not shown (transports, trainers, and communications aircraft.)

1944 1945

uct

INOV

Dec

J an

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

9,165

9,620

9,210

8,948

9,323

9,525

9.776

9,053

7.238

6,046

5.634

750

798

860

850

887

872

897

743

536

447

427

9.915

10,418

10,070

9,798

10,210 10,397 10,673

9,796

7,774

6,493

6,061

3,473

3,444

3,351

3.202

3,335

3,412

3,332

2.707

1,306

811

792

2,143

2,123

2,168

2,125

2,269

2,367

2,291

1.988

1,147

787

780

1,330

1,321

1,183

1,077

1,066

1,045

1,041

719

159

345

351

355

332

367

349

356

251

136

3,818

3,795

3,706

3,534

3,702

3,761

3,688

2,958

1,442

860

828

Sl8

1,012

952

943

873

821

olO

Tl A

734

717

714

818

1,012

998

952

943

873

821

■

810

734

717

714

862

1,057

1,045

993

988

922

908

900

761

746

751

550

710

692

663

657

718

809

804

775

556

378

419

398

371

359

344

327

320

315

308

297

295

131

312

321

304

313

391

489

467

259

eon

589

727

707

699

760

847

837

OAO

803

coo
583

404

J, /zl

i,s43

J.JOJ

O CCA

3,550

3,821

3,951

4,250

4, loo

•3 ICO
J, 3 08

356

322

257

239
-

250

244
-

234

202

195

176

1,942

1,890

1,735

1,959

1,931

2,057

2,012

1,942

1 noc\

1,789

1 n A(\

1,749

1,366

1,579

1 C AO

1,348

1 C 1 c

1,515

1,576

1,694

1.867

1,846

1,728

1 A Cf\

1,459

1,361

f\A

319

361

417

■

424

407

392

■

358

■

339

331

319

4,040

4,204

4,002

3,974

4,245

4,358

4,642

4,544

4,299

3,860

3,687

01 1

Jo**

Dol

567

571

564

186

193

179

191

183

194

188

167

153

144

135

304

308

292

266

251

244

254

250

247

242

216

606

615

590

576

596

588

557

469

444

391

12,858

13,427

13,126

12,598

13.116

13.518

13,927

12,819

10,500

8,674

7,993

Appendix 10

Aircraft in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations

June 1942 to August 1945

1942 1943

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Combat Airplanes

1st Line

166

168

181

586

921

1.166

xJlO- 1^1116

Total

167

169

182

599

933

1,172

Heavy Bombers

1st Line

121

149

199

B-17

118

B-24

2nd L*ine

Total

122

150

200

Medium Bombers

1st Una

150

193

B-25

112

B-26

2nd Line

Total

150

193

Light Bomb^s

1st Line

A-20

A-26

2nd Line

Total

Fighters

1st Line

389

542

659

115

134

130

P-39

P-40

190

259

366

P-47

P-51

Night Fighters

Other

116

2nd Line

Total

389

542

659

Reconnaissance

1st Line

F-4, F-5

F-6

F-7

F-8

Other

2nd Line

Total

Grand Total*

172

174

186

758

1,121

1,385

*Includes other aircraft not shown (transpoits, trainers, and communications aircraft.)

1943

rCD

Apr

May

Jun

Till
Jul

Aug

C a-n

ocp

kJCI

Nov

uec

1 A CIA

3,4y4

3,43/

1 1 nf\

AOoO

z,4yo

Z,303

z,oyz

104

l,o4U

^ <>ii

3,3 Uo

3,1 33

9 01 ft

Z,033

9 A'^A
Z,030

9 OOA

OAT

AAt

344

403

31 /

A1 A

410

3o3

^^7

33 /

10/

990

zoy

314

"51 C
330

313

zy©

9 Aft
ZOo

9ftO

zoy

8 /

1 AA

1 A7

ZdKj

11
ll3

ZU4

lift
1 lo

11^
1 13

9 Aft
ZOo

ZDD

4j4

SIR

A^ A

41 0

S77

233

299

370

601

715

702

668

637

505

570

631

157

231

235

368

437

422

398

360

252

341

378

13D

97ft

9QA

97n

977
Z/ /

Z33

990

zzy

DiV

OUl

71^
/ 13

7A9

OOo

03 /

31/3

3o3

D4U

1 ^7

1 J /

1 A^

1 AA
100

133

13 /

T9A
IZO

1 1 A

110

1U4

100

13 /

1 A^
103

100

133

13 /

19A

IZO

1 1 A

llO

100

1 A1

ioi

loy

nA
1 iX)

1 <o

ijy

13/

19A
IZD

1 1 A
110

1 AO

luy

1 1 A
114

i,4jy

Z,l 11

9 riAft

1 0^

i,y4u

1 7^0

1, /3y

1,31Z

1,4 /4

T 491

1,4Z1

1 ^^n

1,33U

236

416

533

551

514

448

362

296

267

253

216

909

951 S

33U

JJXJ

9SR

940

556

634

668

733

717

690

625

579

491

456

432

1 10

900

187

163

138

133

109

136

150

179

180

189

188

149

185

182

165

A
4

J L

i,4jy

9 1 1 S

9 nA7

1 74<;

1 SOI

1 4S9

1 son

114

104

116

103

114

127

142

130

121

115

1,855

2.418

2,890

3.843

4,087

4.030

3,700

3,527

3,272

3,243

3,619

Appendix 10 (continued)

Aircraft in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations
June 1942 to August 1945

1944

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Combat Airplanes

1st Line

3,232

3,461

3,875

3,893

4,010

4.017

4.115

3.888

3.957

2nd Line

118

113

295

294

437

447

395

597

620

Total

3,350

3,574

4.170

4.187

4,447

4.464

4,510

4,485

4,577

Heavy Bombers

1st Line

oil

l,2o3

1 ooo
1,j3o

1 >1 1 A

1,410

1 om

1,297

1 1 A1

1,301

1,445

1,597

rJ-1 /

Z69

J97

368

361

lie

315

316

366

407

D-2A

coo
366

o^o

868

970

1,049

982

985

1,079

1,190

2nd Line

106

126

123

Total

855

901

1.292

1,375

1.499

1.392

1.407

1,571

1.720

Medium Bombers

1st Line

711

715

654

774

773

667

751

713

726

B-25

403

395

361

453

465

395

440

438

463

B-26

308

320

293

321

308

272

311

275

263

2nd Line

179

237

191

206

170

Total

720

731

753

863

952

904

942

919

896

Light Bombers

1st Line

1 1 A
liU

126

1 0 1

121

113

1 AO

103

114

111

109

A on
A-ZU

ilU

120

lot
121

111
113

1 CVl

1U3

1 1 /t
114

111

1 AA

109

A-Zt>

zna une

<
3

1 A

1 o

1 T

1 o

O A

total

131

1 OT

12/

121

131

129

ion

1 An
140

Fighters

1st Line

1 cnc
1,303

1,667

1,760

1 cnc
1,373

1 COT

1,587

1,798

1.797

1,499

1,374

P-38

172

224

341

313

377

337

258

166

299

P-39

248

366

375

336

293

244

241

175

P-40

391

328

ono

298

274

181

139

103

P-47

348

379

368

350

371

544

649

697

/TIT

617

P-51

116

120

1 m

197

223

313

>IO 1

481

499

411

At 'J

413

Night Fighters

An
4/

Utiier

1 OA

1 oft
199

134

2nd Line

lA
/•i

143

1 A1

14j

138

oc
B3

21 /

total

1 ^TQ

1,3 /y

1 TOO

1, /2S

1 one

1,/15

1./23

l.So3

l./t>4

1, /Id

Recoraiaissance

1st line

137

141

155

136

151

r-'t, r-j

J /

9.6.

F-6

F-7

F-8

Other

2nd line

Total

104

150

154

168

150

164

Grand Total*

3,959

3,980

4,601

4,524

4,824

4,867

5,394

5,078

5,076

*lndudes other aircraft not shown (transports, trainers, and communications aircraft.)

1944 1945

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

3,865
719
4,584

3,554
713
4.267

3,497
694
4,191

3,664
673
4337

3,566
630
4,196

3.717
571
4,288

3,602
570
4,172

3,239
503
3.742

2.063
541
2.604

868

934
1.802

370
700
1,070

1,581
476

1,105
230

1.811

1,450
476
974
263

1.713

1,460
509
951
276

1.736

1,525
538
987
275

1,800

1,564
521

1.043
277

1.841

1,660
524

1,136
241

1.901

1,593
497

1.096
278

1.871

1,340
529
811
222

1.562

548
457
91
283
831

378
377
1

221
599

343
343

34
377

715
436
279
171
886

495
402
93
174
669

397
375
22
175
572

411
397
14
175
586

433
423
10
149
582

424
414
10
146
570

399
393
6

137
536

367
367

137
504

217
217

130
347

3
3

122
125

1
1

91
92

98
98

32
130

92
92

29
121

90
88
2
28
118

128
80
48
27

155

170
76
94
28

198

171
68

103
32

203

168
38

130
54

222

138

138
78
216

27
49
76

8
8

32
40

26
26

1.332
328

1,360
339

1,370
318

1.452
305

1.258
331

1,317
375

1.284
335

1.237
321
1

1,139
316
2

395
116

13
6

535
430
39

545
440
36

509
491
52

550
538
59

360
510
57

352
534
56

298
588
63

280
581
54

241
551
29

40
211
28

269
1,601

233
1,593

202
1,572

188
1,640

165
1.423

131
1,448

77
1.361

59
1.296

67
1,206

503
898

428
441

110

121
13

1 J /

153
1

173
4

if o

141
4

141

134
4

i^j
136
4

150
5

151
4

132

84
ot

5
17
156

3
14
171

3
13
193

3
8

156

3
11
152

5
21
166

24
182

2
7
164

12
144

56
140

13
121
134

5.101

4,707

4,661

4,977

4,790

4,849

4.809

4,242

3,068

2.180

1.336

Appendix 11

Aircraft Losses*
December 1941 to August 1945

Heavy Bombers

1941 1942

Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug

European Theater of Operations

1st Line Lxissesf -----..-2
2d Line Losses

Dropped to 2d Line

Total Losses 2

Mediterranean Theater of Operations

1st Line Lossesf 54 4

2d Line Losses

Dropped to 2d Line

Total Losses 544

Total Bomber Losses Against Germany 5 4 5

Total Bomba: Losses All Theaters 29 15 22 9 4 11 19 15 29

Fighters

European Theater of Operations

1st line Lossesf 15

2d Line Losses

Dropped to 2d Line -

Total Losses 15

Mediterranean Theater of Operations

1st Line Lossesf 6

2d Line Losses

Dropped to 2d Line

Total Losses 6

Total Fighter Losses Against Germany 21

Total Fighter Losses All Theaters 310 7 80 141 65 99 83 49 82

'''Figures in parentheses, for "Losses," indicate the excess of gains from salvage over losses; for

"E>ropped to 2d Line," indicate net gains from 2d to 1st line.
tCombat and Accidmt

1942

1943

1944

Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jim Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb

3 12 13 20 20 38 24 30 77 95 118 137 111 214 112 207 264 315

1 ... 1 . - 3 -

3 12 13 20 20 38 24 30 77 96 118 137 111 215 112 207 267 315

8 5 6 5 11 26 2 13 18 10 30 87 26 59 29 38 60 137

2 1 - - 2

18 2 1 4

8 5 6 5 11 26 2 13 18 10 30 87 26 61 30 38 60 137

11 17 19 25 31 64 27 43 95 106 148 224 137 276 142 245 327 457

30 29 38 41 59 80 50 77 120 125 190 256 165 315 182 278 370 477

6 7 6 34 11 15 10 19 16 12 18 23 27 30 62 58 110 129

1 -

6 7 6 34 11 15 10 19 16 12 18 23 27 30 62 58 111 129

3 5 33 91 129 100 70 177 147 106 170 216 214 149 85 115 150 175

11 - - - 3

- - - - - 24 1 2 5

3 5 33 91 129 100 70 177 147 106 170 216 214 160 85 115 150 178

9 12 39 127 140 115 80 196 163 118 188 239 241 190 147 173 261 307

89 75 146 169 212 169 150 307 261 198 304 365 367 300 279 328 393 413

Appendix 11 (continued)

Aircraft Losses*
December 1941 to August 1945

Heavy Bombers

1944

^^8r

Apr

Jun

1 Till
L JUl

Aug

oep

Nov

uec

European Theater of Operations

1st Line Lossesf

325

467

414

422

382

331

399

209

235

186

2d Line Losses

E)ropped to 2d Line

101

152

Total Losses

325

469

417

425

391

340

408

221

247

196

Mediterranean Theater of Operations

1st Line Lossesf

211

199

219

329

273

112

170

152

221

2d Line Losses

177

Dropped to 2d Line

114

(3)

Total Losses

214

202

222

332

276

120

177

153

225

Total Bomber Losses Against Germany

424

683

619

647

723

616

528

398

400

421

Total Bomber Losses All Theaters

466

737

654

690

767

661

563

474

545

494

Fighters

European Theater of Operations

1st Line Lossesf 229

2d Line Losses 3

Dropped to 2d Line 20

Total Losses 232

Mediterranean Theater of Operations

1st Line Lossesf 99

2d Line Losses 2

Dropped to 2d Line 38

Total Losses 101

Total Fighter Losses Against Gomany 333

Total Fighter Losses All Theaters 496

358

475 674 444 613 400

499

363 464

- 24 25 14 18

19 17

176 9 43 54 52

30 74

358

475 698 469 627 418

517

382 481

161

256 236 201 272 167

125

168 140

17 22 2 6 14

12 1

95 9 7 168 65

4 1

162

273 258 203 278 181

126

180 141

420

748 956 672 905 599

643

562 622

646

840 1147 808 1100 793

855

922 987

*Figures in parentheses, for "Losses," indicate the excess of gains from salvage over losses; for "Drof^sed
to 2d Line," indicate net gains from 2d to 1st line,
f Combat and Accident

1945

Total
1941

Total
1942

Total
1943

Total
1944

Total
1945

Grand
Total

Jan

Feb

Mar Apr

May Jun Jul

Aug

(Dec) (Tan-Aug)

343

220

304 216

(25)

1,183

3,949

1,110

6.292

5 5

111

226

300

(5) 17

542

635

365

222

309 221

16U

1 n

1.185

4.021

1.336

6.592

119

158

169 107

(1)

349

2.180

608

3,174

346

386

25 29

(23)

(26)

363

178

561

128

161

205 134

181

352

2.217

954

3.560

393 383

514 355

190

0 /

1.532

6,238

2,290

10,152

569

398

586 424

351

171

128

294

262

1,897

6.898

2.921

12,007

396 391

509 433

112

301

4.758

1.997

7.124

21 21

139

158

297

10 7

(7)

506

601

417

413

530 454

142

301

4,897

2,155

7.421

104

130

128 151

138

1,678

2,150

606

4,572

30 63

269

443

535

1 12

421

245

413

705

1,143

105

158

158 214

279

138

1.689

2.231

1.049

5.107

522 571

688 668

193

146

101

315

206

1.990

7.128

3.204

12.528

836 802 937 964 466 525 391 630 310 1.085

3.240 9.400 5.551 19.586

Appendix 12

Combat Sorties Flown, Europe

December 1941 to August 1945

ETO

MTO

Total

1941 Dec

1942 Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

166

324

255

579

Sep

423

576

999

Oct

534

1,519

2,053

Nov

629

2,544

3,173

Dec

543

2,166

2,709

Total 1942

2,453

7,296

9,749

1943 Jan

767

4,330

5,097

Feb

976

3,362

4,338

Mar

1,564

6,478

8,042

Apr

989

12,963

13,952

May

1 0 T>/l
IZ, /Z4

1 ^ /;iQ
io,ojy

Jun

4,104

13,248

17,352

Jul

5,531

24,370

29,901

Aue

5!826

21^532

27,358

Sep

9,294

20,659

29,953

Oct

7,463

14,124

21,587

Nov

9,624

15,856

25,480

Dec

13,876

19,948

33,824

Total 1943

63,929

169,594

233,523

1944 Jan

15,183

28,992

44,175

Feb

24,425

20,568

44,913

Mar

31,950

24,798

56,748

Apr

43,434

30,645

74,079

A4ay

A7 010

o/,v /y

1 iU,J io

Jun

96,096

33,947

130,043

Jul

74,878

33,987

108,865

Aug

77,976

37,968

115,944

Sep

57,384

26,359

83,743

Oct

52,596

22,607

75,203

Nov

52,299

26 055

78 354

Dec

61,089

28,347

89^436

Total 1944

655.'289

356,'812

1,012401

1945 Jan

47,477

16,914

64,491

Feb

68,365

31,348

99,713

Mar

111,472

35,408

146,880

Apr

79,402

41,495

120,897

May

5,565

646

6,211

Jun

Jul

Aug

Total 1945

31^381

125,811

438,192

Grand Total 1,034.052

659.513 1,693,565

Appendix 13

Combat Sorties Flown in the European Theater of Operations

Heavy Bomber

August 1942 to May 1945
Med/Lt Bomber Fighter

Total

Airborne

Effective

Airborne Effective

Airborne

Effective

Airborne

Effective

ly+z Aug

114

210

200

324

276

Sep

183

240

230

423

329

Oct

284

143

250

240

534

383

Nov

519

271

110

100

629

371

Dec

353

165

190

180

543

345

Total 1942

1,453

754

1,000

950

2,453

1,704

1943 Jan

338

220

429

422

767

642

Feb

526

313

450

435

976

748

Mar

956

823

608

584

1.564

1.407

Apr

449

349

540

510

989

859

May

1,672

1,471

2,220

2,109

3,915

3.603

Jun

2,107

1,268

1,997

1,879

4,104

3,147

Jul

2,829

1.743

416

2,286

2,133

5,531

4,292

Aug

2,265

1.850

1,297

904

2,264

2,017

5,826

4,771

Sep

3,259

2,457

2,611

1,808

3,424

2,987

9,294

7.252

Oct

2,831

2.117

1,236

521

3,396

2,888

7.463

5.526

Nov

4,157

2,581

1,562

867

3,905

3,436

9,624

6,884

Dec

5,973

4,937

2,162

994

5,741

5,101

13.876

11,032

Total 1943

27,362

20,129

9,307

5,533

27,260

24,501

63,929

50,163

1944 Jan

6,367

5,027

1,649

1,050

7,167

6,464

15,183

12,541

Feb

9,884

7,512

3,862

2,373

10,679

9,703

24,425

19,588

Mar

11,590

8,773

4,099

3,025

16,261

14,613

31,950

26,411

Apr

14,464

9.945

7!416

5332

21,554

19,216

43,434

34,493

May

19,825

13,975

11,944

8,523

36,210

32,860

67,979

55,358

Jun

28,925

22,713

11,711

8,908

55,460

50,748

96,096

82,369

Jul

23,917

18,864

8,008

5,839

42,953

39,923

74,878

64,626

Aug

22,967

18,964

9,182

6,588

45,827

42,409

77,976

67,961

Sep

18.268

15,617

5.431

3,379

33,685

30,397

57,384

49,393

Oct

19,082

17.058

3,633

1,800

29,881

27,132

52,596

45,990

Nov

17,003

15.245

5,176

3,224

30,120

27,871

52.299

46,340

Dec

18,252

16,424

7,350

4,881

35,487

33.242

61,089

54.547

Total 1944

210,544

170,117

79.461

54,922

365,284

334,578

655.289

559.617

1945 Jan

16,702

14,750

4,457

2,998

26,418

24,561

47,577

42,309

Feb

22.884

19,933

9,255

7,902

36,226

34,515

68,365

62,350

Mar

31,169

28,804

17,461

15,792

62,842

60,199

111,472

104,795

Apr

20,514

18,180

10.832

9,209

48,056

45,453

79,402

72.842

May

2,276

2,254

278

167

3,011

2,557

5,565

4.978

Total 1945

93,545

83,921

42,283

36.068

176,553

167,285

312,381

287,274

Grand Total 332,904 274,921

131,051 96,523 570.097 527314 1.034.052 898,758

Appendix 14

Combat Sorties Flown in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations

June 1942 to May 1945

Heavy Bomber Med/Lt Bomber Fighter Total

Airborne Effective* Airborne Effective* Airborne Effective* Airborne Effective*

1942 Jun

Jul

166

Aug

180

255

Sep

217

286

576

Oct

280

299

940

1,519

Nov

513

351

1,680

2,544

Dec

482

244

1,440

2,166

Total 1942

1.908

1,038

4,350

7,296

1 Tan

ly'tj J an

"7^0

oyi

III

z, /uu

Z.'fjZ

rcu

JO J

out

1 7SS

Mar

835

720

1,134

931

4,509

4,079

6.478

5,730

Apr

1,586

1,359

2,404

2,089

8,973

8,372

12,963

11,820

May

2.152

1,890

2,283

2,099

8,289

7,653

12,724

11,642

Jun

2.065

1,944

2,656

2,476

8,527

7,974

13,248

12,394

Jul

3,242

2,860

4,784

4,579

16,344

15,660

24,370

23,099

Aug

2,298

2,097

4,563

4,337

14,671

14,074

21,532

20,508

Sep

2,909

2,339

5,429

5,011

12,321

11,771

20,659

19,121

Oct

2,005

1,427

3,259

2,791

8,860

8.146

14,124

12,364

Nov

1,785

1,069

3,358

2,633

10,713

9,717

15,856

13,419

Dec

2,039

1,606

3,644

2,986

14,265

13,041

19,948

17,633

Total 1943

22,389

18,518

35,012

31,206

112,193

104,694

169,594

154,418

1944 Jan

4,720

3,811

4,933

4,248

19,339

18,230

28,992

26,289

Feb

3,981

2,380

4,065

2*804

12,522

11,468

20568

16^652

Mar

5!996

4^202

4!l41

3!437

14^661

13^4 13

24,798

2l!052

Apr

10,182

8,084

4,153

3,390

16,310

14,908

30,645

26,382

May

14,432

11,584

7,028

5,787

21,079

19,652

42,539

37,023

Jun

11,761

10,001

5,420

4,777

16,766

15,568

33,947

30,346

Jul

12,642

10,825

5,295

4,447

16,050

14,768

33,987

30,040

Aug

12,194

10,760

6,802

5,661

18,972

17,538

37,968

33,959

Sep

10,056

8,509

5,002

4,152

11,301

10,467

26,359

23.128

uct

y,Do/

J, 477

2,jsz

9,563

o,o01

Z2,(»yi

17,020

Nov

9,259

6.955

4,811

3,623

11,985

10,776

26,055

21,354

Occ

10,050

7,235

3,317

2,522

14,980

13,605

28347

23,362

Total 1944

114,840

90,383

58,444

47,230

183,528

168,994

356,812

306,607

1945 Jan

4,002

2,918

2.947

2,202

9,965

9.219

16,914

14.339

Feb

13,444

10,748

3.998

2,961

13,906

12.433

31,348

26,142

Mar

14,939

12,737

4,971

4,056

15,498

14,583

35,408

31,376

Apr

15,846

11,771

6,752

5,560

18,897

17,567

41,495

34,898

May

545

502

646

589

Total 1945

48,273

38,210

18,727

14,830

58,811

54,304

125,811

107,344

Grand Total

187,410

147,111

113,221

93,266

358.882

327,992

659,513

568,369

'Effective sonic figures are

for Jan 1943 to May 1945.

Appendix IS

Fighter Sorties Flown against Germany

January 1943 to May 1945

European Theater of Operations Mediterranean Theater of Operations

Bombing,

Escort

Strafing

Recon

Other*

Total

Escort

Strafing

Recon

Other*

Total

J&n

490

1 1S9

15{^
loo

O /D

9 7nn

rCO

4sn

1 cvn

JJKJ

119

9 091

DUO

ouo

1 A08

1.D70

4 sno

Apr

s
o

Jin

3 433

2 063

388

1 nno

K 071

Mfty

JO*T

i.oJO

9 990

9 5!5tO

9 101

9n4

9 smi

H 9JiO
0.^07

Jun

1 AO

1 51951

1 T7n

1. / /u

9 X04

X S97

Till

DU/

9 9Rfi

6 919

1 01 A

S X41

16144

Aug

9 9>;4

'•.*rOO

4 ni 1

S91

5 653

14 A71

2 167

t 957

2 493

4 401

210

5 127

12321

Oct

2 890

506

3 396

2,241

3.951

151

2.517

8,860

2 638

105

1 160

3 905

3 036

4 161

334

3 182

10713

Dec

5!095

'500

5^741

3^713

6il57

291

4',104

14)265

Total

15.536

194

11.463

27.260

36.975

34.054

3.112

38.052

112,193

1944

Jan

6,080

201

886

7 167

4,526

6,359

8,454

19 339

Feb

10,295

301

10 579

2 628

4,014

5)880

12)522

Mar

14,659

887

715

16,261

4,487

4,037

6,137

14,661

Apr

14,072

3,803

3.679

21,554

6,050

6,844

3,416

16,310

May

26,091

6!405

3714

36!210

6^746

ll',759

2)574

21)079

Jun

27,970

11,320

16,170

55,460

5,862

8,232

2,672

16,766

Jul

20,577

9,098

13,278

42,953

8,235

5,223

2,592

16,050

Aug

23,793

4^524

17^510

45)827

7)887

6)461

4)624

18)972

Sep

13,531

11,056

9,098

33,685

4,513

4,164

2,624

11,301

Oct

15,659

11,731

2,491

29,881

4,003

4,583

977

9,563

Nov

19,082

7,542

3,496

30,120

4,270

6,822

893

11,985

Dec

15.723

12,940

6.824

35,487

6.141

7,988

851

14,980

Total 207^32

79.590

78.162

365.284

65.348

76.486

41,694

183.528

1945

Jan

10,898

9.878

4.473

1,169

26,418

2.311

7.402

251

9.965

Feb

13,261

13.906

8.410

649

36.226

6.658

6.868

380

13.906

Mar

19,853

37,311

452

5.226

62.842

15,062

432

15.498

Apr

16.654

25,420

4.452

1.530

48,056

5.340

11.749

1.400

408

18.897

May

168

729

362

1.752

3,011

332

176

545

Total

60.834

87.244

18.149

10.326

176,553

14.309

41.413

1.581

1.508

58.811

Grand

Total

283.902

167.028

18.216

99.951

569,097

116,632

151.953

4.693

81.254

354.532

'''Includes patrol, interception, sweep, and sea-search sorties.

Appendix 16
Bombs Dropped against Germany

1943 to 1945

1945

High Explosive

1943

1944

(Jan-Aug)

Total

4piX) lb

158

2,(XX) lb

2^22

32,104

14,149

48,575

ljUUu Id

ir/fiob

564,969

600 lb

712

JJU ID ^ivusalanj

1 MS

500 lb

JJU ID

ins Af:A

III

1 n<S 980

160 lb

100 lb

61,905

945.636

512,668

1 520 209

40 lb

21 on

2707

Total

9R4 271

Individual FragmcntaticHi

xOU ID

o1,oUj

iyo,/jo

on IK

y\j ID

1,070

Q< tK
OD ID

ion

30 ]|)

5 435

Total

5 435

118 941

81,803

206 179

Kntornpntntirm f^iictpr

540 lb

306

3 670

3 976

4X0-400 Ih

JDU ID

A
•?

^ 97<

970

J,* /7

180 lb

170 IK

XMf ID

*rX7,DD *

100 9S0

1 77

7<<; ^04

<k\ IK

TO ID

TOO

69 lb (Parachute)

1 060

1 070

1,7/7

Total

127,383

7*18 07Q
/O0,V-67

Individual Incendiaiy

SOOlb

2,546

IZP /o

Io,/ol

3601b

250 lb

0^
7J

250 lb (British)

9.410

1 J. ,D1^

200 lb (British)

350

^4 RR1

100 lb

145,519

^95 004

O^J,77^

11 777

806 394

100 lb (White Phosphorous) 7

l^,^J7

67 lb

756

4 lb

512

Total

159,100

644,249

65,623

868,972

Incendiaiy Quster

512 lb

1,283

1 283

5001b

335

360

695

480 lb

475

363

838

4401b

158,536

108,487

267,023

1361b

748

126

874

Total

1,083

160780

108 850

270,713

CUss C-Fire

165-150 gal

727

699

1,426

110-100 gal

3,271

3,522

6,793

75 gal

722

3^249

3!971

SO gal

' 10

Toul

4,720

7.480

12,200

Aimor-Piercing

1,600 lb

1,122

SOOlb

Total

1.122

1.126

Semi-Armor Piercing

1,000 lb

11,633

4,587

16.220

SOOlb

20,934

9,981

30,915

Total

32,567

14,568

47.135

Appendix 17

Tons of Bombs Dropped

December 1941 to August 1945

Total Against
Total Against Total Against Germany

ETO

MTO

Geraany

Japan

and Japi

1941 Dec

1942 Jan

Feb

■

Mar

Apr

L*tO

1 AO

May

184

Jun

115

295

410

Jul

357

299

656

Aug

135

414

549

409

958

Sep

215

482

697

459

1,156

Oct

334

771

1,105

564

1,669

Nov

612

1.195

1,807

752

2,559

Dec

417

1.076

1.493

855

2.348

Total 1942

1,713

4.410

6.123

4.080

10,203

1943 Jan

739

1,983

2,722

859

3,581

heb

705

1,719

2,424

1,147

3,571

Mar

1,5 JO

2,773

4,303

1,644

5,947

Apr

1,130

5,053

6,183

2,033

8,216

May

2!688

1,297

9!985

2!344

12,329

Jun

2.468

8.596

11.064

1.845

12,909

Jul

4.366

13,846

18,212

4.041

22,253

Aug

5.072

12,584

17.656

4.333

21,989

Sep

8,519

13,942

22.461

4,212

26,673

Oct

6.015

7,625

13,640

5,013

18,653

Nov

8.309

9,480

17,789

5,921

23,710

Det

14,114

13,564

27,678

11,291

38,969

Total 1943

55.655

98,462

154,117

44,683

198.800

iy44 Jan

14.013

19,09/

111
33,112

7.883

At\ nrti

40.997

reb

22,366

11,595

34,161

9,912

44,073

Mar

zo,3jy

T7 AAf\
1 /,440

AO (v^n
43,9/9

1 1 ICC

12,233

C£ 10 A

36,234

Apr

38,540

29,856

68,396

13,537

81,933

May

56^874

46!o75

102,949

u'jis

117,664

Jun

85,648

36,287

121,935

10,499

132,434

Jul

63,062

41,769

104,831

10,034

114,865

Aug

67,766

40,280

108.046

9,458

117,504

Sep

52.175

29,285

81.460

12,849

94,309

Oct

52,860

22.108

74,968

12.329

87,297

Nov

51.413

26.695

78.108

15.025

93,133

Dec

60.501

26,506

87,007

18.528

105,535

Total 1944

591.959

346,993

938,952

147.026

1,085,978

1945 Jan

54.474

14,539

69.013

19.335

88,348

Feb

80,348

32,661

113.009

23.919

136,928

Mar

118.003

41.120

159.123

41.088

200,211

Apr

69,242

44.365

113,607

44.007

157,614

May

368

151

519

47,180

47,699

Jun

50,893

Jul

53,665

Aug

26,869

Total 1945

322.435

132.836

455.271

306,956

762,227

Grand Total

971.762

582.701

1.554.463

502.781

2,057.244

^)pendix 18

Tons of Bombs Dropped on German Targets
1942 to 1945

1942 (Jun-Dec)

1943

MTO

Total

ETO

MTO

Total

neavy noniiiers

Albania

Austria

665

Bulgaria

347

Czechoslovakia

Denmark

France

1,624

1.624

14,237

924

15,161

Gennany

27,598

1,453

29,051

Greece

1,293

Hungary

Italy

23. /95

23,795

Low Countries

767

North Africa

3,251

3.251

19.517

Norway

1.497

P<dan<l

Rumania

1.382

U82

Yugoslavia

1,018

Other*

3,353

3353

Total

1,713

3,251

4,964

47,452

50.485

97.937

Medium/Light Bombers and Fighters

Albania

Austria

Bulgaria

Czechoslovakia

Denmark

France

8,203

Germany

Greece

Hungary

Italy

22.653

22,653

Low Countries

North Africa

1.159

25.324

Norway

Poland

Rumania

Yugoslavia

Other*

Total

1.159

8,203

47.977

56.180

All Types

Albania

Austria

665

Bulgaria

- .

347

Czechoslovakia

Detunaik

France

1,624

1.624

22,440

924

23364

Germany

27,598

1.453

29,051

Greece

1.293

Hungary

Italy

46.448

46,448

Low Countries

767

North Africa

4.410

44.841

Norway

1,497

1.497

Poland

Rumania

1.382

Yugoslavia

1,018

1.018

Other*

3,353

3353

Total

1.713

4,410

6,123

55,655

98.462

154,117

'''Includes tonnage jettisoned.

1944

ETO

MTO

Total

2o\j

280

■24 ceo

2,253

796

8,193

8,989

119,460

18,186

137,646

295,470

23,849

319,319

1.932

1,932

364

19,250

19,614

61,917

12312

316 1,144 1,460

287 24,746 25.033

17419 17,519

17,100 23,619 40,719

446,165 237,440 683,605

143,056 4,976 148,032

1,369 - U69

104,577 104,577

1369 - 1369

145,794 109,533 255347

280 280

34,552 34,552

2,253 2,253

796 8,193 8,989

60 - 60

262,516 23,162 285,678

296.839 23.849 320,688

1.932 1.932

364 19.250 19.614

166,494 166,494

13,681 - 13,681

316 1,144 1,460

287 24,746 25,033

17,519 17,519

17,100 23,619 40,719

591.959 346.993 938,952

1945 (Jan-May)

ETO

MTO

Total

400

38,566

38.966

3,564

2 246

5 810

7,628

198,661

10,612

209,273

2,614

27,029

1,035

1.035

3,503

3303

I>,1U1

14,430

219389

90.899

310,288

1,843

21357

81 689

500

82 189

36341

36341
-

-
-

2,000

1,253

103,046

41,937

144,983

400

40,409

40,809

3,564

2 246

5 810

28,985

280 350

11,112

291,462

2,614

63,370

63370

1,035

5,503

8,101

7.582

15,683

322,435

132.836

455,271

Grand Total

ETO

MTO

Total

3/1

J/1

Ar\f\
*HaJ

TOO

1A 1 01

/4,lo3

x,oUU

1 A A'XQ

lyl TOO

in 1 m
lU

i£o ncn
loZ,U39

Jj.y 14

<C1 CAI

3.ZZJ

364

21.864

22.228

112.741

14.150

22.768

1.497

316

1.144

1.460

287

26.128

26.415

22.040

28,607

29,948

58355

714,719

382,075

1.096,794

l,04j

1 9A^

4,976

177,592

CAA
SOU

01 ceo
83 ,538

163,571

1369

-
-

26,483
-

-
-

2.000

-
-

2.000

1.253

257,043

200.626

457,669

■^71

Ann

\A 1QQ

Jl J.JOD

Z4.U0O

^ITiA TOT
OU4, / 6 /

J0,414

o41,ZUl

■2 nc

364

21 864

22 228

276312

15,519

15319

49,251

49.251

1,497

316

1,144

1,460

287

26.128

26,415

24.040

24,040

31.201

59.808

971.762

582,701

1354,463

Appendix 19

Tons of Bombs Dropped by Heavy Bombers on Germany

June 1942 to May 1945

1942

1943

1944

1945

Grand

Target

(Jun-Dec)

(Jan-May)

Total

European Theater of Operations

Marshaling Yards

154

5.348

89.884

100,224

195,610

Oil Installations

238

52,622

15,250

68,110

Airdromes and Airfields

543

5.513

57.810

18,825

82.691

Railroads, Roads and Bridges

17,328

13,229

30,557

Military Installations

1,745

45,879

15,284

62,908

Other Specific Industries

7,030

32,658

13,726

53,492

Aircraft Factories

149

5.090

36,726

2,472

44,437

Ground Cooperation

25,647

11,311

36,958

City Areas

42,603

4,217

46,820

Ship Yards, Sub Pens

736

18.072

6,973

8,646

34,427

Other Communications

21,937

3,516

25.453

Miscellaneous

3.333

4,588

7.921

Jettisoned and unidentified

1.083

16,098

8,101

25,335

Total

1,713

47.452

446,165

219,389

714,719

Mediterranean Theater of Operations

Marshaling Yards

16,565

64,834

38,298

119,697

Oil Installations

46,769

11,312

58,081

Airdromes and Airfields

8,215

23,002

3,819

35,036

Railroads, Roads and Bridges

1.610

24.399

14,003

40,012

Military Installations

2,683

4,580

7.263

Other Specific Industries

1.558

12.064

3,012

16.634

Aircraft Factories

1.281

13.045

14.326

Ground Cooperation

12,073

8,039

20,148

City Areas

749

795

Ship Yards, Sub Pens

2,216

Other Communications

775

8,929

1,461

11,165

Miscellaneous

3,251

19,696

3,807

26,754

Jettisoned and unidentified

23,619

6,329

29,948

Total

3,251

50.485

237.440

90,899

382.075

European and Mediterranean Theaters of Operations

Marshaling Yards

154

21.913

154,718

138,522

315,307

Oil Installations

238

99,391

26,562

126,191

Airdromes and Airfields

543

13,728

80,812

22,644

117,727

Railroads, Roads and Bridges

1,610

41,727

27,232

70,569

Military Installations

1,745

48,562

19,864

70,171

Other Specific Industries

8,588

44,722

16,738

/U,lzo

Aircraft Factories

149

6,371

49,771

2,472

58,763

Ground Cooperation

37.720

19,350

57.106

City Areas

749

42.603

4,263

47.615

Ship Yards, Sub Pens

736

18.072

9.189

8,646

36.643

Other Communications

775

30,866

4,977

36,618

Miscellaneous

3,251

23.029

3,807

4,588

34,675

Jettisoned and unidentified

1.083

39,717

14,430

55,283

Total

4.964

97.937

683.605

310,288

1,096,794

Appendix 20

Tons of Bombs Dropped in the European Theater of Operations

August 1942 to May 1945

Heavy Bomber Med/Lt Bomber Fighter All Types

HE* Ihcendiaiy Total HE* Incendiary Total HE* Incendiaiy Total HE* Incendiary Total

1942

Aug

135

Sep

215

Oct

334

Nov

612

Dec

417

Total

1 Til
1,/lJ

1 nxt
1,/lJ

1 Tl 1

1,/1j

1943

Jan

739

Feb

705

Mar

1,530

Apr

1,130

1.130

1,130

May

2.654

2,677

2,665

2,688

Jun

2,468

Jul

3,504

599

4,103

258

263

3,762

604

4,366

Aug

3,453

326

3,779

1,284

1,293

4,737

335

5,072

Sep

5,515

228

5,743

2,764

2,776

8,279

240

8,519

Oct

4,290

843

5,133

882

5,172

843

6,015

Nov

5,072

1,796

6,868

1,424

6,513

1,796

8,309

Dec

9,419

3,158

12,577

1,530

10,956

3,158

14,114

lotai

40,4 /V

6,973

47,452

48,656

6,999

55,655

1944

Jan

9,651

2.746

12,397

1,579

11,269

2,746

14.015

Feb

16,670

2,476

19,146

3,397

20.090

2,476

22,566

Mar

16,357

4.989

21,346

4,998

5,062

131

21.486

5,053

26,539

Apr

22,829

4.747

27,576

9,372

103

9,475

1,489

33.690

4,850

38.540

May

33,123

4,906

38,029

15,120

15,156

3,684

3,689

51.927

4,947

56,874

Jun

58,396

1,229

59,625

13,0/ /

£/\

1 < new

10,322

84.394

1,254

85.648

Jul

39,483

7,122

46,605

9.873

9,883

6,567

6,574

55.923

7,139

63,062

Aug

43,987

5,318

49,305

10,648

10,716

7.721

7,745

62,356

5,410

67.766

Sep

34.852

7,310

42,162

5,712

4,300

4,301

44,864

7,311

52.175

Oct

33,360

11,727

45,087

3.101

3,101

4.574

4,672

41,035

11,825

52,860

Nov

41.210

608

41,818

5.436

5,436

4,019

140

4.159

50,665

748

51,413

Dec

39.181

3,888

43,069

8.359

8,405

8,726

301

9.027

56,266

4,235

60,501

Total

389,099

57,066 446,165

93.272

351

93,623

51,594

577

52.171 533.965

57,994 591,959

1945

Jan

39,382

2,731

42,113

5.094

5,108

6,941

312

7.253

51.417

3,057

54,474

Feb

47,554

7.446

55,000

13.554

334

13,888

10,955

505

11,460

72,063

8,285

80,348

Mar

64,323

11,000

75,323

24,956

2,452

27.408

13,337

1,935

15.272

102,616

15,387

118,003

Apr

41,591

5.362

46,953

14.528

1,152

15,680

5.689

920

6,609

61,808

7.434

69,242

May

301

368

Total 192,850

26,539 219,389

58,433

3,952

62,385

36,989

3,672

40,661 288,272

34,163 322,435

Grand

Total

624,141

90.578 714,719 159,858

4,329

164,187

88,607

4,249

92,856 872,606

99.156 971.762

*High Explosive.

Appendix 21

Tons of Bombs Dropped in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations

June 1942 to May 1945

Heavy Bomber Med/Lt Bomber Fighter All Types

HE* Incendiaiy Tottl HE* Incendiary Total HE* Incendiaiy Total HE* Incendiaiy Total

1942

Jun

115

Jul

357

Aug

346

414

Sep

411

482

Oct

424

297

771

Nov

815

329

1,195

Dec

783

212

1,076

Total

3,251

3.251

977

182

4,410

Jan

1.354

586

588

1,981

1.983

Feb

1.221

488

1,719

1.719

Mar

1.557

1.162

2.773

Apr

2,777

2.777

1.935

341

5.053

May

4.305

2.334

2.335

656

657

7.295

7.297

Jun

4.732

3.030

834

8.596

Jul

6,883

6.883

5,680

5.680

1.283

13.846

Aug

5,047

5.047

5,948

1.589

12,584

Sep

5,256

5,283

7.171

7,171

1,488

13.915

13,942

Oct

4,180

4,182

2,365

1,078

7,623

7,625

Nov

5,392

2,921

1,167

9,480

Dec

7,752

3,895

1.917

1,917

13,564

Total

50,456

50.485

37.515

37,518

10.458

10,459

98,429

98.462

1944

Jan

11,051

11.051

5,947

5.955

2.079

2.091

19.077

19.097

Feb

6.611

136

6,747

3,278

1.569

1,570

11,458

137

11,595

Mar

9,842

534

10,376

5,457

1,589

1,607

16,888

552

17,440

Apr

20,657

599

21,256

5,599

2.822

179

3,001

29,078

778

29,856

May

29,606

749

30,355

9,908

9,942

5,686

5,778

45,200

875

46,075

Jun

23,637

829

24,466

7,842

7,885

3,926

3,936

35,405

882

36,287

Jul

30,621

1,562

32,183

7,038

7,129

2,454

2,457

40,113

1.656

41,769

Aug

27,660

07 jno

Z / ,oJ7

Q lA^

o /

3.026

39.962

"310

Sep

20.645

211

20,856

6,473

6.523

1.900

1.906

29,018

267

29,285

Oct

15,712

545

16,257

4,081

4,129

1,710

1,722

21,503

605

22,108

Nov

16,153

1,144

17,297

6,119

6,126

3,255

3,272

25,527

1,168

26.695

Dec

18,308

449

18.757

4,091

4,129

3,613

3.620

26,012

494

26,506

Total 230^03

6.937

237,440

75,181

386

75.567

33,557

429

33.986 339.241

7.752

346,993

1945

Jan

6.784

3.738

3.795

3.836

124

3,960

14,358

181

14.539

Feb

24.417

24.508

4.789

154

4,943

3,054

156

3.210

32,260

401

32.661

Mar

30.265

6.895

152

7,047

3,621

187

3.808

40.781

339

41.120

Apr

29.181

29.258

9.242

104

9,346

5,334

427

5.761

43.757

608

44.365

May

127

151

Total

90.731

168

90.899

24.668

467

25,135

15,884

918

16.802 131.283

1.553

132,836

Grand

Total

374.941

7,134

382.075 138.341

856

139.197

60,081

1.348

61.429 573363

9.338

582,701

*High Explosive.

Appendix 22

Combat Losses by Theater
January 1942 to 1945

1942 Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Till
Jul

Aug

o
o

Ort

1 1

Nov

IT
1 /

Tntal 1049

1943 Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Till
Jul

Aug

1 1 R

1 1 o

Oct

Nov

Total 194"?

1944 Jan

111

Feb

393

Mar

551

Apr

732

May

761

Jun

yu4

Till
JUl

"710

Aug

yoo

Sep

758

Oct

552

Nov

OUJ

Total 1944

7,749

1945 Jan

646

Feb

580

Mar

774

Apr

579

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Total 1945

2,622

Grand Total

11.687

Total Against
MTO Germany

141

112

133

110

105

168

202

157

249

117

215

256

390

283

418

163

281

120

321

247

135

357

1, / D /

221

498

268

661

202

753

311

1,043

jo7

1,148

419

1,323

473

1,185

487

1,455

233

991

263

815

281

819

324

927

3,869

11,618

189

835

273

853

284

1,058

246

825

1,009

3,631

6.731

18,418

Total Against

bI Against

bermany

Japan

and Japan

c\r%

on
BU

j41

482

160

135

129

242

286

274

107

497

504

/ /

ICO

Joy

1 OA

4/ /

145

643

114

775

138

891

127

1,170

1,245

134

1,457

109

1,294

l,JJO

1 1 o
llx

1 1 iVl

1 /1Q

yoj

1 A^yl
1,Uj4

OAO

1,D/1

iJ,zoy

249

1,084

190

1,043

208

1,266

Alt 4b

256

316

216

194

144

1,699

5,330

4,530

22,948

Appendix 23

Combat Losses in the European Theater of Operations

August 1942 to May 1945

Heavy Bomber Med/Lt Bomber Fighter All Types

Aiictafl AA Other Total Aircraft AA OOier Total Aiiaaft AA Odier Total Aiioaft AA Other Total

1942

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Total

1943

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jid

118

134

Aug

117

100

135

Sep

118

Oct

139

186

152

201

Nov

109

160

Dec

172

123

222

Total

700

228

108 1,036

161

178

877

252

132

1,261

1944

Jan

139

203

197

277

Feb

170

271

103

243

108

393

Mar

178

112

345

191

234

167

150

551

Apr

314

105

420

201

280

516

190

732

May

211

122

376

176

340

397

248

116

761

Jun

112

162

320

147

226

167

540

284

400

220

904

Jul

201

352

153

108

326

150

377

185

712

Aug

238

331

100

294

152

546

163

607

198

968

Sep

137

207

374

104

190

357

241

422

758

Oct

112

177

198

349

135

334

552

Nov

146

209

164

298

131

328

538

Dec

119

118

141

163

366

211

285

107

603

Total U16 U87

394 3,497

303

487

1,293 1,611

861 3,765

2,902 3,501 U46

7,749

1945

Jan

222

314

162

274

121

412

113

646

Feb

157

196

208

299

433

580

Mar

164

266

244

419

144

460

170

774

Apr

190

207

100

343

119

302

158

579

May

Total

199

624

150

973

166

278

227

837

307 1^71

4461.627

549

2,622

Grand

Total 2,452 2,439 657 5,548 131 492 192 815 1,691 2,449 1,184 5^24 4,274 5,380 2,033 11.687

Appendix 24

Combat Losses in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations

June 1942 to May 1945

Heavy Bomber Med/Lt Bomber Fighter All Types

Aiiaaft AA Odier Total Aircraft AA Qher Total^raaftAA Odier Total Aircraft AA OOier Total

1942

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

;

Toul

1943

Jan

100

112

Feb

Mar

Apr

109

116

144

168

May

116

119

157

Jun

117

Jul

112

153

177

256

Aug

113

157

181

283

Sep

103

163

Oct

120

Nov

1 O

Dec

135

Total

209

294

239

385

816

115

157

1,088 1.264

250

253

1,767

1944

Jan

117

118

221

Feb

106

128

104

175

268

Mar

202

Apr

105

194

105

153

311

May

107

175

180

102

189

387

Jun

196

201

161

419

Jul

170

317

135

141

222

110

473

Aug

112

254

104

197

133

186

168

487

Sep

117

138

233

Oct

140

183

263

Nov

132

120

137

121

281

Dec

110

205

108

151

145

324

Total

619

933

422 1.974

101

163

324

441

493

637 1.571 1,161 1.589 1.119

3,869

1945

Jan

189

Feb

108

147

107

166

103

273

Mar

149

110

170

284

Apr

143

151

246

May

Total

321

153

481

206

214

444

585

390

1.009

Grand

Total 847 1.313 606 2.766 352 306 150 808 1.327 822 1.008 3.157 2.526 2.441 1.764 6.731

Appendix 25

Enemy Aircraft Destroyed

February 1942 to August 1945

ETO

MTO

Total

iy4z reb

■

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

130

Total 1942

169

158

327

iy4j Jan

194

244

reb

1 A'i

143

217

Mar

142

211

353

Apr

150

523

673

May

380

350

730

Jun

311

267

578

Jul

575

313

888

Aug

457

602

1,059

Sep

303

483

786

Oct

870

290

1,160

Nov

222

175

397

Dec

331

189

520

Total 1943

3,865

3,740

7,605

1 QAA Tan

iy44 Jan

reo

lA 1
/41

511

1 lie
1,1 lo

Mar

Q1 n
Viu

ten

ion
1,Z1 /

Apr

1,291

958

2,249

May

1,220

532

1,752

Jun

663

562

1,225

Jul

661

872

1,533

Aug

1,013

598

1,611

Sep

1,091

251

1.342

Oct

353

259

612

Nov

702

788

Dec

985

117

1,102

Total 1944

10,425

5.239

15,664

1945 Jan

465

473

Feb

460

488

Mar

750

145

895

Apr

4,257

110

4,367

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Total 1945

5,960

291

6,251

Grand Total

20,419

9,497

29,916

Appendix 26

Enemy Aircraft Destroyed in the European Theater of Operations

August 1942 to May 1945

By Heavy Bombers By Med\Lt Bombers By Fighters By All Types

Air

Ground Total

Air

Ground Total

Air

Ground Total

Air

Ground Total

1942 Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Total 1942

162

169

1943 Jan

Feb

Mar

142

Apr

146

150

May

372

380

Jun

293

311

Jul

527

575

Aug

401

457

Sep

255

303

Oct

791

870

Nov

106

105

222

Dec

231

100

331

Total 1943

3,381

451

431

3,865

1944 Jan

582

203

795

Feb

397

341

342

740

741

Mar

363

469

545

834

910

Apr

346

418

527

945

764

527

1,291

May

380

596

242

838

978

242

1,220

Jun

470

1 AO

olo

515

148

663

Jul

407

153

560

508

153

661

Aug

551

437

988

576

437

1,013

Sep

586

440

1,026

651

440

1,091

Oct

202

139

341

214

139

353

Nov

492

181

673

521

181

702

Dec

867

898

954

985

Total 1944

2,398

2.398

5,602

2,375

7.977

8,050

2,375 10,425

1945 Jan

337

424

378

465

Feb

163

295

458

165

295

460

Mar

395

321

716

429

321

750

Apr

454

3,703

4,157

554

3,703

4,257

May

Total 1945

157

1,362

4,421

5,783

1.539

4,421

5,960

Grand Total

6,098

103

7,422

6,796 14.218

13,623

6,796 20,419

Appendix 27

Enemy Aircraft Destroyed in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations

July 1942 to May 1945

By Heavy Bombers By Med\Lt Bombers By Fighters By All Types

Air

Ground Total

Air

Ground Total

Air

Ground Total

Air

Ground Total

1942 Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Total 1942

123

158

1943 Jan

163

104

Feb

137

14.3

Mar

103

187

211

Apr

100

175

319

310

421

109

593

May

107

114

132

165

269

350

Jun

115

127

233

267

Jul

138

125

250

313

Aug

308

114

117

180

539

602

Sep

124

166

178

102

139

314

169

483

Oct

117

106

170

190

900

Nov

106

114

175

Dec

128

131

171

189

Total 1943

1,244

305

1.549

454

278

732

1,270

189

1,459

2,968

772

3,740

1944 Jan

135

170

320

Feb

230

249

111

114

355

377

Mar

105

179

103

120

210

307

Apr

429

202

631

224

103

327

653

305

958

May

242

280

190

252

432

100

532

Jun

226

246

285

316

511

562

Jul

336

375

376

120

496

713

159

872

Aug

122

166

151

277

428

273

325

598

Sep

215

233

220

251

Oct

197

257

197

259

Nov

Dec

117

Total 1944

1,889

451

2,340

1,760

1,085

2,845

3,693

1,546

5,239

1945 Jan

Feb

Mar

105

123

119

145

Apr

110

May

Total 1945

189

268

204

291

Grand Total

3,178

770

3,948

510

306

816

3,300

1,364

4,664

7,003

2,494

9,497

Appendix 28

Gasoline Consumption in the European Theater of Operations

August 1942 to May 1945
(thousands of gallons)

Heavy

Med/Lt

Bomber

Fighter

Total

1942 Aug

274

295

Sep

439

464

Oct

710

736

Nov

1,303

1,314

Dec

876

Total 1942

3,602

103

3,705

1943 Jan

1,234

1,263

Feb

1,318

1,387

Mar

2,035

2,119

Apr

1,872

164

2,070

May

4,528

752

5,299

Jun

4,930

697

5,627

Jul

8,780

368

809

9.957

Aug

5,656

1,320

951

7.927

Sep

8,181

1,747

1.367

11,295

Oct

8,678

942

1,476

11,096

Nov

9,531

1,113

1,802

12,446

Dec

13,266

1,381

2,384

17.031

Total 1943

70,009

6,950

10,558

87,517

1944 Jan

13,993

1,153

3,208

18,354

Feb

19,641

2,470

4,390

26,501

Mar

26,284

3,015

6,674

35.973

Apr

y,yj\J

AC lAI

May

51,036

7,331

15,641

74,008

Jun

57,205

6,848

17,288

81,341

Jul

58,636

5,950

15,115

79,701

Aug

57,230

5,977

14,744

77,951

Sep

47,627

4,852

12,275

64,754

Oct

53,786

3.289

11,370

68,445

Nov

j,yoi

lO.olo

Dec

38,693

4,826

10,374

53,893

Total 1944

499.433

54,088

131,845

685,366

1945 Jan

43,757

3,630

8,061

55,448

Feb

60,162

6,379

11,757

78,298

Mar

77.497

12,372

20,156

110,025

Apr

62.536

11,213

18,020

91.769

May

29,589

5,725

7,970

43.284

Total 1945

273.541

39.319

65,964

378,824

Grand Total

846,585

100,357

208,470

1,155.412

Appendix 29

Gasoline Consumption in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations

June 1942 to May 1945
(thousands of gallons)

Heavy

Med/Lt

Bomber

r ignter

lotal

1942 Jun

Till
JUi

Aug

Ar\

oep

>i>i
44

1 11
I Id

2.51

Nov

oil

3UU

901

uec

J of)

1 /10

148

one
295

829

616

611

2,175

1943 Jan

1,237

656

834

1,111

Feb

1,067

390

500

1,957

Mar

1,011

631

937

2,579

Apr

2,335

1,342

1,599

5,276

May

3,509

1,741

2,425

7,675

Jun

3,028

2,116

2,608

7,752

Till
JUI

J,yjj

4,J /O

4,UjU

14,j5l

Aug

A OfK

1 S<f»

1 <4<;

1 1 /1rfV\

11,4UU

ocp

4 410

1 001
J,ZZ1

10 <Q1

iz,oyi

0 QSI

o n<7
z,Uo/

Q 04 1

Nov

9 710
Z, / IZ

0 Of>S

O 1 17
Z,l J /

7 n<>i
/,UM

uec

0 07Q

O 0 1 1

z,zl 1

7 CO/C

7,53o

-I/: -377

OA ASC

OA 014
ZO,Zj4

OO OAO

1944 Jan

7,193

3,004

3,200

13,397

Feb

5,905

2,360

2,170

10.435

Mar

9,954

2,795

2,911

15,660

Apr

18,598

3,019

4,518

26,135

May

27,015

4,299

5,434

36,748

Jun

26,147

4,744

5,568

36,459

Till

10 01 s

Aug

jU,OZ1

7 100

40 fiSI

ocp

OS 044

4 010

4 74Q
4,/4o

1A 01 1

ZZ,J /U

0 014

1 QB4

OQ 1QQ

Nov

01 fiA4

1 4/17
J, 44 /

4,5y»

1 1 OAO

J 1 ,909

Dec

23,550

2,321

5,316

31,187

Total 1944

250,034

42.766

55,535

348,335

1945 Jan

12,724

1,976

3,941

18,641

Feb

32,574

2,774

4,990

40,338

Mar

37,657

3,170

6,664

47.491

Apr

37,533

3.361

7,188

48.082

May

8,481

1,271

1,746

11,498

Total 1945

128.969

12,552

24,529

166,050

Grand Total

416328

82,592

106,909

605,829

Appendix 30

Expenditures from Direct Appropriations by Major Project
July 1942 to August 1945

(thousands of dollars; figures in parenthesis are negative)

Procurement

1942 Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec

Total 1942

1943 Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec

Total 1943

1944 Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec

Total 1944

1945 Jan
Feb
Mar
Apnr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug

Total 1945

Aiioaft
and Spares

254,240
436,098
398.330
445,727
208,225
432,132
2,174,752

824,772
671.574
791,800
558.878

686,222
1,192,623
659,938
744,523
737,753
786.339
832,252
880.520
9,367.194

789,342
692,131
966,739
814,996
797.798
658.013
734.034
840.857
750,219
465,547
584,190
475,712
8,569,578

541,021
576.630
852.592

660,795
728,663
516,397
548,870
425,362
4.850.330

MissOes

Balloons

Gliders

Aircraft
Modification

Grand Total $24,961,854

4.360
2,000
1,470
1,362
1,951
2,844
1.084
15,071

$15,071

15,061
809
7,557
4,815
6,459
3,499
2.573
40.773
2,963
1,431
461
871
437
236
15
10
110
3

50
(4)
6,583

(2)
(3)
1

(1)

(5)
$47,351

707
4.637
2.367
7.470
4,014
15,151
34,346

17.696
10.670
16.092
8.409

13,897
18,245
13,694
12,698
13,542
10,215
16,554
13.936
165.648
14,521
12,641
13,563
10,482
7,670
8,504
4.900
3.385
2.638
(4.897)
4,600
3,824
81.831

4.884
8.001
8,359

9.233
11,364

9,565
10,761
11,881
74,048

1,363
1.483
4,851
3,449

2,554
10,220
23,920

5,210
4.086
8,835
6,551
5,571
3,161
2,367
3,023
3,327
4,525
2,079
2,637
51,372

5,834
9,782
15,565
14,724
18,775
17,358
12,509
17,989
17,628
11,075
17,498
18,696
177,433

15.521
13.436
14.655
13,611
10,636
13,057
9,584
7,546
98,046

$355,873 $350,771

Night Sight
Systems

85
31

153
52

(15)
194
500

73
55
64

(29)
10
1,786
47

(13)
89
76

175

172
2.505

485
175
55
(49)
64
90
63
21
56
35
27
29
1.051

25
6
8

14
22
35
28
8

146
$4,202

Appendix 30 (continued)

Expenditures from Direct Appropriations by Major Project

July 1942 to August 1945

(thousands of dollars; figures in parenthesis are negative)

Procurement

iiiu/\_/rg

Miscellaneous Photogr^hic

Maps/

Maintenance

Fuel/Oil

Equipment

1942 Jul

8,710

6,509

25.148

12,386

751

250

Aug

10,360

4,552

31,581

14,271

1,200

Sep

13,456

8,009

43,403

16,289

1,925

143

Oct

15,065

7.723

56,681

14,842

2,352

925

Nov

43,948

5,624

33,843

4,184

1,491

Dec

21,716

9,633

61,364

10,057

554

1,192

Total 1942

113,255

42,050

252,020

72,029

8,273

2,605

1943 Jan

20,508

8,993

53,843

4 223

199

Feb

20,552

7,926

41.797

4! 139

1,402

565

Mar

45,480

39,257

27,092

47,881

2,985

218

Apr

23,718

9,321

47,931

3,631

2,937

1,118

May

32,371

9,365

78,006

6,180

655

Jun

57,144

31,180

84,942

13,855

3,611

(505)

Jul

36,075

33,894

71,023

23,418

958

2,322

Aug

37,876

21,154

53.385

15.398

1,087

242

Sep

49,714

89,572

49.377

13.584

1,258

197

Oct

40,161

30,607

41.365

10.960

1,618

773

Nov

37,051

29,123

45,889

10,584

1,321

923

Dec

51,917

22,428

35,624

8,623

1,519

539

Total 1943

452,567

332,820

630,275

162,476

23,158

6,604

1944 Jan

50,591

32,499

63,145

(2.715)

1,322

836

Feb

49,724

30,984

55,566

7.463

1443

527

Mar

55,510

34,628

46.629

6,483

1,745

598

Apr

51,230

29,543

36.596

7.131

1,614

602

May

54,755

47,306

35,794

7,294

1,677

824

Jun

63,448

86,563

34,604

3,458

971

594

Jul

47,089

47,325

26,158

4,545

1,636

1,098

Aug

42,726

36,416

29,981

5,565

2,773

598

Sep

41,023

23,736

26,564

9,647

2,434

786

Oct

42,682

(28,958)

26,563

5,712

2,706

1,327

Nov

33,760

20,780

25,163

4,552

2,505

594

uec

i 7,44 J

19.998

4,584

2,882

648

Total 1944

562,202

398,265

426,751

63,719

23,408

9,032

1945 Jan

34,787

52,351

21,232

5,845

2,143

674

Feb

35,742

44,602

20,988

8,075

1,742

134

Mar

40,553

82,495

26,396

7,840

2,774

541

Apr

36,130

66,681

26,358

8,280

2,279

538

May

29,604

46,508

29,214

7,649

2,239

570

Jun

27,913

58.138

27.179

7,020

1,890

547

Jul

27,984

65.151

26.975

6,505

1,215

637

Aug

15.964

48.612

27.005

8.663

1,064

270

Total 1945

248,677

464,538

205.347

59,877

15,346

3.911

Grand Total

$1,376,701 $1,237,673 $1,514,393

$358,101

$70,185

$22,152

*Individual and organizaticnial equipment

Non- Grand

Procurement procurement Total

Other

Test

Advance*

Reqiuianents

R&D

Equipment

Payments

Total

2,422

3,051

315,622

31.967

347,589

437

2.784

2,580

510,029

36,636

546,665

22,466

4.439

3,567

519,398

42,868

562.266

3.277

4.572

1,964

564.094

40,194

604.288

959

2,733

3,667

311.307

42.485

353.793

(3.362)

5.282

901

565.034

50,682

615,716

23.772

22,232

15.730

2.785.484

244,832

3.030,316

j,j li

1 o -aon
lo.JZU

1 1 £.C

1,1

l,ooz

D,Z3 /

1,/DJ

'7CQ ylfiO

o.Uoi

O f O

OO 1 (YX

oo.lUo

29.622

4,068

169

696,324

110,959

807 28'5

33j21

5^302

889

871^602

86'496

958,098

29.785

8,665

1,553

1,461,107

150,311

1.611.418

22,749

6.393

(238)

873.449

118,729

992.178

36,481

14.497

1,139

949.047

102,426

1.051.473

30,831

9.383

467

1.003.909

105,653

1,109,562

36,870

5,192

880

976.040

114,925

1,090,965

37,562

1,142

1.018,212

107.564

1,125,776

40,468

8,152

2,020

1,071.128

98,196

1,169,324

372,120

92,368

11,827

11.711.707

1,189,107

12,900,814

il,04Z

1.UZZ.4ZU

Oft ft^O

7,0 IZ

l,3ol

yuo.ojz

M\A <>IO

1 nil oAi

101 OQO

iyi,zyz

1,Z//,ZJ /

15,070

10,286

1,112

994,208

92,016

1 086 224

6,391

6.571

1.010

986!366

94!811

1,081.177

5,072

10,047

(1.024)

887,934

91,745

979,679

1.991

8.117

877

890,357

88,365

978,722

3.436

10.584

3,485

997,826

100,785

1,098.611

5.671

8.912

4.345

893,769

94,055

987,824

6.727

9.226

3,222

350,829

891,799

78,473

970.272

3.928

7,269

1,920

157,218

864,054

92,054

956.108

7.554

1.680

330,658

803,394

83,435

886,829

158.209

106.914

21.063

708.705

11,314,744

1,111,622

12,426,366

1.956

9.486

1.407

104.416

795,746

90,355

886,101

2.575

8,155

2.078

69.638

796,159

87,440

883.599

9.649

9,394

662

(50.900)

1.007,019

98,338

1,105,357

3,160

7,830

592

(27.444)

809,526

87,114

8%,640

9,506

10,287

342

(31.831)

856,135

95.052

951.187

2,613

9,800

304

(31,862)

644,547

111,590

756,137

6.091

9,205

479

(52,688)

663,641

89314

752,955

1,021

8,625

510

(63,006)

494.609

101,467

596,076

36.571

72,782

6.374

(83,677)

6,067.382

760,670

6,828,052

$590,672

$294,296

$54,994

$625,028 $31,879,3 17

$3,306,231 $35,185,548

^Advance payments less lecoupmenls. Advance payments to contractors were charged direct^ to
individual projects prior to 1 October 1944.

Notes

Introduction

1. Tables, Army Air Forces, Management
Control, Office, Director of Statistical Control,
"Airplanes in U.S. Army Air Forces," April 29,
1942, and "U.S Army Air Forces Strength,"

April 29, 1942, Papers of Henry H. Arnold,
Library of Congress, Manuscript Division,
Official File 1932-1946, folder: AF Strength,
box 40.

Part One
Carrying the Flame
From West Point to London

Chapter 1
Spaatz's Early Career

1. Frank Freidel, Over There: The Story of
America's First Great Overseas Crusade (New
York: Bramhall House, 1964), p. 152.

2. Interview, Gen. Carl A. Spaatz by Donald
Shaughnessey, Washington, D. C, 1959-1960,
Arnold Oral History Project, Columbia
University, New York, N.Y., p. 2.

3. David R. Mets, unpublished book-length
manuscript biography of Carl A. Spaatz, pre-
pared from original sources and extensive inter-
views with Spaatz's family and acquaintances,
pp. 1-16, hereafter cited as Mets, "Spaatz
Biography." This study has the most complete
information on Spaatz's early life found any-
where. The study emphasizes Spaatz's pre-
World War II career and contains much useful
information. For the published version of this
work, see David R. Mets, Master of Airpower:
General Carl A. Spaatz (Novato, Calif.: Pre-
sidio Press for the Air Force Historical
Foundation/Aerospace Education Foundation,
1988).

4. David R. Mets, "Carl A. Spaatz: A Model
for Leadership," paper presented at the joint
American Military Institute-Air Historical
Foundation meeting. Boiling AFB, Washington,
D.C., April 1984, p. 3.

5. Ibid.

6. USMA, The Howitzer 1914 (West Point:
USMA, 1914), p. 84.

7. Walter T. Bonney, The Heritage of Kitty
Hawk (New York: W.W. Norton, 1962), p. 1 19.

8. Interview, Gen. Carl A. Spaatz by Arthur
Goldberg, May 1965, USAF Oral History
Collection, AFHRC file no. D239.0512-755,
p,2.

9. Minutes, Conference with Gen. Carl
Spaatz and the Gillem Board, October 18, 1945,
Papers of Carl A. Spaatz, Library of Congress,
Manuscript Division, Diary File. Hereafter
referred to as Spaatz Papers, Diary.

10. Interview, Spaatz by Shaughnessey,
1959-1960, p. 9.

11. Memo, Brig. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz, Chief
of the Air Staff, to Maj. James H. Higgs,
September 11, 1941, Spaatz Papers, Diary. This
memo was an offlcial biography approved by
Spaatz.

12. Entries for May 5 to November 15, 1917,

Spaatz Papers, Notebooks,

13. Maurer Maurer, ed.. The U.S. Air Service
in World War I (Washington, D.C.: AF/CHO,
GPO, 1978), p. 97. This citation is from the
Official Final Report of the Aviation Section,
completed at the end of the war and printed in
fuU in this volume.

677

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

14. Ibid.

15. Ibid.

16. Freidel, Over There, p. 153.

17. Maurer, The Air Service in World War I,
pp. 106, 112-113.

18. U.S. Army Air Service, American
Expeditionary Forces ("Gorrell History"),
Series I, vol. 9, "The Third Aviation Instruction
Center, Issoudun, France," p. 202. from micro-
film copy at the Air Force Historical Research
Center (AFHRC), Maxwell AFB, Ala. Cited in
prepublication manuscript biography of Carl A.
Spaatz by David Mets.

19. Report of the Secretary of War, 1919
(Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1919), p. 13.

20. Interview, 1st Lt. Charles R. D'Olive,
interviewer unknown, lune 16, 1969, New York,
N.Y., Columbia University Oral History
Research Office, AFHRC file no. K239.0512-
612.

21. Interview, Spaatz by Shaughnessey,
1959-1960, p. 12.

22. War Department General Order No. 123,
December 11, 1918.

23. Spaatz's Personal Notebooks, Spaatz
Papers, Notebooks. Spaatz noted that he left
Issoudun on August 30 and returned September
27.

24. Maurer, The Air Service in World War /,
vol. 3, p. 523, contains a copy of Spaatz's after-
action report.

25. Edwin I. lames, "Pershing's Airmen
All American Now," New York Times,
September 30, 1918, p. 2. The story's dateline
is September 28, 1918.

26. Msg 1-205, Mitchell to Spatz, September
26, 1918, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

27. Interview, Spaatz by Shaughnessey,
1959-1960, p. 13.

28. Dewitt S. Copp, A Few Great Captains: The
Men and Events That Shaped the Development
of U.S. Air Power (Garden City, N.Y.: Double-
day, 1980), p. 24.

29. Ibid., pp. 22-23.

30. Thomas H. Greer, The Development of
Air Doctrine in the Army Air Arm, 1917-1941,
USAF Historical Study No. 89, (Maxwell AFB,
Ala.: Air University Press, 1955), pp. 14-15.

31. Interview, Spaatz by Shaughnessey,
1959-1960, p. 24. In the interview Spaatz gives
the year of the hearings as 1917, but from the
context of his remarks he seems to be lefeiring
to the hearings of 1919.

32. Ibid., p. 13.

33. Report of the Secretary of War, Chief of
Staff's Report, 1932, pp. 64-70. This contains
an excellent discussion of the official Army

position on the promotion list.

34. Maurer Maurer, Aviation in the U.S.
Army, 1919-1939 (Washington, D.C.: AF/CHO,
GPO, 1987), pp. 52-55, 205.

35. Compiled from Reports of the Chief of
the Air Corps, 1921-1938.

36. Compiled from the Reports of the
Secretary of War, 1923-1935.

37. Annual Report of the Chief of the Air
Corps, 1930.

38. Annual Report of the Chief of the Air
Corps, 1924.

39. Ibid. In 1986, 65 percent of Air Force
officers were captains and lieutenants.

40. Numbers of reserve officers used by each
branch were compiled from the statistical sec-
tions of the Annual Reports of the Secretary of
War, 1922-1935.

41. Annual Report of the Secretary of War,
Report of the Assistant Secretary of War for
Air, 1930, p. 59.

42. Compiled from Annual Reports of the
Secretary of War, 1924-1933.

43. See, for example, the Annual Report of
the Chief of the Air Service, 1924, pp. 31-35.

44. Report of the Surgeon General of the U.S.
Army, 1937 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1937),
pp. 73-74.

45. Maurer, Aviation in the U.S. Army, p.
477. Maurer bases his figures on those submit-
ted to the Baker Board.

46. See lames P. Tate, "The Army and Its Air
Corps: A Study in the Evolution of Army Policy
Towards Aviation, 1919-1941," unpublished
Ph. D. dissertation, University of Indiana, 1976,
for a thorough discussion of the air arm's posi-
tion in the interwar years. In particular see pp.
90, 130-133, 152-156 for examples of budget
deliberations concerning the various administra-
tions' attitudes toward the military aviation bud-
get.

47. Ltr, Office, Director of Air Service to
Maj. Carl Spatz, Western Department, subj:
Commendatory Letter, December 29, 1919,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

48. Mets, "Spaatz Biography," pp. 79-81 .

49. Entry for October 26, 1919, Spaatz
Papers, Notebooks.

50. War Department Special Orders 95-0,
para. 110, April 23, 1919. The other five recipi-
ents were Brig. Gen. William Mitchell, Lt. Col.
Lewis H. Brereton, Lt. Col. John N. Reynolds,
Maj. Melvin A. Hall, and Capt. Reed M.
Chambers. Before America's entry into World
War 1, twenty-four men, including Brereton,
had earned the Military Aviator rating for pio-
neering air efforts. The National Defense Act of

678

Notes

1920, however, abohshed the rating except for
the six men who had earned it for distinguished
service in France.

51. Entry for May 10, 1925, Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

52. Copp, Great Captains, pp. 29-30.

53. Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea
Cate, eds.. The Army Air Forces in World War
11, vol. 1: Plans & Early Operations, January
1939 to August 1942 (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1948), p. 26.

54. Ltr, Adjutant General, War Department to
Maj. Carl Spatz, subj: Reprimand, August 6,
1925, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

55. Entries for October-November 1924,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

56. Alfred F. Hurley, Billy Mitchell:
Crusader for Air Power (New York: Franklin
Watts, 1964), p. 81. Mitchell had another reason
for frequent visits to Detroit — the woman who
became his second wife also lived there.

57. Ltr, Brig. Gen. William Mitchell to Maj.
Gen. Mason N. Patrick, August 3, 1922, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

58. Ltr, Mitchell to Spatz, June 1, 1923,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

59. Ltr, Spatz to Mitchell, June 24, 1923,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

60. Greer, Development of Air Doctrine, p. 9.

61. Ibid., p. 31.

62. Ibid., pp. 30-40.

63. Ibid., p. 37, citing ltr, Spatz to Chief of
the Air Service, February 7, 1922.

64. Ltr, Spatz to Capt. B. V. Baucom (Chief
of Pursuit Training), Kelly Field, Tex.,
February 6, 1923, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

65. Ltr, Spatz to 1st Lt. H. W. Cook, Air
Corps Tactical School (ACTS), Langley Field,
Va., February 13, 1923, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

66. Ltr, Spatz to Maj. L. H. Brereton, Kelly
Field. Tex., April 19, 1923, Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

67. Ltr, Spatz to Capt. B. V. Baucom, Kelly
Field, San Antonio, Tex., March 14, 1924,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

68. Entry for May 11, 1925, Spaatz Papers,

Diary.

69. Entry for June 30, 1925, Spaatz Papers,

Diary.

70. U.S. Congress, House, Select Committee
of Inquiry into Operations of the United Air
Services, Hearings, 68th Cong., 2d Sess., 1925,
part 3, p. 2246.

71. Burke Davis, The Billy Mitchell Affair
(New York: Random House, 1967), pp.
251-253.

72. Testimony of Maj. Carl Spatz, Air

Service, U.S. Army, Court-Martial of Col.
William Mitchell, November 9, 1925. pp.
382-428, Modern Military Field Branch,
National Archives and Records Administra-
tion's (NARA) Washington National Records
Center, Suitland, Md.

73. Interview, Spaatz by Shaughnessey,
1959-1960, p. 27.

74. Interview, Ruth Spaatz by James C.
Hasdorff, Washington, D. C, March 3, 1981,
USAF Oral History Collection, AFHRC file no.
K239.05 12-1266, p. 17.

75. James Parton, "Air Force Spoken Here" :
General Ira Eaker and the Command of the Air
(Bethesda, Md.: Adler & Adler, 1986), p. 71.
See pp. 68-77 of this work for a good descrip-
tion of the Question Mark episode.

76. Interview, Ruth Spaatz by Hasdorff, pp.
46-47.

77. Copp, Great Captains, p. 84.

78. Ltr, W. Ward Smith to Lt. Gen. Eaker,
April 24, 1943, Library of Congress,
Manuscript Division, Papers of Ira C. Eaker,
Correspondence, Box 6. Smith had been part of
the Question Mark ground team. In this letter to
his old friend Eaker, he used extracts of letters
written to his son during the flight to recall past
events.

79. Ltr, Adjutant General, War Department,
to Maj. Carl Spatz, subj: Distinguished Flying
Cross, March 6, 1929, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

80. Ltr, Comptroller General of the United
States to Maj. M. T. Cotnagys through Chief of
Finance, War Department, May 4, 1929, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

81. Maurer, Aviation in the U.S. Army, p.
265. Maurer's book (pp. 26(1-265) contains one
of the best overall accounts of the Question
Mark flight.

82. Ltr, Spatz to Arnold, February 5, 1935,
Spaatz Papers, Diary, Personal.

83. Mets, "Spaatz Biography," pp. 174-175.

84. See Greer, The Development of Air
Doctrine, pp. 46-47, for a discussion of the
development of these planes.

85. Ibid., pp. 58-66.

86. Ibid., p. 61.

87. For a thorough examination of the impact
of Douhet and Mitchell on the ACTS, the font
of Air Corps bomber doctrine, see the unpub-
lished Ph.D. dissertation by Raymond Richard
Flugel, "United States Air Power Doctrine: A
Study of the Influence of William Mitchell and
Giulio Douhet at the Air Corps Tactical School,
1921-1935" (University of Oklahoma, 1965).
This work shows how Douhet's thought influ-
enced Mitchell's ideas and how the ACTS,

679

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

through Mitchell, adopted them almost in toto.

88. Greer, The Development of Air Doctrine,

pp. 47-55.

89. This is a rough paraphrase of a more
detailed list found in Craven and Cate, Plans &
Early Operations, pp. 51-52.

90. John Terraine, A Time for Courage: The
Royal Air Force in the European War,
1939-1945 (New York: Macmillan, 1985), p.
13.

9 1 . Greer, The Development of Air Doctrine,
p. 60.

92. Interview, Spaatz by Shaughnessey,
1959-1960, p. 48.

93. Ibid. p. 77.

94. For a sympathetic biography of Eaker. see
Parton, "Air Force Spoken Here" : General Ira
Eaker and the Command of the Air. Parton
served as Eaker's personal aide during the war
and supplied many firsthand anecdotes.

Chapter 2
Prewar Planning

1. Entry for August 28, 1940, Battle of
Britain Diary, Spaatz Papers, Notebooks. Spaatz
kept a handwritten notebook of his experiences
and observations in Britain in the summer of
1940. All subsequent references to this portion
of Spaatz' s Diary refer to the handwritten note-
book not the retyped pages inserted in his
"Diary File."

2. Mark S. Watson, United States Army in
World War 11, subseries: The War Department,
Chief of Staff: Pre-War Plans and Preparations
(Washington, D.C.: OCMH, GPO, 1950), pp.
132-136.

3. Ibid., pp. 136-143.

4. Ibid., p. 127.

5. Ibid., p. 279.

6. Phillip S. Meilinger, "Hoyt S. Vandenberg:
The Life of a General," unpublished Ph.D. dis-
sertation. University of Michigan, 1985, pp.
42^44. Vandenberg joined the Plans Section in
April 1939 and worked closely with Spaatz
throughout the period. The two founded a solid
professional relationship that earned
Vandenberg Spaatz's support throughout the
remainder of their careers.

7. Watson, Pre-War Plans , pp. 142-143.

8. Irving Brinton Holley, Jr., United States
Army in World War II, subseries: Special
Studies, Buying Aircraft: Materiel Procurement
for the Army Air Forces (Washington, D.C.:
OCMH, 1964), pp. 200-201.

9. Ibid., pp. 180,202.

10. Craven and Cate, Plans & Early Opera-
tions,pp. 128-129.

11. Interview, Spaatz by Shaughnessey,
1959-1960, p. 44.

12. Memo, Chief, Plans Division, to Chief of
the Air Corps, March 4, 1941, Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

13. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, August 27, 1940,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

14. Msg 2132, Air Attache Washington to Air
Ministry, February 13, 1940, AIR 2/7172,
Public Records Office, Kew, Great Britain.
Hereafter referred to as PRO AIR 2/7172.

15. Minute 2, Chief of the RAF Air Staff to
Director of Plans and Director of Intelligence,
February 7, 1940, PRO AIR 2/7172. This
minute was signed by the Deputy Chief of the
Air Staff.

16. Msg 291, Lord Lothian to the Secretary
of State for Air, March 1, 1940, PRO AIR
2/7172.

17. Minute 12, Chief of the Air Staff to
Secretary of State for Air, Maixih 1 1 , 1940, PRO
AIR 2/7234.

18. Msg S.5004/r.W.l, Air Ministry (T.W.I),
to Bomber, Fighter, and Coastal Commands,
June 8, 1940, PRO AIR 2/7234. This message
applied the restrictions specifically to Spaatz's
mission. See also minute 20 (S.3871),
A.C.A.S.(T) to D.C.A.S., April 14, 1940, PRO
AIR 2/7234, which set the general disclosure
policy.

19. Memo, Brig. Gen. B. K. Yount, Assistant
Chief of the Air Corps, to Assistant Chief of
Staff, G-2, subj: Special Instructions for
Lieutenant Colonel Grandison Gardner, Air
Corps, and Major Franklin O. Carroll, Air Corps,
Designated as Assistant Military Attaches for Air
to England, AFHRC file no. 168.7016-13,
Papers of Grandison Gardner.

20. Rpt 25,712-W, Military Attache, Paris,
subj: Partial Report of Visit of Lieutenant-
Colonel Grandison Gardner and Major Franklin
O. Carroll to England, May 24, 1940, AFHRC
file no. 168.7016, AF/CHO microfilm reel A
1862.

21. Rpt A.I.I.(f), W. Grandon to Capt.
Bateman, subj: Visits of American Officers,
May II, 1940, PRO AIR 2/7172.

22. Index Listing, name index to correspon-

680

Notes

dence of the Military Intelligence Division of
the War Department General Staff, 1917-1941,
NARA, Microfilm Project Ml 194, reel 219, cit-
ing memo, G-2 to ND, May 16, 1940, MID file
no. 2610-191.

23. Ltr, Ref A.M. 2223, Col. Martin F.
Scanlon to Air Commod. A. R. Boyle, Director
of Intelligence, RAF Staff, May 17, 1940, PRO
AIR 2/7234.

24. Entries for June 1, 3, 1940, Battle of
Britain Diary, Spaatz Papers, Notebooks. After
a hiatus of sixteen years Spaatz resumed his
personal notebook/diary, presumably to refresh
his memory for subsequent reports. There is no
indication that he kept these notes from any
desire to preserve "history."

25. Entries for June 2, 3, 1940, Battle of
Britain Diary, Spaatz Papers, Notebooks.

26. Rpt S.5004, Fit. U. W.E.N. Growdon,
Report by the Escorting Officer on the Visits of
Major McDonald, Colonel Spaatz and Captain
Kelsy to Royal Air Force Units, June 24, 1940,
PRO AIR 2/7234.

27. Minute, Director of Intelligence to
Director of Plans, June 13, 1940, PRO AIR
2/7250.

28. Watson, Pre-War Plans, pp. 92-93. Capt.
Royal E. IngersoU visited London for private
and "purely exploratory" talks about naval
cooperation against Japan.

29. Ibid., pp. 106-107.

30. Richard M. Leighton and Robert W.
Coakley, United States Army in World War II,
subseries: The War Department, Global
Logistics and Strategy, 1940-1943 (Washington,
D.C.: OCMH, GPO, 1955), pp. 32-33. This
work includes a discussion on the legal twists of
the transfer and on the extent to which the equip-
ment transferred was surplus to U.S. needs.

31. J.R.M. Butler, Grand Strategy, vol. 2:
September 1939-June 1941 (London: HMSO,
1957), p. 243.

32. Minute, Director of Intelligence to
Director of Plans, June 13, 1940, PRO AIR
2/7230. See also memo, subj: Gen. Spaatz's
Visit to the Air Ministry, June 1940, n.d. [ca.
1944], Spaatz Papers, Subject File 1929-1945,
and memo, subj: Anglo-American Air
Collaboration, Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, n.d. [ca. 1944], Spaatz Papers, Subject
File 1929-1945. The Air Ministry prepared
these documents on air collaboration in response
to a request for information on Spaatz's
1944-1945 command, the U.S. Strategic Air
Forces in Europe, from the official historian, Dr.
Bruce Hopper.

33. Minute, Director of Plans (Slessor) to

Deputy Director of Plans, June 17, 1940, PRO
AIR 2/7250. Slessor postscripted this minute
with the following admonition, "This should be
kept very confidential and discussed with no
one but MacDonald personally."

34. Minute, Plans 2 [Deputy Director of
Plans] to Director of Plans, June 15, 1940, PRO
AIR 2/7250. See also memo, subj: Gen.
Spaatz's Visit to the Air Ministry, June 1940,
n.d. [ca. 1944], Spaatz Papers; Subject File
1929-1945, and memo, subj: Anglo-American
Air Collaboration, Air Ministry Air Historical
Branch, n.d. [ca. 1944], Spaatz Papers, Subject
File 1929-1945.

35. Msg 1019, Lord Lothian to Foreign
Office, PRO PREM 3/457.

36. Minute, Director of Plans to Air Staff
Directors, June 20, 1940, PRO AIR 2/7250.

37. Minutes, Foreign Minister to the Prime
Minister, June 27, 1940, PRO PREM 3/457.

38. Msgs 1331, Foreign Office to Lord
Lothian, June 30, 1940, and 1201, Lord Lothian
to the Foreign Office, July 2, 1940, PRO PREM
3/457.

39. Watson, Pre-War Plans, pp. 113-115.

40. MID correspondence name index, citing
memo, G-2 to Adjutant General, July 3, 1940,
MID file no. 2345.872. Spaatz requested an
extension in view of "expected air operations."

41. Minute 2, Wing Commander C. R. Porr,
A.I. 1(f) to Air Commod. A. R. Boyle, Director
of Intelligence, June 24, 1940, PRO AIR
2/7251.

42. Minute 3 and postscript. Director of Plans
to Vice Chief of the Air Staff, June 28, 1940,
and July 3, 1940, PRO AIR 2/7251.

43. Minute 5 (S.5185), A.C.A.S.(G), Air
Commodore Richard Peck, to A.I.l.(f), July 3,
1940, PRO AIR 2/7251.

44. Entry for July 16, 1940, Battle of Britain
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Notebooks.

45. Ibid.

46. Charles Webster and Noble Frankland,
The Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany,
1939-1945 , vol. 1: Preparation (London:
HMSO, 1961), pp. 147-150.

47. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, July 31, 1940,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

48. John Slessor, The Central Blue: The
Autobiography of Sir John Slessor, Marshal of
the Royal Air Force (New York: Frederick A.
Praeger, 1957), pp. 314—316. Slessor personally
escorted Donovan to a number of British bases.
See Corey Ford, Donovan of O.S.S. (Boston;
Little, 1970), pp. 90-94, for more on Donovan's
visit.

49. Entry for August 2, 1940, Battle of

681

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Britain Diary, Spaatz Papers, Notebooks.

50. Ltr, William Donovan to Chief of the
RAF Air Staff, Air Chief Marshal Sir Cyril
Newall, August 27, 1940, PRO AIR 8/368.

51. Ibid.

52. Report by Squadron Leader M. Tod,
Escorting Officer to Col. Carl Spaatz and Lt.
Col. F.O'D. Hunter (Assistant Air Attaches) on
a visit to No. 12 Fighter Group, August 17,
1940, PRO AIR 2/7251.

53. Rpt 41532, MA London, subj: Organi-
zation Headquarters Fighter Group, August 21,
1940, AFHRC file no. 170.2278-1, AF/CHO
microfilm reel B 1753, frames 1277-1282.

54. Lincoln Barnett, "General Spaatz,
America's No. 1 Airman in Africa," Ufe, April
19, 1943, p. 76.

55. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, July 31, 1940,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

56. Entry for August 19, 1940, Battle of
Britain Diary, Spaatz Papers, Notebooks.

57. Entry for August 27, 1940, Battle of
Britain Diary, Spaatz Papers, Notebooks.

58. Entry for July 7, 1940, Battle of Britain
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Notebooks. Spaatz noted
a "deeply rooted" jealousy between the RAF
and the British Army. He felt that the soldiers
had failed to appreciate the help given to them
by the RAF in the skies over Dunkirk and were
incensed over what they considered lack of sup-
port. As a consequence, the Army apparently
wanted more control over RAF-Army coordina-
tion aircraft. Spaatz suspected that if the British
Army had been properly equipped with antiair-
craft weapons, it might have been a different
story. Like the Air Corps, the RAF at this time
had neglected to develop effective close air sup-
port doctrine.

59. Entry for August 27, 1940, Battle of
Britain Diary, Spaatz Papers, Notebooks,

60. Entry for August 30, 1940, Battle of
Britain Diary, Spaatz Papers, Notebooks.

61. Entry for September 8, 1940, Battle of
Britain Diary, Spaatz Papers, Notebooks.

62. Drew Middleton, The Sky Suspended
(New York: Longman's Green, 1960), pp.
156-157. Four years later when Middleton
reminded Spaatz of the statement, Spaatz com-
mented, "Goes to show you that colonels are
mighty smart fellows — sometimes."

63. Entry for September 12, 1940, Battle of
Britain Diary, Spaatz Papers, Notebooks.

64. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, August 27, 1940,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

65. Slessor, The Central Blue, p. 316.

66. Craven and Cate, Plans & Early Opera-
tions, pp. 104-116. See also Watson, Pre-War

Plans, pp. 278-279.

67. Watson, Pre-War Plans, p. 289.

68. Ibid., pp. 289-290.

69. Ibid., pp. 291-293.

70. Craven and Cate, Plans & Early Opera-
tions, pp. 136-137.

71. Watson, Pre-War Plans, pp. 371-373.

72. Craven and Cate, Plans & Early Opera-
tions, p. 137.

73. Ibid., p. 138.

74. Watson, Pre-War Plans, pp. 379-382.

75. Memo, Brig. Gen. Carl Spaatz to Chief of
the Air Corps, March 4, 1941, Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

76. Memo, Chief of Air Corps to Chief of
Staff, March [3-5], 1941, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

77. Watson, Pre-War Plans, pp. 382-383.

78. See the complete text of the President's
letter given in Joint Board Document No. 355
(Serial 707), subj: Joint Board Estimate of
United States Overall Production Requirements,
pp. 1-2, AFHRC file no. 145.81-23.

79. Memo to the Chief of the Air Staff, subj:
Notes on Preparation of AWPD/1, November
19, 1941 , Spaatz Papers, Diary.

80. Copy of AWPD/1, Spaatz Papers, Subject
File 1929-1945.

81. I. B. HoUey, Jr., "Of Saber Charges,
Escort Fighters, and Spacecraft," Air University
Review XXXIV, No. 6 (September-October
1983): 9.

82. Memo, Chief of Plans Division to Execu-
tive, subj: Disapproval of Change Order, March
10, 1941, AFHRC file no. 145.91-506, January
1937-September 1941, Pursuit Aircraft,
AF/CHO reel A 1422, frames 1586-1587. At
some point in the preparation or publication of
HoUey's article, the reel frame numbers were
misprinted 1386-1387.

83. For a discussion of the relationship
between a change order and procurement see
Benjamin S. Kelsey, The Dragon's Teeth
(Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 1982), pp. 119-122.

84. Memo, Major Vandenberg to General
Spaatz, subj: Disapproval of Change Order,
March 4, 1941, AFHRC file no. 145.91-506,
AF/CHO microfilm reel A 1422, frame 1588.

85. Ibid.

86. Bernard Boylan, Development of the
Long-Range Escort Fighter, USAF Historical
Study No. 136 (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air
University, 1956), pp. 50-53.

87. AWPD/1, tab 4, AFHRC file no. 145.81-
23. James Lea Cate, "The Air Corps Prepares
for War, 1939-1941," chapter 4 in Craven and
Cate, Plans & Early Operations, pp. 148-149,

682

Notes

presents AWPD/1 's escort recommendations in
very favorable light. If one did not know that
the escort fighter called for in the plan was in
reality a convoy defender, one would probably
receive the impression, from Cate, that the
framers of AWPD/1 had accurately foreseen the
consequences of the AAF's lack of suitable
escorts and had suggested the proper remedy.

88. Memo, Maj. Gen. Henry H. Arnold,
Chief of the Air Corps, to Col. Ira C. Eaker,
subj: Additional Instructions on Trip to
England, August 22, 194], AFllRC file no.
168.04-6, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 1593,
frame 570. In this memo Arnold indicated his
intention to call a board to "critically analyze
the whole pursuit picture."

89. Memo, Arnold to Eaker, subj: Letter of
Instructions, August 20, 1941, AFHRC file no.
168.04-6 AF/CHO microfilm reel A 1593,
frame 571.

90. Memo, Arnold to Eaker, subj: Additional
Instructions on Trip to England, August 22,
1941, AFHRC file no. 168.04-6 AF/CHO
microfilm reel A 1593, frame 570.

91. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Ojfensive. vol. 1, pp. 236-239.

92. Ibid., p. 239, citing memo, Portal to
Churchill, May 27, 1941.

93. Rpt, Col. Ira C. Eaker to Chief of the Army
Air Forces, subj: Report on Trip to England, n.d.

[Mid-October 1941], Section HI, Fighter
Development for the Future, p. 24, AFHRC file
no. 168.04-6, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 1593.
The itinerary of Eaker's trip, included in his
final report, places his conversation with Portal
on September 28.

94. Ibid., p. 23.

95. Report of a Board of Officers, Appointed
to Make Recommendations with Respect to the
Future Development of Pursuit Aircraft, Its
Accessory Equipment and Operational Employ-
ment, to the Chief of the Army Air Forces,
Washington, D.C., October 27, 1941, pp. 18,
46, AFHRC file no. 168.15-5, AF/CHO micro-
film reel A 161 1, frames 324 and 358.

96. Ibid., p. 16.

97. Ibid., pp. 46-47, 49.

98. Ltr. Spaatz to Arnold, November 7, 1933,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

99. F. G. Swanborough, United States
Military Aircraft Since 1909 (New York:
Putnam, 1963), pp. 360-367.

100. U.S. War Department, Office of
Statistical Control, Army Air Forces Statistical
Digest, World War II (Washington, D.C.: GPO,
1945), table 82, p. 134.

101. See Kekey , Dragon' s Teeth, pp. 110-112,
for a discussion of how Air Corps procurement
policy in the 1930s may have encouraged "con-
servative" designs.

Chapter 3

Spaatz Commands the Eighth Air Force

1. Beirne Lay, Jr., and Sy Bartlett, Twelve
O'clock High! (New York: Ballantine Books,
1965), p. 64. Both Lay and Bartlett were in
England with the Eighth Air Force in late
1942 — Bartlett, a Hollywood screen writer, as
one of Spaatz's personal aides, and Lay as unof-
ficial historian and public relations man.
"Pritchard" was an amalgam of Spaatz and
Eaker, although in this case he seems mostly
Spaatz. Spaatz would never have uttered the
words placed in Pritchard's mouth, but it was
not unlikely that he thought them.

2. Dewitt S. Copp, Forged in Fire: The
Strategy and Decisions in the Air War Over
Europe, 1940-1945 (Garden City: Doubleday
&Co., 1982), p. 200.

3. Ltr, Spaatz to Maj. Gen. B. D. Foulois,
February 29, 1932, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

4. Notes, [Air Staff] Staff Meeting,
December 7, 1941, AFHRC file no. 168.15,
AF/CHO microfilm reel A 1611, frame 170.

5. Interview, Gen. Lauris Norstad by Hugh
N. Ahmann, February-October 1979, USAF
Oral History Collection, AFHRC file no.
K239.0512-I116,pp. 501-502.

6. Maurice Matloff and Edwin M. Snell,
United States Army in World War II, subseries:
The War Department, Strategic Planning for
Coalition Warfare, 1941-1942 (Washington,
D.C.: OCMH, GPO, 1953), pp. 114-119.

7. Ibid., pp. 102-105.

8. Ibid., pp. 175-176.

9. Alfred D. Chandler, The Papers of Dwight
David Eisenhower: The War Years (Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins Press, 1970) vol. 1, memo to the
Chief of Staff, February 1942, item 160, pp.
145-148; and memo to the Chief of Staff,
Febniary 28, 1942, item 162, pp. 149-155. Item
160 did not have a complete date. The editors
place it after February 16, the date Eisenhower
assumed the post of Chief of the War Plans
Division.

683

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

10. Ray S. Cline, United States Army in
World War II, subseries: The War Department,
Washington Command Post: The Operations
Division (Washington, D.C.: OCMH, GPO,
1951), pp. 154-155.

11. Ibid., pp. 156-157.

12. D.O. (42) 10th Meeting, War Cabinet
Minutes, Defense Committee (Operations),
Meeting of 10:00 p.m. 14th April 1942, minute
recorded on April 15, 1942, PRO PREM
3/333/6. This minute contains the views of
Marshall, Hopkins, Churchill, and the British
Chiefs of Staff

13. Cline, Washington Command Post, p.
151.

14. Warren F. Kimball, ed., Churchill and
Roosevelt: The Complete Correspondence, vol.
1: Alliance Emerging (Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press, 1984), p. 393.

15. Wesley F. Craven and James L. Cate, The
Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 2:
Europe: Torch to Pointblank, August 1942 to
December 1943 (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1949), p. 29.

16. Memoirs of Richard D'O. Hughes, chap.
8 "1941-1945," pp. 13-16. Unpublished
manuscript memoirs in the possession of
Professor W.W. Rostow, University of Texas at
Austin.

17. Entry for May 10, 1942, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

18. Ibid.

19. Entry for May 14, 1942, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

20. Ibid.

21. Ibid.

22. Entry for May 15, 1942, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

23. Entry for May 16, 1942, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

24. Ibid.

25. Craven and Cate, Plans & Early Opera-
tions, pp. 623-624.

26. Ibid., p. 624.

27. For the ability of the British to read
Luftwaffe codes, see F. W. Winterbotham, The
Ultra Secret (New York: Dell, 1982), pp. 67-86.

28. Williamson Murray, Strategy for Defeat:
The Luftwaffe, 1933-1945 (Maxwell AFB, Ala.:
Air University Press, 1983), pp. 134, 138. On p.
134 Murray notes that in September 1942,
German night defenses had 345 aircraft assigned.
On p. 138 he gives the combat strength of the
Luftwaffe at 4,942 aircraft. British Air Ministry,
The Rise and Fall of the German Air Force,
1933-1945, (New York: St. Martin's Press,
1983), p. 209, gives a first-line strength of 3,960

on December 31, 1942, of which 1,755 were
single- or twin-engine fighters. This work was
compiled from British Intelligence sources and
immediate postwar investigations.

29. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 1, p. 490.

30. Entry for May 21, 1942, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

31. Entry for May 22, 1942, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

32. Ibid. This is probably a reference to a let-
ter from Eaker to Col. Asa N. Duncan, [Chief of
Staff, 8th Air Force], May 10, 1942, AFHRC
File: Brig. Gen. Baker's Miscellaneous Papers.
Eaker discusses the problems involved in basing
U.S. fighter units.

33. British Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, RAF Narrative, "Anglo-American
Collaboration in the Air War over North West
Europe," p. 53.

34. Ibid., p. 80.

35. Ibid., p. 131.

36. Ltr, Eaker to Duncan, May 10, 1942,
AFHRC File: Brig. Gen. Eaker' s Miscellaneous

Papers.

37. Msg W.799, Air Ministry Whitehall
(Slessor) to RAFDEL (Evill) Washington, D.C.,
May 9, 1942, PRO AIR 8/1052; and msg
WX-2893, RAFDEL (Evill) to Air Ministry
Whitehall (Slessor), May 11, 1942, PRO AIR
8/1052.

38. British Air Ministry, Air Hisorical Branch,
RAF Narrative, "Anglo-American Collabora-
tion," pp. 135-136.

39. Ibid., pp. 149-150.

40. Entries for May 23-26, 1942, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

41. Entries for May 29-31, 1942, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

42. Entries for May 31, June 1, 1942, Com-
mand Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

43. Entry for June 1, 1942, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

44. Entry for June 11, 1942, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

45. Entries for June 12-18, 1942, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

46. Entry for June 19, 1942, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

47. Entry for June 20, 1942, Conunand Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

48. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, July 5, 1942,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

49. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1975), p. 33.

50. Entry for June 23, 1942, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

684

Notes

51. Ibid., entries for June 24 and 25, 1942.

52. Craven and Cate, Plans & Early Opera-
lions, p. 628.

53. Ibid.

54. Ibid.

55. British Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, RAF Narrative, "The RAF in the
Bombing Offensive Against Germany," vol. 4:
"A Period of Expansion and Experiment, March
1942-January 1943," p. 337.

56. Ltr, Arnold to Maj. Gen. D. D. Eisen-
hower, Commanding General, ETO, June 22,
1942, Arnold Papers, Letters to Commanders in
the Field, box 38. Arnold apparently gave Spaatz
verbal instructions, saving the detailed policy for
Eisenhower who, as theater commander, was
ultimately responsible for it.

57. Entry for June 22, 1942, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

58. Entry for June 23, 1942, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

59. Ibid.

60. Entry for July 15, 1942, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

61. Entry for October 22, 1942, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

62. John MacCormac, "British-U.S. Rift on
Planes Holding Up Air Offensive," New York
Times, August 8, 1942.

63. Raymond Daniell, "Joint Attack on
Germany Near," New York Times, August 11,
1942.

64. Craven and Gate, Plans & Early Opera-
tions, p. 657.

65. Entries for August 11, 13, 18, 19, 21,
1942, Command Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

66. Ibid.

67. British Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, RAF Narrative, "Anglo-American
Cooperation," pp. 161-162.

68. See entry for August 20, 1942, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary, for Spaatz's draft.
See Craven and Cate, Plans & Early Opera-
tions, pp. 608-61 1, for final text and discussion.

69. British Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, RAF Narrative, "The RAF in the
Bombing Offensive Against Germany," vol. 4:
"A Period of Expansion and Experiment, March
1942-January 1943," p. 337.

70. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 1, pp. 358-359.

71. Copp, Forged in Fire, p. 259.

72. Entry for July 11, 1942, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

73. Entry for June 26, 1942, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

74. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 1,

item 354; ltr, Eisenhower to Arnold, June 26,
1942, pp. 362-363.

75. Interview, Gen. Carl A. Spaatz by Bruce
C. Hopper, London, England, June 27, 1945,
Spaatz Papers, Subject File 1929-1945, p. 4.

76. Entry for June 26, 1942, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

77. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 1, pp. 403-404.

78. British Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, RAF Narrative, "The RAF in the
Bombing Offensive Against Germany," vol. 3:
"Area Bombing and the Makeshift Force, June
1941-February 1942,"

79. Charles Webster and Noble Frankland,
The Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany
1939-1945, vol. 4: Annexes and Appendices
(London: HMSO, 1961), pp. 4-6.

80. Ibid., pp. 135-140 and 143-147.

8 1 . Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 1, pp. 178-180 and 247-248.
For a more caustic description of the reports see
Max Hastings, Bomber Command: The Myths
and Reality of the Strategic Bombing Offensive,
1939-1945 (New York: Dial, 1979), pp. 108-1 10.

82. Terraine, A Time for Courage, p. 468. For
a negative judgment of Harris, see Charles
Messenger, "Bomber" Harris and the Strategic
Bombing Offensive, 1939-1945 (New York: St.
Martin's Press, 1984).

83. Hastings, Bomber Command, p. 135.

84. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 1, pp. 340, 464.

85. Craven and Cate, Plans & Early Opera-
tions, p. 655.

86. Memo, HQ VIII Bomber Command to
Commanding Officer, 1st Provisional Wing,
subj: Inferior Performance, August 2, 1942,
Eaker Papers, box 1 .

87. Ltrs. Arnold to Spaatz, July 16, August 9,
1942, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

88. "Air Battle Feats Praised by Arnold,"
New York Times, August 16, 1942, pp. 1, 37.

89. Memo, Air Staff Bomber Operations to
DDAT, January 6, 1942, PRO AIR 20/4808.

90. Peter Masefield, "America's Share in Air
Offensive: Pooling Men and Machines,"
Sunday Times, August 16, 1942, p. 5.

91. Eaker, Diary Notes, August 2, 1942, part
1: February 4, 1942-July 31, 1944, Eaker
Papers, box 1. At this time Spaatz and Eaker
agreed that as a matter of policy no observers
would be allowed to ride on bomber missions
unless qualified as gunners. Eaker further noted
that Spaatz, in fact, intended to visit the 97th
Bomb Heavy Group in order to get some gun-
nery practice.

685

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

92. Eaker, Diary Notes, August 5, 1942,
Eaker Papers, box 1.

93. Ronald Lewin, Ultra Goes to War: The
First Account of World War It's Greatest Secret
Based on Official Documents (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1978), p. 240.

94. Copp, Forged in Fire, p. 286.

95. Hughes, "Memoirs," chap. 8, p. 24.

96. Craven and Cate, Plans & Early Opera-
tions, p. 662.

97. Memo, Arnold to Roosevelt, subj: Reply
to Peter Masefield's Criticism of Flying
Fortresses and Liberators, August 19, 1942,
Arnold Papers, box 45.

98. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, August 19, 1942,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

99. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, n.d. [August 21,
1942], Arnold Papers, box 49.

100. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, August 21, 1942,
Spaatz Papers, Diary. This letter was written
before Spaatz learned of the results of the fourth
raid.

101. Llrs, Arnold to Spaatz, July 30, August
9, 1942, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

102. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, August 11. 1942,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

103. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, August 14, 1942,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

104. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, September 2,
1942, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

105. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, September 15,
1942, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

106. Ibid., Spaatz's diary lists several
evenings spent with correspondents and gives
details of the plane crash.

107. Entry for August 20, 1942, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary. See also Chandler,
Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 1, item 440, msg
1324, Eisenhower to Marshall, August 20,
1942, pp. 483^84.

108. All statistics are compiled from Roger
A. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary (Lon-
don: Jane's Publishing Inc., 1981), pp. 9-27.

109. AAF Statistical Digest, World War II,
table 89, p. 157.

110. Msg AGWAR R-2408, Arnold to
Spaatz, October 25, 1942, Spaatz Papers, Eighth
Air Force File.

111. United States Strategic Bombing Survey
(USSBS), Military Analysis Division, Weather
Factors in Combat Bombardment Operations in
the European Theater (Washington, D.C.: GPO,
January 1947), voL 62, p. 2.

112. Memo, Eighth Air Force Bomber
Command to CG, Eighth Air Force, subj:
Accuracy of Bombardment — 4 Missions,
August 27, 1942, Eaker Papers, box 1.

113. Memo, CG, Eighth Air Force Bomber
Command, to CG, Eighth Air Force, subj: Night
Bombing, October 8, 1942. Eaker Papers, box
1.

1 14. Ltr, CG, Eighth Bomber Command, to
CG, AAF, October 20, 1942, Eaker Papers, box
1.

115. Interview, Brig. Gen. Alfred R. Maxwell
by Bruce C. Hopper, London, England, June 22,
1945, Spaatz Papers, Subject File 1929-1945,
pp. 21-22.

116. Ibid., p. 22.

117. Ibid; interview, Spaatz by Hopper, June
27, 1945, p. 7.

118. Ibid., p. 8.

1 19. Interview, Gen. Laurence S. Kuter by
Thomas A. Sturm and Hugh N. Ahmann,
September 30-October 3. 1974, USAF Oral His-
tory Collection, AFHRC file no. K239.0512-810,
p. 284. For a physical description of Park House
and an account of a typical evening there, see
Maj. Gen. L. S. Kuter, "Notes on Trip to
England, France, and Italy, May 28-June 21,
1944," n.d. [summer 1944], pp. 3-5, AFHRC
file no. K105.5-175.

120. Wayne Thompson, ed.. Air Leadership:
Proceedings of a Conference at Boiling Air
Force Base, April 13-14, 1984 (Washington,
D.C.: AF/CHO, GPO, 1986), p. 42.

121. Robert H. Ferrell. ed.. The Eisenhower
Diaries (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981), pp.
94-95, entry for June 1 1 . 1943.

122. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World
War. vol. 4: The Hinge of Fate (Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1950), pp. 432-433.

123. Matloff and Snell, Strategic Planning
for Coalition Warfare, 1941-1942, p. 276.

124. Ibid., p. 273.

125. Ibid., p. 278.

126. Entry for July 19, 1942, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary. A complete draft
of Spaatz's "Air Plan to Support the Attack and
Occupation of Cherbourg Peninsula" can be
found in his Diary file.

127. Entry for July 21, 1942, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

128. COS(42) 75th Meeting (O), July 18,
1942, Minutes, July 20, 1942, PRO PREM
3/333/9.

129. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, July 30, 1942,

Spaatz Papers, Diary.

130. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, August II, 1942,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

131. Ibid.

132. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol.1,
item 425, msg 1127, Eisenhower to Marshall,
August 13, 1942, pp. 464-^65.

686

Notes

133. Craven and Gate, Torch to Pointblank,
p. 52.

134. Ibid.

135. Ibid., p. 21, citing Minutes, CO, Eighth
Air Force Commanders' Meeting, November
10, 1942.

136. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 1,
p. 550, note I.

137. Ibid.

138. Msg, Arnold to Eisenhower, September
10, 1942, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

139. Draft msg, September 10, 1942, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

140. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 1,
item 492, msg 2028, Eisenhower to Marshall,
September 10, 1942, p. 550.

141. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, August 21, 1942,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

142. Ur, Spaatz to Arnold, August 24, 1942,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

143. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, July 30, 1942;
Itrs, Spaatz to Arnold, August 24, 27, 1942,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

144. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank,
p. 277, citing memo from the President to
Marshall.

145. Entry for August 26, 1945, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

146. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, August 27, 1942,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

147. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, September 3,
1942, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

148. Memo, Arnold to Hopkins, subj: Plans
for Operation Against the Enemy, September 3,
1942, Arnold Papers, box 43.

149. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank,
pp. 277-279.

150. Ibid., p. 290.

151. Ibid., pp. 290-295.

152. Ltr, Stratemeyer [AAF Chief of Staff) to
Spaatz, August 25, 1942, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

153. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 1,
item 485, msg 1812, Eisenhower to Marshall,
September 5, 1942, pp. 543-544.

154. Ibid., p. 544, text given in note to item

485.

155. Memo, Eisenhower to Spaatz, October
13, 1942, Spaatz Papers, Diary. See also
Command Diary, entry for September 25 , 1 942.

156. Entry for October 15, 1942, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

157. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, September 3,
1942, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

158. Ltr, Stratemeyer to Spaatz, September
17, 1942, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

159. Ltr, Spaatz to Stratemeyer, September
25, 1942, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

160. See Craven and Cate, Torch to
Pointblank, pp. 633-634, for a brief discussion
on this problem.

161. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 1,
item 530, pp. 587-589, msg 2867, Eisenhower
to Marshall, September 29, 1942, pp. 587-589.
This cable is a substantial revision of a draft
cable given to Eisenhower by Spaatz.
Eisenhower's support of AWPD/42 was hardly
the ringing endorsement the AAF would have
liked him to accept. Apparently Spaatz's draft
came directly from Arnold; Spaatz's diary con-
tains a copy of the draft.

162. Ibid., item 538, ltr, Eisenhower to
Marshall, October 7, 1942, pp. 598-601.

163. Digest of a conversation between
General Eisenhower and General Spaatz,
WiDEWiNGS, October 29, 1942, Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

164. Ibid.

165. Ltr. Stratemeyer to Spaatz, November
13, 1942, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

166. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, November 15,
1 942, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

167. Ltr, Arnold to Eisenhower, November
15, 1942, cited in "Notes and Extracts from
Spaatz Diaries — 1942," Spaatz Papers,
USSTAF File.

168. Ltr, Stratemeyer to Spaatz, November
20, 1942, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

169. Entry for November 23, 1942, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

170. Ibid.

687

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Part Two
Tempering the Blade
The North African Campaign

Chapter 4
The Race for T\inisia

1. British Aii Ministry, Air Historical Branch,
RAF Narrative, "The North African Campaign,
November 1942-May 1943," p. 202.

2. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, p.
54, citing October 30, 1942, meeting between
Doolittle and Spaatz.

3. James L. Cash, "The Employment of Air
Power in the North African Campaign,"
October 9, 1951, p. 80, AFHRC file no.
K612. 549-1, citing General of the Army
Dwight D. Eisenhower's Report to the CCS on
Operations in the Mediterranean Area, 1942-
1944 (part 1, Northwest African Campaign,
1942-43), pp. 54-55. Cash's work consists of a
compilation of extracts of key docimients from
the campaign.

4. Ibid.

5. Memo, Air Plan to Support the Attack and
Occupation of Cherbourg Peninsula, n.d. [ca.
July 19, 1942], Spaatz Papers, Diary.

6. George F. Howe, United States Army in
World War 11, subseries: The Mediterranean
Theater of Operations, Northwest Africa:
Seizing the Initiative in the West (Washington,
D.C.: OCMH, GPO, 1957), pp. 36-37. The
three invasion force commanders reported
directly to Eisenhower. No overall ground com-
mander existed.

7. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, p.
54.

8. Interview, Lt. Gen. James H. Doolittle by
Lt. Col. Robert M. Burch, Maj. Ronald R.
Fogelman, and Capt. James P. Tate, September
26, 1970, USAF Oral History Collection,
AFHRC file no. K239.0512-0793, p. 49.

9. Doolittle badly needs a good biography.
The current works on him range in quality from
execrable to acceptable. The most useful biogra-
phy is Lowell Thomas and Edward Jablonski,
Doolittle: A Biography (Garden City, N.Y.:
Doubleday, 1976). Also see, Quentin Reynolds,
The Amazing Mr. Doolittle (New York:
Appleton-Century-Cross, 1953); and Carroll V.
Glines, Jimmy Doolittle, Daredevil Aviator and
Scientist (Nev/ York: Macmillan, 1972).

10. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Crusade in

Europe (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1948),
p. 122. In the same paragraph Eisenhower noted
that Doolittle later "became one of our really
fine commanders."

11. Interview, Doolittle by Buich, Fogelman,
and Tate, September 26, 1970, pp. 42-43.

12. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, p.
51.

13. Msgs 2161, Eisenhower to Marshall,
September 13, 1942, and 2181, Eisenhower to
Marshall, September 14, 1942, Eisenhower Pre-
Presidential Papers, Eisenhower Presidential
Library, Abilene, Kan.

14. Msg, Marshall to Eisenhower, September
14, 1942, Verifax 240.7, item 2535, Papers of
George C. Marshall, George C. Marshall
Foundation, Lexington, Va. This is Marshall's
hand-written draft; the official cable can be
located in the National Archives as item no.
744, CM-OUT 4695, September 14, 1942, OPD
TS Message File.

15. Msg, Marshall to Eisenhower, September
26, 1942, Marshall Papers, folder 43, box 66.
This message bears Marshall's hand- written and
initialed note, "Not used Gen Clarke will take
by hand. GCM."

16. Richard M. Leighton and Robert W.
Coakley, United States Army in World War II,
subseries: The War Department, Global Logistics
and Strategy, 1940-1943 (Washington, D.C.:
OCMH, GPO, 1954), pp. 437-^38.

17. Air Marshal William Welsh, "Report on
Operation 'Torch'," n.d. [early 1943], para. 30,
p. 9. PRO AIR 2/8805. This report covers
Welsh's entire term as commander of the EAC
and should be used with care, as it does not
mention many RAF errors while being critical
of the Americans and the British army.

18. Rpt, "Operation 'Torch' — Lessons
Learnt, Report of Investigation Carried Out in
North Africa by Wing Commander Broad,"
February 19, 1943, PRO AIR 20/4521.

19. Arthur Tedder, With Prejudice: The War
Memoirs of Marshal of the Royal Air Force
Lord Tedder (Boston: Little, Brown, 1966), p.
381.

688

Notes

20. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointhlank, p.
127.

21. WDTR 440-15, Fundamental Principles
for the Employment of the Air Service, Jatiuary
26, 1926, sec. 1, vol. 1, paras. 3 and 4a.

22. Ibid., sec. 4, para. 16g.

23. WDTR 440-15, Employment of the Air
Forces of the Army, October 15, 1935, sec. 3,
para. 6f

24. Robert Frank Futrcll, Ideas, Concepts,
Doctrine: A History of Basic Thinking in the
United States Air Force, 1907-1964 (Maxwell
AFB, Ala.: Air University, 1971), pp. 49-51.

25. WDFM 1-5, Employment of Aviation of
the Army, April 15, 1940, sec. 2, para. 18b.

26. Ibid., sec. 4, paras. 26a & b.

27. Memo, Arnold to Spaatz, subj: Lack of
Coordination between Ground and Air in the
Carolinas and Louisiana Maneuvers, November
28, 1941, Arnold Papers, folder: Maneuvers,
box 44.

28. Ibid.

29. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointhlank, p.
137.

30. FM 31-35, "Aviation in Support of
Ground Forces," April 9, 1942, chap. 2, sec. 1,
para. 6.

31. Ibid.

32. Ibid, chap. 2, sec. 1, para. 10.

33. Ibid, chap. 2, sec. 3, para. 31. See Craven
and Cate, Torch to Pointhlank, p. 137.

34. Futrell, Ideas, Concepts, Doctrine, p. 66.

35. Kent Roberts Greenfield, Army Ground
Forces and the Air-Ground Battle Team:
Including Light Aviation, Historical Study No.
35 (Ft. Monroe, Va.: Air Ground Forces, 1948),
pp. 11-12.

36. Memo, Marshall to Arnold, July 10,
1942, and memo, Arnold to Marshall, subj: Air-
Ground Support of Armored Forces, July 20,
1942, Arnold Papers, folder: Support of
Armored Forces, box 42.

37. Ltrs, Devers to Arnold, September 5,
1942, Arnold to Devers, September 23, 1942.
Arnold Papers, folder: Support of Armored
Forces, box 42.

38. Ltr, McNair to Arnold, December 30,

1942, Arnold Papers, folder: Air-Ground
Support, box 42.

39. "Talk by Air Vice Marshal Sir A.
Coningham, to Assembled British and American
General and Senior Officers at the End of the
Second Day of the Army Exercise," February 16,

1943, paras. 6-7.

40. British Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, RAF Narrative, "The North African
Campaign," p. 202.

41. LS.O. Playfair and C.J.C. Molony, The
Mediterranean and the Middle East, vol. 4: The
Destruction of the Axis Forces in Africa
(London: HMSO, 1966), p. 182. See also Lt.
Gen. Anderson's dispatch, "Operations in North
West Africa from 8th November 1942 to 13th
May 1943," Supplement to the London Gazette,
November 5, 1946, p. 5454. Anderson com-
pleted the dispatch on June 7, 1943, but the War
Office did not publish it until after the war. A
note to the dispatch added by the War Office
admits the scarcity of light antiaircraft weapons.

42. British Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, RAF Narrative, "The North African
Campaign," pp. 202-204.

43. Welsh, "Operation Torch," paras. 61-62,
pp. 21-22. See also, ltr, JR/145 Air Marshal Sir
James Robb to Air Commodore T. N. McEvoy,
Air Ministry, July 22, 1946, Papers of James
Robb, RAF Museum, Hendon, England.

44. Howe, Northwest Africa, pp. 278-279,
292. See also Anderson, dispatch, p. 5452.

45. Ltr, AC/1623/Org., Air Commodore in
Charge of Administration, EAC, to Col. Zane,
Twelfth Air Force, subj: Maintenance of Air
Forces in the Forward Area, December 8, 1942,
PRO AIR 23/6561.

46. Welsh, "Operation Torch," p. 27. Tedder,
With Prejudice, p. 370 says that Eisenhower
assured him that the forward AAF units were
under Welsh's "operational control," but this
seems to overstate the strength of Welsh's posi-
tion.

47. Howe, Northwest Africa, p. 294; Playfair,
The Destruction of the Axis Forces in Africa, p.
183.

48. Playfair, The Destruction of the Axis
Forces in Africa, p. 171; F. H. Hinsley, British
Intelligence in the Second World War: Its
Influence on Strategy and Operations, vol. 2
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983),
vol. 2 pp. 487^88.

49. Anderson, dispatch, p. 5454. At this point
in the dispatch the War Office weakened
Anderson's excuses by noting, "By the stan-
dards of later campaigns this enemy air activity
was not on a serious scale. Its moral effect at
the time, however, was increased by the inexpe-
rience of the troops and by the scarcity of light
A.A. weapons."

50. British Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, RAF Narrative, "The North African
Campaign," p. 76.

51. Ltr, JR/145, Air Marshal Robb to Air
Commodore McEvoy, July 22, 1946, Robb
Papers.

52. Telephone msg, Eisenhower to Spaatz,

689

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

November 13, 1942, SpaaK Papers, Diary.

53. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 2, pp.
465-466, 487^89.

54. Ibid,, pp. 489-490

55. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, November 23,
1942, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

56. Ibid.

57. Chandler, Eisenhower's Papers, vol. 2,
ltr, Eisenhower to Arnold, November 21, 1942,
item 654, pp. 750-752.

58. Msg, Spaatz to Arnold, November 24,
1942, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

59. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 2,
item 684, Msg, Eisenhower to Gen. H. L.
Ismay, December 3, 1942, pp. 790-791.

60. Ltr, Spaatz to Stratemeyer, December 9,
1942, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

61. Entry for December 2, 1942, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

62. Ibid. See also Craven and Cate, Torch to
Pointhlanic, p. 108.

63. Entry for December 2, 1942, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

64. Entry for December 3, 1942, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary,

65. Rpt, "Notes on Decision.? Taken as Result
of Policy Laid Down at Commander in Chief's
Conference, 3rd December 1942," PRO AIR
23/6558.

66. Meeting of [AFHQ] Air Staff, December
8, 1942, Spaatz Papers, Diary. See also
Winterbotham, The Ultra Secret, p. 146. For
McDonald's transfer, see ltr, Spaatz to Eaker,
December 9, 1942, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

67. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 2,
item 685, Msg, Eisenhower to Combined Chiefs
of Staff, December 3, 1942, pp. 791-793.

68. British Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, RAF Narrative, "The North African
Campaign," p. 77, cites Command Post 1st
Army Situation Report on December 3, dated
December 4, 1942.

69. Ibid.

70. Alfred M. Beck, Abe Bortz, Charles W.
Lynch, Lida Mayo, and Ralph F. Weld, United
States Army in World War II, subseries: The
Technical Services, The Corps of Engineers:
The War Against Germany CWashington, D.C.:
CMH, GPO, 1985), p. 86. '

71. Ibid., p. 87.

72. Entries for December 3-23, 1942,
Command Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

73. British Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, RAF Narrative, "The North African
Campaign," p. 82.

74. Howe, Northwest Africa, appendix B,
table 9, p. 682.

75. Playfair, The Destruction of the Axis
Forces in Africa, citing the Italian official naval
historian, p. 210.

76. Ibid.

77. Ibid., p. 190.

78. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, p.

108.

79. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 2,
item 705, Memo for the record dictated by
Eisenhower to Capt. Harry Butcher, December
10, 1942, pp. 823-825. This memo appears in a
truncated version in Harry C. Butcher, My
Three Years with Eisenhower: The Personal
Diary of Harry C. Butcher, USNR Naval Aide to
General Eisenhower, 1942-1945, (New York:
Simon and Schuster, 1946), p. 220. See Tedder,
With Prejudice, pp. 372-373, for Tedder's
description of events.

80. See Tedder, With Prejudice, for Tedder's
early career.

8 1 . Arthur Tedder, "Air, Land and Sea War-
fare," Royal United Services Institute Journal
XCI (February 1946), p. 64.

82. Tedder, With Prejudice, pp. 380-383.

83. Ibid., p. 382,

84. Memo, Brig. Gen. H. A. Craig to CINC,
AFHQ [Eisenhower], December 23, 1942,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

85. Sir Arthur Coningham, "The Develop-
ment of Tactical Air Forces," a lecture delivered
on February 20, 1946, Royal United Services
Institute Journal XCI (May 1946), p. 213.

86. Shelford Bidwell and Dominick Graham,
Firepower: British Army Weapons and Theories
of War. 1904-1945 (London: George Allen &
Unwin, 1982), p. 275.

87. Ibid., p. 263

88. Ibid., p. 264

89. Ibid., pp. 264-265.

90. l.S.O. Playfair, F, C. Flynn, C.J.C.
Molony, and S. E. Toomer, The Mediterranean
and Middle East, 11: The Germans Come to the
Help of Their Ally (1941) (London: HMSO,
1956), pp. 294-295. This work supplied the
chronology for Coningham's efforts after his
assumption of command.

91. Ibid,, pp. 268-269.

92. Speech, Coningham to Senior Officers,
Tripoli, February 16, 1943, PRO AIR 20/5533.

93. "Report on Visit of Air Marshal Sir
Trafford Leigh-Mallory to North West Africa,
March/April, 1943," April 1943, part 2, pp. 4,
6-7, paras. 21-22 and 34-44, PRO AIR
20/4521. Leigh-Mallory 's sole purpose in visit-
ing North Africa was to examine the tactical air
command and control arrangements and their
applicability to the cross-channel invasion. His

690

Notes

exposition of the scheme he found in operation
in the WDAF should be considered authorita-
tive.

94. Coningham, "The Development of
Tactical Air Forces," p. 215.

95. Chandler, Eisenhower's Papers, vol. 2,
item 743, Msg 3486, Eisenhower to Marshall,
December 29, 1942, p. 874.

96. Ibid.

97. Ibid.

98. Ibid., msg 3626, Eisenhower to Marshall,

December 29, 1942, item 746, p. 878.

99. Tedder, With Prejudice, p. 385.

100. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank,
p. 109.

101. Ibid.

102. Entries for January 1, 3, 18, 20, 1943,
Command Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

103. Memo, Sanders to Eisenhower, subj:
Problems Connected with the Development of
Allied Air Power in the North African Theater,
November 30, 1 942, PRO AIR 23/6561 .

Chapter 5
Failure and Reorganization

1. Tedder, "Air, Land and Sea Warfare,"
Journal of the Royal United Sen/ices Institute,
p. 65.

2. Maurice Matloff, United States Army in
World War II, subseries: The War Department,
Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare,
1943-1944 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1959), p.
28, citing Combined Chiefs of Staff Document
CCS 155/1, January 19, 1943.

3. Ibid., citing CCS 166/1/D, January 21,
1943, "The Bomber Offensive from the United
Kingdom."

4. Entry for February 23, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

5. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, pp.
114, 162-163.

6. Msg C-150, Churchill to Roosevelt,
September 16, 1942, in Kimball, Churchill &
Roosevelt: The Complete Correspondence, vol.
l,pp. 597-598.

7. Minute, Portal to Churchill, October 13,
1942, PRO AIR 8/711.

8. Minute, Portal to the Secretary of State for
Air [Archibald M. S. Sinclair], September 27,
1942, PRO AIR 8/711.

9. Minute, Slessor to Portal, September 26,
1942, PRO AIR 8/711.

10. Msg T. 1345/2, Churchill to Hopkins,
October 16, 1942, PRO AIR 8/711.

11. Note on Air Policy, W. S. Churchill,
October 22, 1942, PRO AIR 8/711.

12. Minute, Sinclair to Churchill, October 23,
1942, PRO AIR 8/711.

13. Minute, Churchill to Portal and Sinclair,
October 26, 1 942, PRO AIR 8/7 1 1 .

14. Minute, Sinclair to Churchill, October 28,
1942, PRO AIR 8/711.

15. Minute, Portal to Churchill, November 7,

1942, PRO AIR 8/711.

16. Msg 408, Air Ministry [Portal] to RAF
Delegation [Slessor], November 21, 1942, PRO
AIR 8/711.

17. W.P. (42) 580, note by the Prime Minister
and Minister of Defence, subj: Air Policy,
December 16, 1942, PRO PREM 3/452/1.

18. Ibid.

19. Leighton and Coakley, Global Logistics,
pp.

20. W.P. (42) 616, note by the Secretary of
State for Air, subj: Air Policy, December 29,

1942, PRO PREM 3/452/1.

21. Note by the Secretary of State for Air,
subj: The Bombing Policy of the USAAF., n.d.
[January 9, 1943], PRO AIR 8/71 1 .

22. Minute 26/3, Churchill to Sinclair,
January 10, 1943, PRO PREM 3/452/1.

23. Documents CCS 135, memo by the U.S.
Chiefs of Staff, subj: Basic Strategic Concept
for 1943, December 26, 1942; CCS 135/1,
memo by the British Chiefs of Staff, subj: Basic
Strategic Concept for 1943 — The European
Theater, January 2, 1943; and CCS 135/2, subj:
American-British Strategy in 1943, January 3,

1943, published in Department of State,
Foreign Relations of the United States:
Conferences at Washington, 1941-1942 and
Casablanca, 1943 (Washington, D.C.: GPO,
1968), pp. 735-752 (hereafter referred to as
FRUS).

24. CCS 135, subj: Basic Strategic Concept
for 1943, FRUS: Washington-Casablanca, p.

737.

25. CCS 135/2, subj: American-British
Strategy. January 3, 1943, FRUS: Cairo-
Teheran, pp. 746-747.

26. Parton, "Air Force Spoken Here," pp.

691

Spaatz and the Am War in Europe

217-220.

27. Papers given to the Prime Minister by
General Eaker (January 20, 1943), PRO PREM
3/452/1.

28. Churchill, The Hinge of Fate, p. 679.

29. Parton, "Air Force Spoken Here," pp.
221-222.

30. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, p.
843.

31. Elliott Roosevelt, As He Saw It (New
York: Duell, Sloan, and Pearce, 1946), pp.
100-102.

32. Memo, Arnold to Stratemeyer, subj:
Bombing of Germany by U.S. Bombers from
England, February 26, 1943, Arnold Papers,
box 49.

33. Entry for January 19, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

34. Interview, Spaatz by Shaughnessey,
1959-1060. pp. 66-67.

35. Memo, Arnold to Stratemeyer, subj:
Bombing of Germany by U.S. Bombers from
England, February 26, 1943, Arnold Papers,
box 49.

36. CCS 166/1/D, memo by the Combined
Chiefs of Staff, subj: The Bomber Offensive
from the United Kingdom, January 21, 1943,
published in FRUS: Washington-Casablanca,
pp. 781-782.

37. General Order No. 1, Headquarters Allied
Air Force, January 7, 1943, Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

38. Entry for January 17, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary. This entry makes
clear that the commander of XII ASC, not the
commander of II Corps, would control air deci-
sions.

39. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisen-
hower, pp. 229-230.

40. Patton has been the subject of numerous
biographies. One of the most illuminating publi-
cations on his military thought and actions is
Martin Blumenson, The Patton Papers (Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1972-1974), in two vol-
umes. These volumes are mostly in Patton' s
own words and they admirably reveal his mili-
tary actions and philosophy. For the general's
personal side, see Ladislas Farago, Patton:
Ordeal and Triumph (New York: Ivan
Obolensky, Inc., 1963); and Martin Blumenson,
Patton: The Man Behind the Legend 1885-1945
(New York: William Morrow. 1985).

41 . Howe, Northwest Africa, p. 447.

42. L[ucian] K. Truscott, Command
Missions: A Personal Story (New York: E. P.
Dutton, 1954), pp. 144-145. In contrast to the
proliferation of material on Patton, almost noth-

ing has been written on Fredendall's character
or personality. Truscott, who served as Eisen-
hower's representative at the front, had ample
opportunity to observe Fredendall for his entire
tour as commander of II Corps and to form a
firsthand opinion.

43. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 2,
notes for Commander Butcher, December 10,

1942, item 705, p. 824.

44. Ibid., note 5, p. 938.

45. Ibid., msg from Eisenhower to
Fredendall, February 4, 1943, item 808, pp.
939-941.

46. XII ASC Report of Operations, April 9,

1943, p. 23, NARA Record Group (RG) 337,
Army Ground Forces Central Decimal File, file
no. 319.1/83, box 245.

47. Ltr, Doolittle to Air Commander in Chief,
Allied Air Forces [Spaatz], January 20, 1943,
Papers of James H. Doolittle, Library of
Congress, Manuscript Division, box 19.

48. Entry for January 21, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary. Craig had also
developed a raging case of pneumonia that inca-
pacitated him, making his replacement inevit-
able. The change of assignment certainly did
Craig's career no harm; he continued to receive
excellent staff assignments and retired as a
three-star general.

49. Ltr, Doolittle to Spaatz, January 23, 1943,
Doolittle Papers, box 19.

50. Rpt, CG XII ASC [Williams] to CG,
NATO [Eisenhower], subj: "Report of
Operations," April 9, 1943, p. 3, NARA, RG
337, AGF Central File, 319.1/83, box 245.

5 1 . Truscott, Command Missions, p. 144.

52. Harry Butcher, "Manuscript of Butcher
Diary," pp. 168 and 197, Eisenhower Presiden-
tial Library, Abilene, Kans. This is the complete
draft of the published Butcher Diary and con-
tains many passages deleted from the published
version because of security or personal consid-
erations.

53. Truscott, Command Missions, p. 144.

54. British Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, RAF Narrative, "The North African
Campaign," pp. 204-205.

55. Playfair, The Destruction of Axis Forces
in Africa, pp. 308-309.

56. Howe, Northwest Africa, pp. 379, 381.

57. Ibid., p. 396; Entry for February 6, 1943,
Command Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

58. Howe, Northwest Africa, pp. 139-140.

59. Entry for January 21, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

60. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 2,
item 767, Memo of Conference at Advanced

692

Notes

Allied Air Force Headquarters, January 21,
1943, p. 918.

61. Ibid., p. 919.

62. Ibid., msg, Eisenhower to Russell Peter
Hartle, item 770, pp. 904-905.

63. Entries for January 21, 22, 1943,
Command Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

64. Entries for January 27-30, 1943,
Command Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

6.^. Entry for February 5, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.
66. Hov/e, Northwest Africa, p. 399.
67. Ibid.

68. Entry for February 5, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.
69. Ibid.

70. Entry for January 17, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

71. Entry for February 6, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary. In addition, see
Eisenhower, Crusade in Europe, p. 141: "It was
the only time during the war that I ever saw a
divisional or higher headquarters so concerned
over its own safety that it dug itself under-
ground shelters."

72. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, February 8, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

73. Ltr, Spaatz to Stratemeyer, February 8,
1943, Spaatz Papers, Diaiy.

74. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, p.

161, citing a manuscript by S/Ldr J. N. White,
"Evolution of Air Command in the Mediter-
ranean," November 13, 1944.

75. Ibid., pp. 161-165.

76. Ibid., p. 163.

77. Entry for February 17, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

78. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, p.
157.

79. Playfair, The Destruction of Axis Forces
in Africa, p. 311.

80. Command Diary, entry for February 23,
1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

81. Entries from "Casablanca Notes,"
January 4, 5, 1943, Spaatz Papers, Subject File
1929-1945.

82. Playfair, The Destruction of the Axis
Forces in Africa, p. 29 1 .

83. XII ASC, "Operations Report," April 9,
1943, p. 6, NARA, RG 337, Army Ground
Forces Central File 319.1/83, box 245.

84. Playfair, The Destruction of Axis Forces
in Africa, p. 302. Playfair has the best account
of air actions during the period, better than
either American official history. For a good
popular account of the action, see Martin
Blumenson, Kasserine Pass (Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1967).

85. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 2,
Memo, February 25, 1943, item 843, p. 992.

Chapter 6

The Collapse of the Axis Bridgehead

1. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 2,
item 962, ltr, Eisenhower to Arnold, May 2,

1943, p. 1 107.

2. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 2, p. 607.

3. Entry for March 1, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

4. Entry for March 2, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

5. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, March 7, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

6. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, p.
169-170.

7. Entry for March 3, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

8. Rpt, Maj. Gen. Lloyd R. Fredendall, subj:
Notes on Recent Operations on the Tunisian
Front, March 10, 1943, Fredendall Papers,
Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene,
Kans.

9. Entry for March 3, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

10. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, p.
130.

11. Ibid., p. 131; ltr, Spaatz to Stratemeyer,
March 26, 1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

12. Report on Morale (United States Army
Air Force Personnel), Col. Everett Cook to CG,
NAAF [SpaatzJ, April 20, 1943, Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

13. Staff Meeting, March 4, 1943, and Con-
ference Notes, March 5, 1943, Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

14. Martin R. R. Goldman, "Morale in the
AAF in World War II," USAF Historical Study
No. 78, (USAF Historical Division, Air
University, Maxwell AFB, Ala., 1953), p. 44,
citing rpt, Maj. Robert B. Nelson, Jr., to Air
Surgeon, AAF, subj; Morale of Flying

693

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Personnel, May 20, 1943, folder: Morale and
Welfare November 23, 1942-Deceniber 30,
1943, AGO 330.1 lA. Goldman provides some
intriguing details but little insight into AAF
morale.

15. Ibid., p. 30. This did not completely solve
the food situation. A postwar USAF study noted
that overall food quality, not just British rations,
was prevented from "developing into a disturb-
ing problem" only by the advance into Italy,
which increased the supply of fresh meat and
dairy products as well as providing the benefits
of improved and relatively abundant refrigera-
tion of fresh produce and meats.

16. Ibid., p. 59, which reported that movie
showings were "easily the most consistently
popular form of diversion in all theaters [of
operation], and the one credited with doing the
most good for morale."

17. Report on Morale, Col. Cook to Spaatz,
April 20, 1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

18. Beck et al.. Corps of Engineers: War
Against Germany, p. 89.

19. Ltr, Spaatz to Strateraeyer, March 26,
1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

20. (Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 2,
item 986, ltr, Eisenhower to Spaatz, May 12,
1943, pp. 1125-1126.

21. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold. March 7, 1943.
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

22. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 2, p.
576.

23. Conference Notes, March 17, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

24. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 2, p.
575.

25. Ibid., p. 574.

26. Ibid., p. 607.

27. Ibid., pp. 607-608.

28. Ibid., p. 607.

29. Craven and Gate, Torch to Pointblank, p.
189.

30. Entries for January 16, 18, 1943, Com-
mand Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

3 1 . Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, p.
189.

32. Staff Meeting, March 4, 1943, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

33. Entry for March 20, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers.

34. Conference Notes, April 2, 1943,
Command Diary, Spaatz Papers. Diary.

35. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 2, p.
607.

36. Conference Notes, April 2, 1943, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

37. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank,

pp. 189-190.

38. Ltr, Spaatz to Eaker, April 8, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

39. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 2, pp.

608-609.

40. National Security Agency Special
Research History no. 13 (SRH-013), "Ultra
History of US Strategic Air Force Europe vs.
German Air Forces," June 6, 1945, AF/CHO, p.
62.

41. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 2, p.
609.

42. Ibid.

43. Ibid.

44. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, p.
196.

45. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 2, p.
614.

46. AAF Statistical Digest, World War II,
table 120, p. 222.

47. Ibid., table 102, p. 189.

48. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank. p.
194. After the first month of the campaign the
Twelfth Air Force did not operate B-24s which,
because of their superior range, became the
exclusive province of the Ninth Air Force.

49. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, May 24, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

50. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, February 8, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

5 1 . Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, p.
184; United States Army in World War II. sub-
series: The Pictorial Record, The War Against
Germany and Italy: Mediterranean and
Adjacent Areas (Washington, D.C.: OCMH,
GPO, 1951), p. 164.

52. See Margaret Bourke-White, "Bourke-
White Goes Bombing," Life, March 1, 1943.
Bourke-White flew on a raid over an Axis air-
field on January 22, 1943. She credits Doolittle
with giving her permission, and probably con-
sulted Spaatz, a friend of hers, as well.

53. "The Plotters of Souk-el-Spaatz," Time,
March 22, 1943.

54. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, April 10, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

55. Ibid.

56. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, April 21, 1943,
Command Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

57. Ltr, Spaatz to Stratemeyer, March 26,
1943, Command Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

58. Interview, Kuter by Sturm and Ahmann,
September 30-October 3, 1974, p. 305.

59. Entry for February 23, 1943, Spaatz
Papers, Command Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

60. Entries for March 31, April 13, 27, 1943,
Command Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

694

Notes

61. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisen-
hower, p. 287.

62. Richard H. Kohn and Joseph P. Harahan,

eds., Air Superiority in World War II and Korea,
.series: USAF Warrior Studies (Washington,
D.C.: AF/CHO, GPO, 1983), pp. 56-60.

63. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, May 24, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

64. Solly Zuckerman, From Apes to Warlords
(New York: Harper & Row. 1978), p. 204.

65. Carlo D'Este, Decision in Normandy
(New York: E. P. Dutton, 1983), pp. 218-219.

66. Nigel Hamilton, Master of the Battlefield:
Monty's War Years 1942-1944 (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1983), pp. 199-200. Hamilton
even goes to llic ab.surd length of crediting
Broadhurst with the development of British air
support theory — a gross misinterpretation of
actuality.

67. Msg, A 188, AOC, NATAF to XII ASC,
March 17, 1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

68. Memo, HQ, XII ASC to OIC, NATAF,
March 23, 1943, Command Diary, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

69. Entries for March 25, April 14, 1943,
Command Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

70. VIII Air Support Command, "Air
Operations in Support of Ground Forces in
Northwest Africa (March 15-April 5, 1943),"
observers rpt, U.S. Army Military History
Institute. Carlisle, Pa.

71. Ltr, Spaatz to Stratemeyer, February 8,
1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

72. Entry for March 13, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

73. Entries for March 30, April 10, 1943,
Command Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

74. Rpt, CG, XII ASC [Williams] to CG,
NATO (North African Theater of Operations)
[Eisenhower], subj: "Report of Operations,"
April 9, 1943, p. 8, NARA, RG 337, AGF
Central File 3 19. 1/83, box 245.

75. Report of the Northwest African Tactical
Air Force on Operations, February 1 8-May 1 1 ,
1943, n.d. [May 1943], p. 20, PRO AIR
20/5535.

76. Omar N. Bradley. A Soldier's Story (New
York: Henry Holt, 1951), p. 62; Omar N.
Bradley and Clay Blair. A General's L'lfe (New
York: Simon and Schuster. 1983), p. 147.

77. Blumenson, The Patton Papers, vol. 2, p.
205.

78. Entries for March 24, 25, 1943, Com-
mand Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

79. Howe, Northwest Africa, p. 562; NATAF
Final Report, p. 24, PRO AIR 20/5535.

80. NATAF Final Report, p. 24, PRO AIR
20/5535.

81 . Msg, SPEC 40 NATAF to NAAF [Spaatz],
April 2, 1943, Spaatz Pjqjeis, Diary. This message
cites the text of Patton's message.

82. Ibid.

83. Ltr, Coningham to AVM H.E.P. Wiggles-
worth, Deputy Commander, Mediterranean Air
Command, April 5, 1943, PRO AIR 23/7439.

84. Tedder, With Prejudice, pp. 410^ 1 1 .

85. Entry for April 2, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

86. Entry for April 3, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

87. Ibid.

88. Tedder, With Prejudice, p. 41 1.

89. NATAF Final Report, p. 24, PRO AIR
20/5535.

90. Entry for April 4, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

91. Ibid.

92. Blumenson, The Patton Papers, vol. 2,
pp. 208-209.

93. Ltr, Coningham to Wigglesworth, April
5, 1943, PRO AIR 23/7439.

94. Msg SPEC^6, NATAF to NAAF, April
5, 1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

95. Interview, Maj. Gen. Edward P. Curtis by
James C. Hasdorff, November 22-23, 1975,
USAF Oral History Collection, AFHRC file no.
K239.0512-875, p. 55.

96. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 2,
item 927, msg, Eisenhower to Marshall, April 5,
1943, p. 1071.

97. Entry for April 5. 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

98. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 2,
itein 928. msg, Eisenhower to Patton, April 5,
1943, pp. 1072-1073.

99. Blumenson, The Patton Papers, vol. 2, p.
210.

100. Howe, Northwest Africa, pp. 586-587.

101. Ibid., p. 590.

102. Entry for April 8, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaalz Papers, Diary.

103. Craven and Gate, Torch to Pointhlank,
pp. 198-199.

104. Entry for April 20, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

105. NATAF Final Report, p. 28. PRO AIR
20/5535.

106. Playfair, The Destruction of Axis Forces
in Africa, p. 447.

107. Report on Air Operations by No. 242
Group R.A.F. in Support of 1st Army Tunisia.
1943, n.d. [ca. May 1943], p. 13, PRO AIR
23/7434.

108. Ibid., p. 11.

109. Entry for April 29, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

695

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

no. Msg, Spaatz to Eisenhower, May 1,
1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

111. Ibid.

1 12. Entry for May 4, 1943, Command Diary,

Spaatz Papers, Diary.

113. Msg, Spaatz to Eisenhower, May 1,
1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary; Itr, Stratemeyer to
Arnold, May 7, 1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

114. Ibid.

115. Entry for May 12, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary; Tedder, With
Prejudice, p. 399.

116. Ur, Spaatz to Arnold, May 24, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

117. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, March 7, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

118. Ibid.

119. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, May 6, 1943,
folder: North African Operations, Arnold
Papers, box 39; memo. Brig. Gen. T. J. Hanley,
Deputy Chief of the Air Staff, to all Assistant
Chiefs of the Air Staff, subj: Air Operations in
North Africa, April 20, 1943, Decimal File
370.2 Africa (16), Arnold Papers, box 104.

120. "The Plotters of Souk-el-Spaatz,"
(cover). Time, March 22, 1943. p. 22.

121. Pamphlet, Bernard L. Montgomery,
"Some Notes on High Command in War," p. 2,
NARA, RG 165, OPD File 384, case 39, box
1305.

122. Talk by Air Vice Marshal Sir A. Con-
ingham, February 16, 1943, Tripoli, PRO AIR

20/5535.

123. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, February 19,
1943, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 1657A, frames
965-966.

124. Memo for the Chief of Staff from the
Assistant Secretary of War, April 18, 1943,
NARA, RG 165,OPD-384,box 1305,

125. Memo for the Assistant Chief of Staff,
Operations Division from Col. H. J. Matchett,
Acting Assistant Chief of Staff, G-3, subj:
General Montgomery's Notes on "High
Command in War," April 24, 1943, NARA, RG
165, G-3 (370.6-384).

126. Memo for the Chief of Staff from Brig.
Gen. J. E. Hull, Acting Assistant Chief of Staff,
OPD, April 29, 1943, NARA, RG 165, G-3
(370.6-384).

127. Memo for General [John E.] Hull,
Acting Assistant Chief of Staff, OPD, from Col.
S. E. Anderson, subj: Revision of Training
Literature, May 8. 1943, NARA, RG 165, OPD-
384, Case 39, box 1305. Colonel Anderson
attempted to eliminate AGF coordination by
insisting that input to revisions of an AAF man-
ual need come only from the AAF, Brig. Gen.

Hull overruled him, noting that revisions need
not be unanimous. Anderson later gained much
experience in air-ground cooperation as the
commander of IX Bomber Command, a unit of
medium boinbers assigned to assist Lt. Gen.
Omar Bradley's 12th Army Group during the
campaign in northwestern Europe.

128. Memo for the Chief of Staff from Lt.
Gen. Ben Lear, Commanding General, AGF,
subj: General Montgomery's Notes on "High
Command in War," May 17, 1943, NARA, RG
165, G-3 (370.6-384).

129. Memo for the Assistant Chief of Staff,
G-3, from the Acting Chief of Staff, subj:
Revision of Training Literature, May 31, 1943,
NARA, RG 165, G-3 (370.6-384).

130. War Department Field Manual 100-20,
Field Service Regulations, Command and
Employment of Air Power (Washington, D.C.:
GPO, July 21, 1943), sec. I, para. 1-3, pp. 1-2.

131. Memo for the record attached to memo
for the Adjutant General from Brig. Gen. Ray E.
Porter, Assistant Chief of Staff, G-3, subj:
Publication of FM 100-20, Field Service
Regulations, Command and Employment of Air
Power, June 30, 1943, NARA, RG 165, G-3
(370.6-834).

132. Memo for Col. Nelson, G-3, from Col.
J. B. Burwell, G-3, June 24, 1943, NARA, RG
165, G-3 (370.6-384).

133. See entry for February 6, 1943, Command
Diary, for mention of Spaatz's discussion with
Porter. See ltr, Stratemeyer to Arnold, May 7,
1943, for a connection to Stratemeyer, and Itr,
Kuter to Spaatz, May 25, 1943, all sources in
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

134. WDFM 100-20, "Command and Em-
ployment of Air Power," (Washington, D.C.:
GPO, July 21, 1943), chap. l,sec. 1, para. 2.

135. Ibid., chap. 1, sec. 1, para. 3.

136. Ibid., chap. 2, sec. 3, para. 15.

137. Ibid., chap. 2, sec. 3, par. 16, subpar. b.

138. WDFM 31-35, April 9, 1942, chap. 2,
sec. 1, para. 6.

139. WDFM 100-20, chap. 1, sec. 1, para. 3.

140. Ibid., chap. 2, sec. 2, para. 12.

141. Ltr, Kuter to Spaatz, May 25, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

142. Ibid., ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, June 28,
1943.

143. Ltr, Kuter to Col. Glen Martin, Special
Consultant to the Secretary of the Air Force,
November 22, 1950, AF/CHO, "The Kuter
Report."

144. WDFM 100-20, chap. 1, sec. 1, para. 1.

145. WDFM 100-20, chap. 2, sec. 3, para.
16, subpara. b.

696

Notes

146. 384 (S)-GNGCT (5-6-43), Memo for
the Chief of Staff from Lt. Gen. Ben Lear,
Commanding General, Army Ground Forces,
subj: "General Montgomery's Notes on 'High
Command' in War," May 17, 1943, NARA, RG
165, Records of the War Department General
and Special Staffs, G-3 370.6-384.

147. Greenfield, "Army Ground Forces and
the Air-Ground Battle Team," pp. 48-50.

148. FM 1-5, January 18, 1943, chap. 2, sec.
3, para. 26. Also see chap. 4, sec. 3, para. 57.

149. Ibid., chap. 5, sec. 2. par. 63, subpar. b.

150. Ibid., chap. 3, sec. 6, para. 30.

151. Ibid., chap. 5, sec. 1, par. 58, subpar. c.

152. Ibid., subparas. d and e.

153. Rpt, Maj. Gen. W. H. Walker to CG,
AGF, subj: Report of Visit to North African
Theater of Operations, June 12, 1943, NARA,
RG 337, AGF File 315,1, box 242.

154. Ltr, Brig. Gen. Paul M. Robinett to
Marshall, December 8, 1942, Arnold Papers,
folder: Air-Ground Support, box 42.

155. Greenfield, "Army Ground Forces and
the Air-Ground Battle Team," p. 77, citing
statements by Kern, May 13, 1943, and Ryder,
.lune 18-19. 1943.

156. Ltr, Kuter to Coningham, June 26, 1943,
AIR PRO 23/7439.

157. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, May 24, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

158. Interview, Spaatz by Goldberg, May 19,
1965, p. 25.

159. Rpt, HQ XII ASC to CG, NATO, subj:
"Report of Operations," April 9, 1943, NARA,
RG 337, Army Ground Forces Central Files,
file 319.1/83, box 245.

160. Ltr, Kuter to Col. Glen Martin, Special
Consultant to the Secretary of the Air Force,
November 22, 1950, AF/CHO, "The Kuter
Report."

161. Ltr, Spaatz to CG, AAF, subj: Employ-
ment of Support Aviation, May 27, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

162. Greenfield, "Army Ground Forces and
the Air-Ground Battle Team," pp. 42^3. Some
divisions were double- or triple-counted in
these totals; the Army did not have 104 divi-
sions in the United States on that date.

163. Memo for Asst. C/S, A-1, NAAF, from
Deputy AC/S, A-1, June 1, 1943, Spaatz
Papers, Diary. These figures include the last day
of May 1943 and therefore slightly overstate
total casualties.

164. AAF Statistical Digest, World War II,
table 160, p. 256. These figures include the
losses of the Ninth Air Force as well.

Part Three
Mediterranean Interlude
From Pantelleria to London

Chapter 7
Pantelleria and Sicily

1. Ltr, Spaatz to Henry [Berliner ?], June 18,
1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

2. Blumenson, The Patton Papers, vol.2, p.
314.

3. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, pp.
419^22.

4. Ibid.

5. Albert N. Garland and Howard McGaw
Smyth, United States Army in World War II, sub-
series: The Mediterranean Theater of Opera-
tions, Sicily and the Surrender of Italy (Wash-
ington, D.C.: OCMH, GPO, 1965), pp. 70, 73.

6. Ibid., p. 419. See also msg 1409 for
Marshall from Eisenhower, February 17, 1943,

PRO AIR 23/5485.

7. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, p.
423.

8. Ibid.

9. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol.2,
item 982, msg NAF-219, Eisenhower to
Combined Chiefs of Staff, May 11, 1943, p.
1122.

10. Ibid., item 992, msg, Eisenhower to
Marshall, May 13, 1943, p. 1 130.

U. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, p.

424.

12. Ibid., p. 425.

13. Entry for May 16, 1943, Command

697

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

14. Zuckerman, Apes to Warlords, p. 183.

15. Emi7 tor May 17, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

16. Craven and Cate. Torch to Pointhlank, p.
425.

17. Entries for May 17, 18, 19, 1943, Com-
mand Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

18. Entry for May 19, 1943. Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

19. Entry for May 20, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

20. Ibid.

21. Eisenhower, Crusade in Europe, p. 165;
Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower, pp.
329-330.

22. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 2,
item 1091, memo for Personal Record, July 1,
1943, p. 1231.

23. Entry for May 22, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

24. Entry for May 23, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

25. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 2,
item 1020, msg, Eisenhower to Marshall, May
25, 1943, p. 1154.

26. Ibid., item 1091, memo for the Personal
Record, July 1, 1943, p. 1231,

27. Zuckerman, Apes to Warlords, pp.
173-174.

28. Ibid., pp. 184-185.

29. Ibid., p. 186.

30. Operation Corkscrew, Minutes of Meet-
ing on May 28, 1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

3 1 . Zuckerman, Apes to Warlords, p. 185.

32. Ibid., p. 187.
33. Ibid.

34. Entry for May 28, 1943, Command Diaiy,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

35. Entry for June 6, 1943, Conmiand Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

36. Ibid.

37. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank,
pp. 425-426.

38. Entry for June 6, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

39. Entry for June 8, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary. See also Zuckerman,

to Warlords, pp. 189-192.

40. Entry for June 8, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

41. Zuckerman, Apes to Warlords, p. 190.

42. Ibid., p. 188.

43. Entry for June 8, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

44. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 2,
item 1046, msg, Eisenhower to Marshall, June

9, 1943, p. 1181.

45. Entry for June 8, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

46. Entry for June 9, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

47. Ibid.

48. Ibid.

49. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 2,
item 1075, msg, Eisenhower to Marshall, June
26, 1943, p. 1212.

50. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointhlank, p.
424.

51. Entry for June 9, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

52. Entry for June 11, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers. Diary.

53. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, p.
429, citing Times [London], June 15, 1943.

54. Garland and Smyth, Sicily and the
Surrender of Italy, pp. 71-72.

55. Ibid.

56. Msg, Spaatz and Lovett to Arnold, June
1 1, 1943. Spaatz Papers, Diary.

57. Msg, Spaatz to Mediterranean Air
Command [Tedder?], July 1, 1943, Spaatz
Papers. Diary.

58. Entry for June 12, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

59. Ltr, Spaatz to Henry [Berliner?], June 1 8,
1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

60. Memo, Spaatz to Tedder, "Interim State-
ment of Operation Corkscrew," June 20, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

61. Zuckerman, Apes to Warlords, p. 195.

62. CCS Memorandum of Information No.
143, "Pantelleria Operations," p. 13, PRO
PREM 3/228/4.

63. Zuckerman, Apes to Warlords, p. 194.

64. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, p.
433.

65. Ltr, Allied Force Headquarters from Maj.
Gen. W. L. Clutterbuck, June 13, 1943, PRO
AIR 23/3305.

66. Hamilton, Master of the Battlefield, p.

287.

67. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, p.
432.

68. Hamilton, Master of the Battlefield, pp.
245-272. See also Bernard L. Montgomery, The
Memoirs of Field-Marshal the Viscount
Montgomery of Alamein, K.G. (New York:
World PubHshing, 1958), pp. 153-164.

69. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointhlank, p.
443.

70. Ibid., p. 444.

71. C.J.C. Molony, F. C. Flynn, H. L. Davies,
and T. P. Gleave, The Mediterranean and

698

Notes

Middle East, vol. 5, The Campaign in Sicily
1943 and the Campaign in Italy 3rd September
1943 to 31st March 1944 (London: HMSO,
1973), pp. 32-33.

72. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, p.
445

73. Ibid. For a thorough discussion of Axis
air strength at the time of the invasion, see
Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part 1, pp.
80-81.

74. Ibid., p. 83.

75. Entry for June 18, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

76. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, June 24, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

77. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part
l,pp. 82-84.

78. Ibid., p. 84.

79. Ibid., p. 82.

80. Entry for May 13, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

81. Entry for May 24, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, 13iary,

82. Blumenson, The Patton Papers, vol. 2, p. 254.

83. Entry for May 22, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

84. Notes, Spaatz-Cannon conference, May
24, 1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

85. Msg, SPEC-120, Coningham to Spaatz,
June 3, 1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

86. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, June 24. 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

87. Greenfield, "Army Ground Forces and
the Air-Ground Battle Team," p. 77, citing a
statement by Lucas on July 21, 1943.

88. Molony, The Campaign in Sicily and
Italy, p. 173.

89. Garland and Smyth, Sicily and the
Surrender of Italy, pp. 175-182. This official
history gives a full and balanced account of this
tragedy. It concludes that no one in particular
but everyone in general was responsible. See
also memo, Maj. Gen. M. B. Ridgway, subj:
Reported Loss of Transport Planes and
Personnel Due to Friendly Fire, August 2, 1943,
Arnold Papers, folder: Air Support of Armored
Forces [misfiled?], box 42.

90. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank, p.
454.

91. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 2,
item 1115, msg, Eisenhower to Patton, July 12,
1943, p. 1255. Spaatz's copy is in his diary.

92. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, July 14, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

93. 1st and 2nd endorsements of report by
Commanding General, Northwest African
Troop Carrier Command, July 20, 1943, Spaatz

Papers, Diary.

94. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, May 24, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

95. Entry for June I, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

96. Entry for June 21, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

97. Conference notes, July 5, 1943, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

98. Entry for August 4, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

99. Entries for August 13, 15, 1943, Com-
mand Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

100. Ibid.

101. Entry for August 3, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

102. U.S. Congress, Senate, Sen. Richard B.
Russell Presenting the Conclusions of the
Special Committee to Visit the War Theaters,
74th Cong., 1st Sess., October 11, 1943,
Congressional Record, pp. 8189-8190.

103. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, May 24, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

104. Entry for May 13, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

105. Entry for May 24, 1943, Command
Diarv. Spaatz Papers, Diary.

106. Entries for June 1, 6, 12, 21, 1943,
Command Diary. Spaatz Papers, Diary.

107. Entry for June 27, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

108. Entry for July 12, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

109. Entry for July 13, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

110. Redlinb msg JC-6-CS, Spaatz to
Cannon, August 7, 1943, Spaatz Papers, Cables.

111. Redline msg CS-l-JC, Cannon to
Spaatz, August 7, 1943, Spaatz Papers, Cables.

112. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisen-
hower, p. 365.

113. Chandler, Eisenhower's Papers, vol. 2,
item 1121. msg 140, Eisenhower to Marshall,
July 18, 1943, pp. n63-n64.

114. Ibid., see footnote 2 to item 1121, p.
1265. See also msg, Eisenhower to Marshall,
July 26, 1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

115. Entry for August 4, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

116. Entry for August 9, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

1 17. Slessor, The Central Blue, p. 557.

118. Samuel Eliot Morison, History of United
States Naval Operations in World War II, vol.
9: Sicily-Salerno-Anzio: January 1943-June
1944 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1954), pp.
215-216.

699

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

119. For criticism of the Allied response to
the evacuation, see S. W. Roskill, The War at
Sea 1939-1945, vol. 3, part \ ,The Offensive 1st
June I943-31st May 1944 (London: HMSO,
1960), pp. 147-150; Garland and Smyth, Sicily
and the Surrender of Italy, pp. 41 1^12.

120. Molony, The Campaign in Sicily and
Italy, p. 184.

121. Roskill, The War at Sea, vol. 3, part 1,
p. 148. For this account of the evacuation
Roskill appears to have examined Coningham's
papers.

122. Garland and Smyth, Sicily and the
Surrender of Italy, p. 412.

123. Roskill, The War at Sea, vol. 3, part 1,
pp. 148-149.

124. Coningham, "The Development of
Tactical Air Forces," RUSI Journal XCI (May
1946), p. 216.

125. Entry for August 9, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

126. Entries for August 11-17, 1943, Com-
mand Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

127. Entry for August 4, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

128. Garland and Smyth, Sicily and the
Surrender of Italy, pp. 411-412; Roskill, The
War at Sea, vol. 3, part 1, pp. 147-150.

Chapter 8
Salerno and London

1. Ltr, Spaatz to Eaker, September 18, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

2. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointhlank, p.
544.

3. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 3,
item 1257, msg 476, Eisenhower to CCS,
September 15, 1943, pp. 1424-1425.

4. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointhlank, p.

538.

5. Morison, Sicily-Salerno- Anzio, p. 280.
Morison's figures are for the entire operation
not just the counterattack period. He does not
state just how many of the 1 1 ,000 tons of naval
shellflre fell from September 12-15 as opposed
to the preliminary assault and follow up naval
bombardments. Nonetheless naval gunfire was,
in most cases, more accurate than an attack and
of comparable weight in the aggregate.

6. Llr, Alexander to Spaatz, September 17,
1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

7. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 3,
item 1262, msg, Eisenhower to McNarney,
September 16, 1943, pp. 1428-1430.

8. Ibid., item 1253, msg, Eisenhower to
Marshall, September 14, 1943, pp. 1416-1417.
See also ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, September 15,
1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

9. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, July 30, 1943,
Spaat2 Papers, Diary.

10. Msg, Eisenhower to Marshall, August 1,
1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

11. Msg A-2143, Spaatz to Eisenhower,
August 27, 1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary; ltr,
Spaatz to Arnold, September 15, 1943, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

12. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 3,
item 1253, msg 470, Eisenhower to Marshall,

September 14, 1943, pp. 1416-1417.

13. Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea
Cate, The Army Air Forces in World War II,
vol. 6: Men and Planes (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1955), pp. 516-522.

14. Msg AV-417, Spaatz to Arnold (Eyes
Only), August 17, 1943, Spaatz Papers, Cables.

15. Time, September 20, 1943, pp. 66, 68.

16. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, September 10,
1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

17. Msg JC-99-CS, Spaatz to Cannon,
September 18, 1943, Spaatz Papers, Cables.

18. Sec Alan M. Osur, Blacks in the Army Air
Forces During World War 11: The Problem of
Race Relations (Washington, D.C.: AF/CHO,
GPO, 1977), pp. 48-50. Osur identifies this
officer as Col. Momyer.

19. Rpt, Maj. Gen. Edwin J, House, Com-
manding General, XII ASC, to Maj. Gen. John
K. Cannon, Deputy Commander, NATAF, subj:
Combat Efficiency of the 99th Fighter
Squadron, September 16, 1943, Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

20. 1st endorsement, Maj. Gen. John K.
Cannon, Deputy Commander, NATAF, to Lt.
Gen. Carl A. Spaatz, Commanding General,
NAAF, September 18, 1943, Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

21. Entry for June 4, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

22. 2nd endorsement, Lt. Gen. Carl Spaatz,
CG, NAAF, to Gen. H. H. Arnold, CG, AAF,
September 19, 1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

23. Osur. lilacLs in the AAF, p. 50.

24. Minutes, Conference with General Carl
Spaatz and the Gillem Board, 1,000 Hours,
October 18, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

700

Notes

25. Interview, Curtis by Hasdorff, November
22-23, 1975, pp. 82-83.

26. Routing slip, Headquarters U.S. Air
Forces Rest Camps AAFSC/MTO, May 19,
1944, AFHRC file no. 632.217.

27. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 2,
item 992, msg, Eisenhower to Marshall, May
12, 1943, pp. 1129-1131.

28. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank,
pp. 477-483.

29. Ibid.

30. Ronald Schaffer, Wings of Judgement:
American Bombing in World War U (New
York: Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 46.

31. Molony, The Campaign in Sicily and
Italy, p. 172.

32. Ibid.

33. JCS memo, Deane to Arnold, subj: Bombing
Objectives, June 10, 1943, Spaalz Papers, Diary.

34. Entry for June 1, 1943, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary. This presentation made
little impression on Alan Brooke, who did not
mention it in his own account of the day. See
Arthur Bryant, The Turn of the Tide, A History
of the War Years : Based on the Diaries of Field
Marshal Lord Alan Brooke, 1939-1943
(Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1957), p. 523.

35. Entry for June 14, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

36. Ltr, Spaatz to Lyle G. Wilson, May 8,
1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

37. Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition
Warfare 1943-1944, p. 151.

38. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, July 27, 1943,
AFHRC file no. 168.491, AF/CHO microfilm
reel A 1657A, frame 1015.

39. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank,
pp. 483, 684.

40. Ltr, Spaatz to Lovett, August 20, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

41. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, June 24, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

42. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, July 14, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

43. Msg, Marcus 914 RAFDEL to Air
Ministry (personal for CAS), July 23, 1943,
PRO AIR 20/1011.

44. Msg, Welsh 78, Air Ministry [Portal] to
RAFDEL [Welsh], July 26, 1943, PRO AIR
20/1011.

45. See note by the Air Staff, Welsh to
Arnold, July 31, 1943, Arnold Papers, box 274.

46. Msg, Marcus 133, Welsh to Portal,
August 2, 1943, PRO AIR 20/101 1.

47. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, August 20, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary. See Craven and Cate,
Torch to Pointblank, p. 495.

48. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank,
pp. 494-496; Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers,
vol. 2, item 1145, msg NAF-303, Eisenhower
to CCS, pp. 1296-1297.

49. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank,
pp. 495,716-717.

50. Ibid., p. 495.

51. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisen-
hower, pp. 379-380, 393, 398.

52. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 2,
notes to item 1231, p. 1232.

53. CCS 303/3, August 17, 1943.

54. Minutes, CCS 101st Meeting, August 14,
1943.

55. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, August 20, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

56. Msg. A-2143, Spaatz to Eisenhower,
August 27, 1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary; msg
6256, Eisenhower to Spaatz, August 26, 1943,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

57. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 3,
item 1265, msg 497, Eisenhower to Marshall,
September 18, 1943, pp. 1434-1435.

58. For Arnold's plan see CCS 217/1 "Plan to
Assure the Most Effective Exploitation of the
Combined Bomber Offensive," October 19,
1943. See also Craven and Cate, Torch to
Pointblank, pp. 564-565, for the course of
negotiations. Msg JSM-1276, Britman,
Washington to Air Ministry, October 23, 1943,
PRO AIR 20/4419, contained the British side of
the decision.

59. Msg R-4757/698 (FAN 254), CCS to
Eisenhower, October 23, 1943, PRO AIR
20/1011.

60. Memo, Somervell to Spaatz, October 30,
1943, msg 3787, Eisenhower [Spaatz] to
Arnold, October 30, 1943; msg 1420, Arnold to
Eisenhower for Spaatz, October 31, 1943, all
sources in Spaatz Papers, Diary.

61. Msg W-840, Portal to Welsh, AIR PRO
20/1011.

62. Minute, Assistant Chief of the Air Staff
(Ops.) to the Chief of the Air Staff, October 25,
1943, AIR PRO 20/1011.

63. Msg OZ-3387 (COS [W] 908), British
Chiefs of Staff to Britman, Washington, PRO
AIR 20/4419.

64. Minute D. 191/3, Churchill to Chiefs of
Staff and Portal, PRO AIR 20/101 1 .

65. Msg JSM 1290, from Joint Staff Mission,
Washington, to War Cabinet Office, London,
October 29, 1943, PRO AIR 20/4419.

66. See JCS memo to the President (aboard
the U.S.S. Iowa}. November 17, 1943, and CCS
400 "Integrated Command of U.S. Strategic Air
Forces in the European — Mediterranean Area,"

701

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

November 18, 1943, FRUS: Cairo-Teheran, pp.
203-209 plus organization charts,' and pp.
228-232.

67. Msg, Marcus 133, Welsh to Portal,
August 2, 1943, PRO AIR 20/101 1.

68. Arnold's "Trip to England" Notebook,
August 3 1-September 8, 1943, Arnold Papers,
Journals File, box 27 1 .

69. List of 23 points for Gen. Arnold's per-
sonal action resulting from trip to England,
September 6, [19431, HQ Eighth Air Force,
Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff, A-2,
Arnold Papers, Official File, box 49.

70. Robert E. Sherwood, Roosevelt and
Hopkins: An Intimate History (New York:
Harper & Brothers, rev. ed., 1950), p. 764, cit-
ing memo, Hopkins to FDR, October 4, 1943.

71. Copp. Forged in Fire, p. 44.5.

72. Memo, JCS to the President, November
17, 1943, FRVS: Cairo-Teheran, pp. 203-209.

73. CCS 400, November 18, 1943, FRUS:
Cairo-Teheren, pp. 228-232.

74. For British arguments against setting up a
Supreme Strategic Bombing Commander, see
CCS 400/1 "Control of Strategic Air Forces in
Northwest Europe and the Mediterranean,"
memo by the British Chiefs of Staff, Cairo,
November 26, 1943, FRUS: Cairo-Teheran, pp.
432-435. See also Craven and Cate, Torch to
Pointblank, p. 748.

75. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisen-
hower, pp. 446-448.

76. Ibid.

77. Churchill-Marshall Dinner Meeting,
November 23, 1943, and meeting of the CCS
with Roosevelt and Churchill, November 24,
1943, FRUS: Cairo-Teheran, pp. 326, 334.

78. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins, p.
803. See Matloff, Strategic Planning 194^-44.
p. 381, for a concise analysis of this decision.

79. Minutes, CCS 134th meeting, December
4, 1943, and Minutes, CCS 138th meeting,
December 7, 1943, FRUS: Cairo-Teheran, pp.
681-686 and 756-757.

80. CCS 400/2 "Control of Strategic Air
Forces in Northwest Europe and in the
Mediterranean," December 4, 1943, FRUS:
Cairo-Teheren, pp. 787-789.

81. Minutes, CCS 138th Meeting, December
7, 1943, FRUS: Cairo-Teheren, p. 757.

82. Minutes, CCS 134th Meeting, December
4, 1943, FRUS: Cairo-Teheren, p. 685.

83. Arnold, Global Mission, p. 445. See also
Trip to England, August 31, 1 943-September 8,
1943, Arnold Papers, Journals, box 271.

84. Arnold, Global Mission, p. 450.

85. Ibid., pp. 472-473.

86. Trip to Sextant, November 11,
1943-December 15, 1943, Arnold Papers,
Journals, box 272. This is Arnold's diary of the
trip and contains much valuable information.
See also Copp, Forged in Fire, p. 447.

87. Entry for December 8, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

88. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisen-
hower, p. 455; Eisenhower, Crusade in Europe,
p. 217. Both authors give the strong impression
that Eisenhower merely approved of Spaalz's
appointment and did not propose it.

89. Trip to Sextant, Arnold Papers, Journals,
box 272.

90. [Memo for the Record], "ftinciple Points
Discussed with General Arnold," n.d. [ca.
December 8, 1943], Spaatz Papers, Diary.

91. Ibid.
92. Ibid.

93. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 3,
item 1428, msg W-8550, Eisenhower to
Marshall, December 25, 1943, pp. 161 1-1612.

94. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisen-
hower, p. 455.

95. Ibid., p. 456.

96. Chandler, Eisenhower's Papers, vol. 3,
item 1428, msg W-8550, Eisenhower to
Marshall, December 25, 1943, pp. 161 1-1612.

97. Entry for Pecember 9, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

98. Ibid.

99. See Itrs, Arnold to Eaker, June 15, 1943;
July 7, 1943; August 1, 1943; Arnold Papers,
File BC to GB, box 49, and msg R-3550,
Arnold to Eaker, Eaker Papers, box 16.

100. Memo, Notes on Strategic Bombard-
ment Conference, Gibraltar, November 8, 9, 10,
1943, by Col. George C. McDonald, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

101. Msg W^779 (MC OUT 2784), Spaatz
and Eaker to Arnold, November 9, 1943, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

102. Ltr, AM W. L. Welch, Head, RAF
Delegation in Washington, to Arnold,
December 14, 1943, AF/CHO microfilm reel
34163, frames 1260-1261. This letter contains
the text of Portal's message to Arnold and is
found in a microfilm copy of the Papers of Gen.
Lawrence Kuter. The originals are part of the
manuscript collections of the U.S. Air Force
Academy at Colorado Springs. See Parton, "Air
Force Spoken Here," pp. 329-346. Parton, who
examined many of the same sources, reaches
some different conclusions in his defense of
Eaker during this period.

103. Msg R-7075, Arnold to Eaker, Decem-
ber 18, 1943, Eaker Papers, box 16.

702

Notes

104. Interview, Lt. Gen. Ira C. Eaker by
Arthur K. Marmor, January 1966, USAF Oral
History Collection, AFHRC file no. K239-
0512.626, p. 13.

105. Ltr, Eaker to Fechet, December 22,
1943, Eaker Papers, box 7.

106. Msg, Eaker to Arnold, December 19,
1943, Eaker Papers, box 16.

1 07. For the text of Eaker's message to Spaatz,
see msg AF-434, Spaatz to Arnold, December
19, 1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

108. Ltr, Welsh to Arnold. December 20,
1943, AF/CHO microfilm reel 34163, frames
1262—1263. This letter contains the text of
Portal's message to Arnold; the original is from
the Kuter Papers at the Air Force Academy.

109. Ibid.

110. Msg R-7136, Arnold to Devers, Decem-
ber 20, 1943, Eaker Papers, box 16. The attribu-
tion to Kuter can be found in Copp, Forged in
Fire, p. 450. For an example of Kuter's criti-
cisms of Eaker's performance, see memo, Kuter
to Arnold, October 26, 1943, AF/CHO microfilm
reel B 5046, frame 1825. In the memo Kuter says
with regard to the bombing record of the Eighth
from April I lo October 20. "Only a very small
weight of bombers has been utilized against the
primary targets in Pointblank, and fewer against
the type targets now recommended by the
Committee of Target Analysts in the USA,
namely, Fighter Aircraft, Ball Bearings, and
Grinding Wheels" [emphasis in the original].

111. Ltr, Arnold to Welsh, December 27,
1943, AF/CHO microfilm reel 34163, frame
1266, Kuter Papers, Air Force Academy.

112. Msg A-4989, Arnold to Eaker, Decem-
ber 21, 1943, Eaker Papers, box 16.

113. Msg AF-434, Spaatz to Arnold, Decem-
ber 19, 1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

114. Entry for December 23, 1943,
Command Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

115. Entry for December 9, 1943, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

116. Interview, Spaatz by Shaughnessey,
1959-1960, pp. 65-66.

117. Entry for December 23, 1943, Com-
mand Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

118. Ibid.

119. Forrest Pogue, George C. Marshall:
Organizer of Victory 1943-1945 (New York:
Viking, 1973), pp. 324-325.

120. Msg 5585, Marshall to Eisenhower,
[received] December 24, 1943, D. D. Eisen-
hower Pre-Presidential Papers, Official Cable
File, Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kans.

121. Entry for December 25, 1943, Com-
mand Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

122. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 3,
item 1428, msg W-8550, Eisenhower lo
Marshall, December 25, 1943, pp. 161 1-1615.

123. Ibid., vol. 3, item 1429, msg 19181,
Eisenhower to Eaker, December 25, 1943, pp.
1615-1616.

124. Entry for December 26, 1943, Com-
mand Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

125. Ibid.

126. Interview, Spaatz by Shaughnessey,
1959-1960, p. 63.

127. Ibid., p. 65.

128. Interview. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz by the
U.S. Air Force Academy Department of History,
September 27, 1968, p. 1.8.

129. Ibid.

1 30. Craven and Cate, Torch to Pointblank,
p. 750.

131. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, n.d. [late Febru-
ary 1944], AFHRC file no. 168.491, AF/CHO
microfilm reel A 1657, frames 1082-1085.
Spaatz received this letter on March 1 and
returned his copy, one of only two made, with
his reply. A copy of Spaatz's copy, with
Spaatz's penciled notations faithfully tran-
scribed, found its way into AAF files and
thence to microfilm.

132. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 3.
The following cables and the footnotes to them
contain discussion of Marshall's replies to
Eisenhower: item 1428, msg W-8550,
December 25, 1943; item 1440, msg W-8678,
December 27, 1943; item 1445, msg W-8710,
December 28, 1943; and item 1449, December
29, 1943, pp. 1611-1614, 1622-1624,
1626-1628, and 1630-1631.

133. British Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, RAF Narrative, "The North African
Campaign," pp. 152-153.

703

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Part Four
The Point of the Blade

Strategic Bombing and
the Cross-Channel Invasion

1. USSBS, Aircraft Division, Industry Report,
vol. 4, 2d ed. (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1947),
p. 5.

2. Charles Webster and Noble Frankland, The
Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany,
1939-1945, vol. 2: Endeavor (London: HMSO,

1961), p. 83.

3. Msg K-3189, Spaatz to Arnold, January
19, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

4. Craven and Gate, Torch to Pointblank, pp.
364-365.

5. Ibid., pp. 356-357.

Chapter 9
The Luftwaffe Engaged

1. Lir, Spaatz to Arnold, January 10, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Eighth Air Force File, 1942-1945.

2. Msg 9524, Arnold to Spaatz, January 31,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

3. Craven and Gate, Torch to Pointblank, pp.
705-706.

4. Ibid.

5. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, p.
126.

6. Ibid., pp. 704, 729.

7. FRUS: Cairo-Tehran, 133d meeting of the
CCS., p. 685.

8. Carrier Sheet, subj: "Loss Rate By Combat
Crew Eixperience," Lt. Col. H. Fay to Col. E.
Cook, Deputy Chief of Staff USSTAF, January
10, 1944, Spaatz Papers. Diary.

9. Memo for the Chief of Staff from Arnold,
subj: Army Air Forces Heavy Bomber Crew
Loss Rates in Eighth Air Force in U.K.,
December 27, 1943, Arnold Papers, Operations
folder: box 44.

10. Craven and Gate, Torch to Pointblank, p.
705.

11. Ibid., p. 639.

12. Murray, Strategy for Defeat , p. 234.

13. Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea
Gate, The Army Air Forces in World War II,
vol. 3, Europe: Argument to V-E Day, January
1944 to May 1945 (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1951), p. 26.

14. See Murray Green. "The Pen and the
Sword," in John L. Frisbee, ed.. The Makers of
the United States Air Force (Washington, D.C.:
AF/CHO, GPO, 1987) pp. 99-126 for a short
biography of Hugh Knerr.

15. Graven and Gate, Torch to Pointblank,

pp. 755-756. See also Command Diary, entry
for December 30, 1943. and conference notes,
December 31, 1943, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

16. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, March 18, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

17. Msg, Smith to Eisenhower, January 1,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

18. Entry for January 1, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers.

19. Sir Frederick Morgan, Overture to
Overlord (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday,
1950), p. 257.

20. Osur, Blacks in the Army Air Forces, p.
100, citing ltr, Eaker to Osur, December 5,
1974.

21. Ibid., pp. 100-102.

22. Mattie E. Treadwell, United States Army
in World War II, subseries: Special Studies: The
Woman' s Army Corps (Washington, D.C.:
OCMH,GPO, 1954), p. 384.

23. Entry for January 3, 1944, Command
Dairy, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

24. Craven and Gate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 21.

25. Memo, Spaatz to CG, AAF [Arnold],
subj: H2X Pathfinders for the Strategic Air
Forces. January 14, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

26. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, January 5, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

27. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, January 10, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Eighth Air Force File,
1942-1945.

28. Memo, Spaatz to CG/AAF, January 14,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Eighth Air Force File,
1942-1945.

29. Minutes of Commanders' Meeting,

704

Notes

September 10, 1943, Eaker Papers, box 20.

30. FM 100-20, chap. 2, sec. 2, para. 13, p. 9.

31. Ibid., para. 12, p. 8.

32. Ibid., sec. 3, para. 16, p. 10.

33. Memo to General Marshall, from Arnold,
subj: CCS Air Plan for the Defeat of Germany,
November 3, 1943, Arnold Papers, folder: JCS,
box 43.

34. W. W. Rostow, Pre-lnvasion Bombing
Strategy: General Eisenhower' s Decision of
March 25, 1944 (Austin: University of Texas
Press, 1981), pp. 17-18.

35. Entry for January 4, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

36. Entries for May 10, 14, 15, 16, 1942,
Command Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

37. Entries for January 6, 8, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

38. Memo, Spaatz to CG, Eighth Air Force,
subj: Operational Directive, n.d. [January 11,
1944], Spaatz Papers, Subject File 1929-1945.

39. Msg K-3214, Spaatz to Arnold, January
21, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

40. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, January 23, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

41. Ibid.

42. Ltr, Spaatz to Lovett, January 23, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

43. Entry for January 22, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

44. Ibid.

45. Murray, Strategy for Defeat, chart, p.
234.

46. Stephen L. McFarland, "The Evolution of
the American Strategic Fighter in Europe
1942^4," The Journal of Strategic Studies X
(June 1987), pp. 193-194; interview, Lt. Gen.
Barney M. Giles by James C. Hasdorff,
November 20-21 1974, USAF Oral History
Collection, AFHRC file no. K239.05 12-814,
pp. 98-99; Benjamin S. Kelsey, The Dragon's
Teeth , p. 68.

47. For a sketch of Kepner's life see Paul F.
Henry, "William E. Kepner: All the Way to
Berlin," in Frisbee, Makers of the USAF, pp.
151-176.

48. Interview, Maj. Gen. William E. Kepner
by Bruce Hopper, July 15, 1944, VII F.C, HQ,
Spaatz Papers, Subject File 1929-1945.

49. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part
2, p. 317.

50. Craven and Gate, Argument to V-E Day,
pp. 22-24.

51. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, p.
165. Freeman also notes three additional B-17s
written off as a result of battle damage.

52. Ibid, See also notes of "Information

Available Regarding Heavy Bomber Mission 1 1
January," n.d. [mid-January] Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

53. Record, telephone conference, January 12
[13?], 1944, 1800 hrs British time, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

54. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, January 24, 1944,
AFHRC file no. 168.491, AF/CHO microfim
reel A 1657A, frames 1064-1065.

55. Msg K-3214, Spaatz to Arnold, January
21,1 944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

56. Ltr, Spaatz to Lovett, January 23, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

57. Craven and Gate, Argument to V-E Day,
pp. 24-25; Carter and Mueller, Combat
Chronology 1941-1945, pp. 263-264.

58. Msg AX-621, Air Ministry to USSTAF,
February 17, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

59. Peter Wykeham, Fighter Comand; A
Study of Air Defence, 1914-1960 (London:
Pumam, 1960), pp. 242-243.

60. Terraine, A Time for Courage, p. 196.

61. Denis Richards, Royal Air Force,
1939-1945, vol. 1, The Fight at Odds (London:
HMSO, 1953), p. 194.

62. British Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, RAF Narrative, "The Liberation of
North West Europe," vol. 1, "The Plaiming and
Preparation of the Allied Expeditionary Air
Force for the Landings in Normandy," pp.
33-35. The narrative by the RAF Historical
Section was prepared exclusively from original
security-classified documentation. The bulk of its
documentation comes from the Papers of Air
Chief Marshal Leigh-Mallory, which have since
found their way from the Air Ministry to the
Public Records Office. It is probably the best, if
not the only, history of the AEAF and presents
the views of Leigh-Mallory clearly and accu-
rately.

63. Terraine, A Time for Courage, p. 196.

64. Russell F. Weigley, Eisenhower' s Lieu-
tenants: The Campaigns of France and Ger-
many, 1944-1945 (Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 1981), p. 59.

65. E. J. Kingston-McCloughry, The Direc-
tion of War: A Critique of the Political Direc-
tion and High Command in War (London:
Jonathan Cape, 1955), p. 121.

66. Terraine, A Time for Courage, p. 196.

67. Weigley, Eisenhower' s Lieutenants, p.
59.

68. Numerous entries in Vandenberg's
diaries. Papers of Hoyt S. Vandenberg, Library
of Congress, Manuscript Division; interview,
Gen. Frederic H. Smith by James C. Hasdorff
and Brig. Gen. Noel F. Parrish, USAF Oral

705

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

History Collection, June 7-8, 1976, AFHRC file
no. K 239.0512-903.

69. For Coningham's difficulties with Leigh-
Mallory, see D'Este, Decision in Normandy, pp.
214, 222-225. For an example of Leigh-
Mallory's treatment of Brereton, see Lewis H.
Brereton, The Brereton Diaries (New York;
William Morrow, 1946), p. 228, entry for
December 10, 1943.

70. Kingston-McCloughry, The Direction of
War. p. 120.

71. Weigley, Eisenhower's Lieutenants, pp.
58-59.

72. D'Este, Decision in Normandy, p. 210.

73. Ltr, Maj. Gen. William O. Butler,
USAAF Branch, HQ COSSAC, to Maj. Gen.
Barney M. Giles, Chief of Air Staff, 13
November 1943. AFHRC file no. 168. 491,
AF/CHO microfilm reel A 1657, frame 530.

74. Entry for February 15, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

75. Weigley, Eisenhower' s Lieutenants, p.
59.

76. British Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, RAF Narrative, "The Liberation of
North West Europe," vol. 1, " AEAF Planning
and Preparation," pp. 25-27.

77. Entry for January 3, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

78. Charles Webster and Noble Frankland,
The Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany
1939-1945, vol. 3, Victory (London; HMSO,
1961), p. 16.

79. Msg W-9378/8965, Morgan to
Eisenhower, January 9, 1944, Spaatz Papers,
Diary. See note at bottom of copy in Spaatz's
diary, which gives his comments to Butler.

80. Msg R-8127, Marshall to Spaatz and
Morgan, January 15, 1944, Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

81. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 3,
item 1423, msg, Eisenhower to Marshall,
December 17, 1943, pp. 1604-1607.

82. Ibid., item 1470, msg, Eisenhower to
Marshall, January 31, 1944, pp. 1648-1649.

83. Ibid.
84. Ibid.

85. Ibid., item 1472, msg 6490, Eisenhower
to Smith, January 5, 1944, pp. 1651-1652.

86. Ltr, Arnold to Eisenhower, January 17,
1944, Arnold Papers, Correspondence.

87. Conference notes, Spaatz, Eaker, Giles,
January 9, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

88. Entry for January 17, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

89. Ibid.

90. Entry for January 22, 1944, Command

Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

91. Entry for January 24, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

92. Msg K-3I89, Spaatz to Arnold, January
19, 1944, Command Diary, Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

93. Ibid. See notes on Eisenhower's correc-
tions on copy in Spaatz's files.

94. Entry for June 20, 1944, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

95. Entry for January 21, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

96. Entry for January 20, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

97. Entry for January 24, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

98. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, February 1, 1944,
Spaatz Papers. Diary. Margin notes on this doc-
ument indicate Spaatz did not send it to Arnold,
but instead retained it for his own files.

99. Memo, to General Spaatz, subj: "Confer-
ence at Air Chief Marshal Leigh-Mallory's
Headquarters," from F. L. Anderson, February
4, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

100. Ltr, Portal to Spaatz, February 15, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

101. Ibid.

102. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-EDay,
p. 109.

103. Conference notes, February 19, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

104. Ibid.

105. Msg IE-129 CS [Redline], Spaatz to
Eakcr, February 19, 1944, Spaatz Papers,
Cables File.

106. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 32.

107. Ibid., p. 31. See also ltr, Spaatz to
Arnold, January 23, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary;
interview. Col. R. D. Hughes by Bruce C.
Hopper, London, March 20, 1944, p. 1, Spaatz
Papers, Subject File 1929-1945; Hughes stated,
"We were all resigned to losing 150-200 heav-
ies on the first initial show."

108. Msg. Spaatz to Eaker, February 19,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary. The message was
cancelled by Spaatz before transmission to
Eaker.

109. Entry for February 19, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

1 10. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 32.

111. Ibid.

112. Bernard Boylan, Development of the
Long-Range Escort Fighter (USAF Historical
Study No. 139 KlOl-136, 1955), p. 180.

113. Roger Freeman, Mighty Eighth War

706

Notes

Diary (London: Jane's. 1981), pp. 183, 297.
Also see Kelsey, Dragon's Teeth, pp. 134-135.
Kelsey made the first P-38 test flight, served as
the project officer for the P-38's development,
and in 1943-1944 commanded the Eighth Air
Forces Operational Engineering Section. In his
view, the performance of P-38s in Europe was
hampered by their pilot's poor opinion of their
performance an opinion, not shared by P-38
pilots in other theaters of operation.

1 14. Interview, William.son by Hopper, June
14, 1944.

115. Ibid.

1 16. Haywood S. Hansell, The Air Plan That
Defeated Hitler (Atlanta: Higgins-McArthurA-on-
gino and Porter, 1972), p. 181.

1 17. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 34.

1 18. Interview, Williamson by Hopper, June
14, 1944.

119. Ibid.

120. Compiled from Bomb Group Mission
reports found in Freeman, Mighty Eighth War
Diary, pp. 183-188.

121. Murray, Strategy for Defeat, p. 242;
Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E, p. 43.

122. Combined Operational Planning
Committee, "Third Periodic Report on Enemy
Daylight Fighter Defenses and Interception
Tactics, Period 15 February 1944-2 March
1944," March 26, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Subject
File 1929-1945.

123. Murray, Strategy for Defeat, p. 242.

124. Ibid., p. 234.

125. Craven and Cate. Argument to V-E Day,
p. 45.

126. British Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, RAF Narrative, "The RAF in the
Bombing Offensive Against Germany," vol. 5,
"The Full Offensive, February 1943-February
1944," p. 164.

127. Ibid., p. 165.

128. Ibid.

129. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
pp. 45-47; Murray. Strategy for Defeat, pp.
253-255.

130. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
pp. 43^4.

131. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, n.d. [early March
1944], Spaatz Papers, Diary.

132. Ibid.

133. Ibid.

134. Ibid.

135. Interview, Hughes by Hopper, March

20, 1944.

136. Ibid.

137. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic

Air Offensive, vol. 3, p. 23.

138. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisen-
hower, p. 447.

139. Interview, Gen. Carl A. Spaatz by the
Air Force Academy Department of History,
September 27, 1968, p. 17.

140. Entry for February 10, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

141. Ibid.

142. Conference notes, April 10, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

143. Ibid.

144. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic
Air Offensive, vol. 3, pp. 24-25.

145. Max Hastings, Bomber Command (New
York: Dial, 1980), pp. 263-268; Murray,
Strategy for Defeat, pp. 216-222.

146. Murray, Strategy for Defeat, p. 220.

147. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic
Air Offensive, vol. 3, p. 27.

148. Zuckerman, Apes to Warlords, pp.
216-220.

149. AEAF/MS 22007/Air Ops., "'OVER-
LORD' Employment of Bomber Forces in
Relation to the Outline Plans," February 12, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

150. Rostow, Pre-Invasion Bombing Strategy,
pp. 46^7 and 50. See also Arthur Tedder, With
Prejudice, p. 489.

151. Memo, Assistant Director of Intelligence,
USSTAF [Hughes] to Deputy Commander for
Operations, "Planning Conference at Norfolk
House," January 25, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

152. Draft msg, Spaatz to Arnold, February 7,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

153. Ibid.

154. Memo, Assistant Director of Intelligence,
USSTAF [Hughes] to CO, USSTAF [Spaatzl, sub-
ject "Conference Held at AEAF Headquarters,
Stanmore 15 February 1944," February 15, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

155. AEAF/MS 22007/Air Ops., February 12,
1944, p. 1.

156. Memo, Hughes to Spaatz, February 15,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

157. Ibid.

158. Zuckerman, Apes to Warlords, p. 235.

159. Memo, Hughes to Spaatz, February 15,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

160. Ibid.

161. Ibid.

162. Entry for February 15, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

163. Chandler, Eisenhower' s I'apers. vol. 3,
item 1539, msg, Eisenhower to Marshall, February
9, 1944, p. 1715.

164. Entry for February 17, 1944, Command

707

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

165. Zuckerman, Apes lo Warlords, p. 228.

166. Entry for February 17, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

167. Entry for February 19, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

168. Msg K-3769, Spaatz to Arnold, Spaatz
Paper, Diary.

169. Entry for February 19, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diaiy.

170. Ibid.

171. Msg K-3769, Spaatz to Arnold, Spaatz

Papers, Diary.

172. Msg F-347, Arnold to Spaatz, February
20, 1944, Command Diary. Spaatz Papers, Diary.

173. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower, pp.
498-499; Hastings, Bomber Command, pp. 274-275;
Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day, p. 80.

174. Tedder, With Prejudice, p. 508.

175. Ibid., pp. 508-509.

176. Chandler, Eisenhower's Papers, vol. 3,
item 1575, memo, Eisenhower to Tedder,
February 29, 1944, pp. 1755-1756.

177. tbid.

178. Ibid.

179. Ibid.

180. Tedder, With Prejudice, pp. 510-51 1.

181. Ibid.

182. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower,
pp. 498-499.

183. Forrest C. Pogue, United Slates Army in
World War II, subseries: The European Theater of
Operations, The Supreme Command (Washington,
D.C.:GPO, 1954), p. 124.

184. Murray, Strategy for Defeat, table LIII, p.
240.

185. Ibid., table LII, p. 239.

186. Ibid., table L, p. 235.

187. AAF, Statistical Digest, World War II pp.
lOO-IOI, table 69, and pp. 254-255, table 158.

Chapter 10
The Luftwaffe Defeated

1. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, March 6. 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

2. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower,
p. 499.

3. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 3,
item 1585, msg B-252, Eisenhower to
Marshall, March 20, 1944, pp. 1766-1767.

4. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, March 1, 1944,
AFHRC file no. 168.491,AF/CHO microfilm
reel A I657A, frames 1079-1089.

5. Pogue, The Supreme Command, p. 124.

6. Msg C.O.S.(W)1210, Air Ministry to
British Military Mission, Washington, D.C.,
March 13, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary; and CCS
520, Control of Strategic Bombing for
Overlord, March 17, 1944, AF/CHO micro-
film reel A 5535, frames 377-379.

7. Pogue, The Supreme Command, p. 125.

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid.

10. Interview, Hughes by Hopper, March 20,
1944.

11. Ibid.

12. Plan for the Completion of the Combined
Bomber Offensive, March 5, 1944, Spaatz
Papers. Subject File 1929-1945.

13. Ibid.

14. Rostow, Pre-Invasion Bombing Strategy,
p. 31

15. Ibid., p. 32.

16. Plan for Completion of the CBO, March
5, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Subject File 1929-1945.

17. Tedder, With Prejudice, p. 519.

18. Pogue, The Supreme Command, p. 128.

19. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, March 6, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

20. Memo, Arnold to the Chief of Staff, subj:
Combined Bomber Offensive, March 13, 1944,
Arnold Papers, Correspondence.

21. Ltr, Giles to Spaatz, March 16, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

22. Tedder, With Prejudice, pp. 516-5 17.

23. Teletype conference, Spaatz to AAF HQ,
Washington, D.C., March 16, 1944, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

24. Tedder, With Prejudice, pp. 518-519.

25. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 3,
item 1601. memo, March 22, 1944, pp.
1782-1785.

26. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 3, p. 28.

27. Ltr, Eaker to Arnold, April 8, 1944,
AFHRC file no. 168.491, AF/CHO microfilm
reel A 1658, frames 893-896.

28. CAS/Misc/61, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

29. Drew Middleton, "Boss of the Heavy-
weights," Saturday Evening Post, May 20,
1944. See also Hamilton, Master of the

708

Notes

Battlefield, p. 582.

30. CAS/Misc/61, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

31. Rostow, Pre-Invasion Bombing Strategy,
p. 45.

32. CAS/Misc/61, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

33. Ibid.

34. Ibid.

35. Ltr, Eaker to Arnold, April 8, 1944,
AFHRC file no. 168.491, AF/CHO microfilm
reel A 1658, frames 893-896.

36. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 81.

37. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 3, p. 32. See also Rostow, Pre-
Invasion Bombing Strategy, p. 52.

38. See Henry D. Lytton, "Bombing Policy in
the Rome and Pre-Normandy Invasion Aerial
Campaigns of World War II: Bridge-Bombing
Strategy Vindicated and Railyard-Bombing
Strategy Invalidated," Military Affairs (April
1983) pp. 53-58; Charles F. Kindleberger,
"World War II Strategy," Encounter
(November 1978) pp. 39-42; Walt W. Rostow,
"The Controversy over World War II
Bombing," Encounter (August-September
1980) pp. 100-101.

39. Hastings, Bomber Command, p. 277, cites
conversation with Air Commodore Sidney O.
Bufton of the Air Ministry Planning Staff.

40. Stephen E. Ambrose, The Supreme
Commander: The War Years of General Dwight
D. Eisenhower (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday,
1970), p. 372.

41. Ltr, Eaker to Arnold, April 8, 1944,
AFHRC file no. 168.491, AF/CHO microfilm
reel A 1658, frames 893-896.

42. Msg U-60193, Weekly Message no. 10,
Spaatz to Arnold (Eyes Only), March 26, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

43. Zuckerman, Apes to Warlords, p. 236.

44. Memo, Spaatz to Portal, "Use of Strategic
Bombers in Support of OvERlX)RD," March 31,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

45. Ibid.

46. Ibid.

47. Msg W-12257, Eisenhower to Marshall,
March 1, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

48. Msg B-225, Eisenhower to Marshall,
March 6, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

49. Ibid.

50. Entry for March 24, 1944, Hoyt S.
Vandenberg Papers, Diary, box 1.

51. Ibid., Vandenberg Diary, March 27,
1944.

52. Ibid.

53. AEAF/MS. 22005, Policy Governing
Bombing Attticks on Railway Centers by U.S.

IXth Air Force, March 10, 1944, Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

54. Ltr, Spaatz to Leigh-Mallory, March 15,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

55. Ltr, Spaatz to Eisenhower, March 18,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary. See also ltr, Spaatz
to Leigh-Mallory, March 18, 1944, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

56. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisen-
hower, p. 503.

57. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol.3,
item 1549, memorandum [for the record],
March 20, 1944, p. 1776.

58. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 123.

59. Hastings, Bomber Command, p. 267.

60. COPC/S.501/10/INT, Combined Opera-
tional Planning Committee, "Fourth Periodic
Report on Enemy Daylight Fighter Defenses
and Interception Tactics. Period 3 March
1944-31 March 1944," April 6, 1944, Spaatz
Papers, Subject File 1929-1945.

61. Eighth Air Force figures compiled from
individual mission reports summarized in
Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary. RAF
losses compiled from two separate documents:
COPC/S.501/10 INT, March 12, 1944, and
COPC/S.501/10 INT, April 6, 1944.

62. AAF, Statistical Digest, World War II,
table 102, p. 190.

63. Murray, Strategy for Defeat, table Lll, p.
239, and table LIII, p. 240,

64. Msg K-4164, Weekly Message no. 8,
Spaatz to Arnold (Eyes Only), March 11, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

65. Interview, Kepner by Hopper, July 15,
1944.

66. Minutes, Commanders' Meeting, January
21, 1943, AFHRC file no. 520.141-1, AF/CHO
microfilm reel A 5871, frame 1217.

67. Interview, Gen. Earle E. Partridge by
Thomas A. Sturm and Hugh N. Ahann, April
23-25, 1974, USAF Oral History Collection,
AFHRC file no. K239.0512-729, p. 239. Part-
ridge served as Doolittle's deputy commander
from January to May 1944. In June 1944 he
took over the Eighth's 3d Bombardment
Division from Maj. Gen. Curtis E. LeMay.
Before going to Britain, Partridge spent eight
months as the operations officer and chief of
staff of the Twelfth and Fifteenth Air Forces in
the Mediterranean.

68. Minutes, Commanders' Meeting, January
21, 1943, AF/CHO microfilm 520.141-1
"Commanders' Meetings," reel A 5871, frame
1217. For examples of Doolittle's earlier think-
ing, see rpt, Doolittle to Arnold, subj: Escort

709

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Fighters, May 22, 1943, and rpt, Doolittle to
Arnold, subj: Long Range Figliters, May 23,

1943, both in Doolittle Papers, box 19. In these
documents Doolittle speaks of sending fighters
on low-level sweeps ahead of escorted bomber
formations to catch enemy aircraft on their
fields and to strafe and bomb the fields. He
implied an aggressive stance on the part of the
escorting fighters by noting their capabilities of
either preventing attacking fighters from "get-
ting sel" or of driving away heavily armored
twin-engine fighters.

69. Entry for February 3, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

70. Memo, General Hansell from Lt. Col. J.
H. Goddard, subj: Notes on Staff Meeting Held
in Room 3E1046, 2:30 p.m., February 7, 1944;
Maj. Gen. B. M. Giles presiding, February 7,

1944, AFHRC "8th Air Force Policy" File.

71. AAF Evaluation Board, ETO, "Eighth Air
Force Tactical Development, August 1943-May

1945, "July 1945, AFHRC file no. 520.04.11, p.
50. This source is also available within General
Kepner's personal files, AFHRC file no.
168.6005-192, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 1722.

72. Air Corps Field Manual 1-5, "Employ-
ment of Aviation in the Amy," April 15, 1940,
chap. 4. sec. 3, para. 66, subpara. a, pp. 40-41;
Army Air Forces Field Manual 1-5,
"Employment of Aviation in the Army,"
January 18, 1943, chap. 4, sec. 3, para. 56, sub-
para. a, p. 35.

73. FM 1-5, January 18, 1943, chap. 4, sec.
3, para. 66, subpara. b, p. 36

74. Army Air Force Field Manual 1-15,
"Tactics and Technique of Air Fighting," April
10, 1942, chap. 1, sec. 1, para. 3, subpara. c, p.
2.

75. FM 1-15, April 10, 1942, chap. 5, sec. 7,
para. 62, p. 37.

76. Ibid.

77. Ibid.

78. AAF Evaluation Board, ETO, "Eighth Air
Force Tactical Development, August 1943-May
1945," p. 127.

79. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, subj: Long Range
Fighter Sweeps, April 10, 1944, AFHRC file
no. 168.491, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 1658,
frames 1065-1070.

80. Adolph Galland, The First and the Last:
The German Fighter Force in World War It
(Mesa, Ariz,: Champlin Museum Press, 1986),
p. 276. This is a reprint of the 1955 British edi-
tion.

81. AAF Evaluation Board, ETO, "Eighth Air
Force Tactical Development, August 1942-May
1945," p. 52,

82. Director of Operations (AD) Minute
20849, subj: "American Long-Range Fighter
Tactics, 26 April 1944," PRO AIR 20/860.

83. Ltr. Spaatz to Arnold, subj: "Long-Range
Fighter Sweeps, 10 April 1944," AFHRC File
no. 168,491, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 1658,
frames 1065-1070.

84. Ltr, Doolittle to Leigh-Mallory, March
22, 1944, Doolittle Papers, box 19.

85. Boylan, Long-Range Escort Fighter, pp.
181-182.

86. Memo, CG, VIII Fighter Command to
CG, 8th Air Force, subj: "Tactics and Techniques
of Long-Range Fighter Escort" (E-A-58), July
25, 1944, AF/CHO microfilm reel B 5200,
frames 142-161.

87. FM 1-5, April 15, 1940, chap. 4, sec. 1,
para. 59, subpara. b, pp. 37-38.

88. FM 1-5, January 18, 1943, chap.4, sec. 1,
para. 48, subpara. g, p. 32.

89. Murray, Strategy for Defeat, p. 244.

90. Ibid.

91. AAF Evaluation Board, ETO, "Eighth Air
Force Tactical Development, August 1942-May
1945," p. 127.

92. Ibid,, p. 50.

93. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part
l,pp. 320-323.

94. Roger A. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War
Manual (London: Jane's, 1984), p. 72.

95. Ltr, The Air Surgeon, Maj. Gen. N. W.
Grant, to Arnold, March 29, 1944, Arnold
Papers, Official Decimal File, box 91.

96. British Air Ministry, Rise and Fall of the
German Air Force, 1933-1945, p. 288. See also
Boylan, Long-Range Fighter Escort, pp.
203-204.

97. British Air Ministry, Rise and Fall of the
German Air Force, 1933-1945, p. 296.

98. Boylan, Long-Range Fighter Escort, pp.
208-210.

99. Josef Schmid and Walter Grabmann,
"The German Air Force Versus the Allies in the
West," vol. 2, "The Struggle for Air Supremacy
over the Reich: 1 January 1944-31 March
1944," USAF Historical Study no. 158 (1954),
p. 82. Lt. Gen. Schmid commanded the
Luftwaffe's / Fighter Corps during 1944. His
force had responsibility for the defense of cen-
tral Germany. This unpublished work is part of
the USAF's German air generals' monograph
project, which produced forty-two studies deal-
ing with various aspects of the war from the
Luftwaffe's perspective.

100. Josef Schmid, "The Employment of the
German Luftwaffe Against the Allies in the
West, 1943 to 1945," vol. 3, "Air Battles over

710

Notes

the Reich's Territory in Defense of the Vital
Resources of the German Luftwaffe from 1
April 1944 to D-Day (June 6, 1944)," p. 4.

101. British Air Ministry, Rise and Fall of
the German Air Force, pp. 292-293. Murray,
Strategy for Defeat, pp. 230-23 1 .

102. Walter Grabmann, "German Air Force
Air Defense Operations" USAF Historical
Study no. 164, (1956). pp. 73.5-736.

103. Memo, "Tactics of Long-Rangc Fighter
Escort." July 25, 1944, p. 2; AF/CHO microfilm
reel B 5200.

104. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, p.
195.

105. Murray, Strategy for Defeat, pp.
242-243.

106. Msg K-^082, Spaatz to Arnold, March
7, 1944, Spaatz Papers. Cables. This message
was prepared by Spaatz 's staff

107. Ibid.

108. COPC/S.501/10/INT, April 6, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Subject File 1929-1945.

109. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, p.
195.

110. Ibid., pp. 89-90.

Hi. Murray, Strategy for Defeat, p. 182.

1 12. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, p.
126.

1 13. Murray, Strategy for Defeat, p. 225.

1 14. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, pp.
90, 126,213.

115. Schmid and Grabmann, "The GAF ver-
sus the Western Allies," vol. 2, pp. 186-187.

116. COPC/S.501/10/INT, April 6, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Subject File 1929-1945. My
description of the raid relies heavily on infor-
mation contained in this document.

1 17. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, p.
196.

118. Ibid., figures compiled from various
mission summaries within the book.

119. Murray, Strategy for Defeat, table L, p.
235.

120. Ibid., appendix 4, p. 345.

121. Craven and Cate. Argument to V-E Day,
p. 66.

122. Compiled from Freeman, Mighty Eighth
War Diary.

123. COPC/S.501/10/INT, May 8, 1944,
AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5219, frames
1422-1453.

124. Transcript, telephone conversation be-
tween Brig. Gen. Orvil .\. Anderson and Maj.
Gen. Frederick L. Anderson, April 28, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Subject File 1929-1945.

125. Msg U-60496, Weekly Message no. 1 1,
April 2, 1944, Spaatz to Arnold, Spaatz Papers,

Diary.

126. Msg U-60771. Spaatz to Surles, April 9,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

127. Ltr, Spaatz to Giles, April 18, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary. See also ltr, Spaatz to
Arnold, April 10, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary
for a detailed history of the development of the
USST.4F's ideas on fighter sweeps. As an over-
whelming amount of anecdotal evidence
demonstrated, U.S. fighter pilots took their
briefings literally. They shot at cows in the
fields, pedestrians, bicycle riders, farm carts,
and any moving civilian or military vehicle. Not
surprisingly the German population felt far
more resentment toward fighter pilots, who
appeared to make personalized attacks directed
against individual Germans, than against
bomber crews who killed, unseen, thousands of
people from 20,000 or more feet up. Anecdotal
evidence also suggests more retaliation by the
German civil population against shot down
fighter pilots than against bomber crews.

128. Memo, Statistical Control to CG,
USSTAF. "Enemy Aircraft Destroyed on the
Ground." April 18, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

129. AAF Statistical Digest, World War II,
table 104, p. 198.

130. Barry D. Watts, The Foundations of US
Air Doctrine: The Problem of Friction in War
(Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press,
1984). pp. 80-81.

131. Compiled from Freeman, Mighty Eighth
War Diary.

132. Murray, Strategy for Defeat, table L, p.
235.

133. AAF Statistical Digest, World War II,
table 2, p. 8.

134. Murray, Strategy for Defeat, appendix 4,
p. 345.

135. AAF Stati.Uical Digest, World War II,
table 102, p. 190.

1 36. Murray, Strategy for Defeat, tables LII
and LIIl. pp. 239-240.

137. Ibid., p. 278.

138. Compiled from Eighth Air Force mis-
sion reports in Freeman, Mighty Eighth War
Diary.

139. Ibid.

140. Ltr. Arnold to Spaatz,. April 3. 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

141. Ltr, Arnold to Twining [and all other
Air Force Commanders], February 11, 1944,
Eaker Papers.

142. Ltr, Doolittle to VIII Fighter Command
and All Bombardment Divisions, subj:
Retention of Personnel Coinpleting Combat
Tour, February 17, 1944, Doolittle Papers, box

711

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

19.

143. 1st Endorsement, Itr, 8th AF to CG,
AAF, "Polity on Relief of Combat Crews,"
March 4, 1944, Doolittle Papers, box 19.

144. Ibid.

145. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, p.
200.

146. Memo to Arnold from the Air Surgeon,
March 29, 1944, Arnold Papers, Official
Decimal File, box 91.

147. Msg U-60910, Spaatz to Arnold, April
13, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary. USSTAF
Public Relations Office prepared this message
and sent it over Spaatz's signature.

148. Transcript, telephone conversation
between Lt. Gen. James H. Doolittle and Maj.
Gen. Frederick L. Anderson, March 9, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Subject File 1929-1945.

149. Ibid.

150. COPC/S.501/10/INT, May 8, 1944
"Period 1 April 1944-30 April 1944. AF/CHO
microfilm reel A 5219, frames 1404-1419.

151. Maj. Gen. Frederick Anderson's Official
Journal, entry for April 12, 1944, Spaatz Papers,
USSTAF file.

152. Entry for April 13, 1944, Anderson's
Official Journal.

153. Entry for January 18, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

154. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, April 16, 1944. In
this cover letter Spaatz explained the transmis-
sion of his letter to Portal, a copy of which he
also sent to Arnold notated "not sent" and
"copy given to Amb. Winant."

155. Ltr, Spaatz to Portal, April 13, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

156. Ltr, Portal to Spaatz, April 14, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

157. Ltr, Sinclair to Winant, [n.d.] enclosed
in ltr, Winant to Spaatz, April 18, 1944, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

158. Ltr, Portal to Spaatz, April 14, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

159. Entry for April 17, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

160. Entry for April 19, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

161. Ibid.

162. Entry for April 20, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

163. Entry for May 14, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

164. Draft ltr, Spaatz to Arnold [ca. March 6,
1944], March 6, 1944], Spaatz Papers, Diary.
This annotated draft does not indicate whether
Spaatz based a finished letter on it.

165. Ibid., msg AX-621, Air Ministry to

USSTAF, February 17, 1944.

166. Ltr, Frederick L. Anderson to AM Sir
Douglas Evill, Air Ministry, March 5, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Subject File 1929-1945.

167. Teletype conference transcript, March 17,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Subject File 1929-1945.

168. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E day,
pp. 373-384.

169. Msg U-60045, Spaatz to Arnold, March

23, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary. This message
contains the text of Wilson's directive, the
MAAF reply, and Portal's reply to Wilson.

170. Ibid.

171. Ibid.

172. Msg WAR-13234, Arnold to Spaatz,
March 23, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

173. Msg WAR-13235, Arnold to Portal,
March 23, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary. Copy
sent to Spaatz as well.

174. Ltr, Arnold to Dill, March 23, 1944,
Arnold Papers "JCS" folder: box 43.

175. Msg AX-779, Portal to Arnold, March

25, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

176. Msg OZ-1638, Portal to Dill, March 25,
1944, Arnold Papers, Official File 1932-1946,
box 49.

177. Msg U-60100, Spaatz to Arnold, March

24, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

178. Msg WAR-13745. Arnold to Spaatz,
March 24, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diaiy.

179. Msg 14086, Spaata Papers, Diary.

180. Msg AX-902, Portal to Arnold, March

26, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

181. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 174.

182. Interview, Hughes by Hopper, Jime 13,

1944.

183. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic
Air Offensive, vol. 4, appendix 49 (table
xxxviii), p. 516.

184. Tedder, With Prejudice, p. 521.

185. H. L. Ismay, The Memoirs of General
Lord Ismay (New York: Viking Press, 1960), p.
349.

186. Winston Churchill, The Second World
War, vol. 5, Closing the Ring (London: Cassell,
1952), p. 466.

187. Chandler, Eisenhower's Papers, vol. 3,
item 1630, Itr, Eisenhower to Churchill, April 5,
1944, pp. 1809-1810.

188. Tedder, With Prejudice, pp. 522-529.

189. Memo for the record, subj: Meeting of
April 15, n.d. [April 15, 1944], Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

190. D/SAC/TS.lOO, ltr, Tedder to Spaatz,
April 19, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

191. Ibid., pp. 538-539; report of Col.

712

Notes

Seibert, G-2 for Gen. Bradley, n.d. [ca. April
19, 1944], Spaatz Papers, Diary.

192. Entry for April 19, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

193. Pogue, The Supreme Command, pp.
163-164, Ambrose, The Supreme Commander,
p. 403.

194. Entry for April 19 , 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

195. Transcript, telephone conversation
between Spaatz and Anderson, April 20, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

196. F. L. Anderson's Official Journal, entry
for April 19, 1944, Spaatz Papers, USSTAF
file.

197. Ibid.

198. COPC/S. 501/1 0/INT, May 8, 1944,
AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5219, frame 1425.

199. F. L. Anderson's Official Journal, entry
April 19, 1944, Spaatz Papers, USSTAF file.

200. Draft of teletype text to be sent to
Arnold, April 8, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary,
marked "never sent."

201 . Craven and Gate, Argument to V-E Day,
pp. 306-307.

202. Rostow, Pre-lnvasion Bombing, p. 148,
note 28. Rostow maintains that in a personal
conversation with one of the authors of the
British Official History of the Strategic Bomber
Offensive, Noble Frankland, he was told that
Spaatz had confirmed in an interview with
Frankland his threat of resignation. In addition,
see Hansen, The Air Plan That Defeated Hitler,

pp. 235-236. Hansell, who cites no sources,
also claims that Spaatz threatened to quit unless
he got two days over the oil targets. Conversely,
Frankland has stated in a letter to this author
dated January 3, 1986 that he has no record in
his interviews of Spaatz confirming the resigna-
tion threat. Frankland wrote, "Whether or not he
[Spaatz] threatened to resign his command over
the issue I do not know."

203. Entry for April 19, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

204. Ibid.

205. Craven and Gate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 175

206. Entry for April 20, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

207. COPC/S. 501/10/INT, May 8, 1944,
AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5219, frames
1412-1413.

208. Entry for April 21, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

209. Compiled from Freeman, Mighty Eighth
War Diary.

210. AAF Statistical Digest, World War II,
table 159, p. 255.

211. Murray, Strategy for Defeat, tables LII
and LIII, pp. 239-240.

212. Interview, Spaatz by Shaughnessey,
1959-1960, p. 73.

213. Memo, Spaatz to Doolittle and Twining,
March 2, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

214. Interview, Doolittle by Burch,
Fogelman, and Tate, September 26, 1970.

Chapter 11
Final Preparations for the Invasion

1. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, May 10, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

2. AAF Statistical Digest: World War II, table
160, p. 256.

3. Notes of Meeting Held in the Air G.-in-
C.'s Office, 6th May 1944, TLM/MS.136/15,
May 1 1, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

4. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part 2,
p. 104.

5. Ibid., p. 105.

6. Ibid., memo. Maxwell to Spaatz, May 16,
1944; COPC/S.501/10/1NT., Combined Opera-
tional Planning Committee, "Sixth Periodic
Report on Enemy Daylight Fighter Defenses
and Interception Tactics, Period 1 May 1944-31
May 1944," June 29, 1944, Spaatz Papers,
Subject File 1929-1945.

7. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, p.
243.

8. Murray, Strategy for Defeat, p. 273.

9. Galland, The First and the Last, p. 280.

10. Graven and Gate, Argument to V-E Day,
pp. 176-177.

It. Albert Speer, Inside the Third Reich
(New York; Macmillan, 1970), p. 346.

12. Ibid., pp. 346-347.

13. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, pp.
252-254.

14. AAF, Ultra and the History of the United
States Strategic Air Forces in Europe vs. The
German Air Force (Frederick, Md.; University
Publications of America, 1985), pp. 98-99. This
study was completed by USSTAF no later than
September 24, 1945.

713

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

15. Ibid., p. 99.
16. Ibid.

17. Rostxjw, Pre-Invasion Bombing Strategy,
p. 52.

18. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 4, appendix 32, pp. 321-325.

19. AAF, Ultra and USSTAF, p. 104. For a
full and personal appreciation of the value of
Ultra to USSTAF, see Diane F. Putney, ed.,
Ultra and the Army Air Forces in World War II
(Washington, D.C.: GPO, AF/CHO, 1987). For
the issue of targeting the oil plants, see pp.
35-38. This is an interview with U.S. Supreme
Court Justice Lewis F. Powell, Jr., who served
as an Ultra liaison officer attached to Spaatz's
headquarters.

20. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part

2, pp. 502-503.

21. Msg AX-119, Portal to Bottomley, May

3, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

22. Interview, Hughes by Hopper, June 13,
1944. See also msg AX-119, CAS (Portal) to
DCAS (Bottomley), May 3, 1944, Spaatz
Papers, Subject File 1929-1945.

23. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 179.

24. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 4, appendix 49, p. 516.

25. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 179.

26. Draft of proposed teletype to General
Arnold, April 8, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary,
marked "never sent."

27. Entry for April 22, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

28. Draft Itr, Spaatz to Eisenhower, April 22,
1944, marked "shown to General Eisenhower
unsigned," Spaatz Papers, Diary.

29. Ibid.

30. Entry for April 23, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

31. Ibid.

32. Ibid.

33. Notes of meeting at General Wilson's
HQ, April 30, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

34. Tedder, With Prejudice, p. 526.

35. Ibid., pp. 526-527.

36. Ibid., p. 528.

37. Ibid.

38. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 3,
item 1658, msg, Eisenhower to Marshall, April
29, 1944, pp. 1838-1839.

39. Ibid., transcript, telephone conversation
between Doolitllc and Spaatz, April 22, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Subject File 1929-1945.

40. Tedder, With Prejudice, pp. 528-529.

41. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 3,

item 1662, Itr, Eisenhower to Churchill, May 2,
1944, pp. 1842-44.

42. Tedder, With Prejudice, p. 529.

43. Ibid., p. 530.

44. Ibid.

45. Ibid., pp. 530-531.

46. Churchill, Closing the Ring, pp. 466^67.

47. Ibid., p. 467.

48. AAF Evaluation Board, ETO "Effective-
ness of Air Attack Against Rail Transportation
in the Balde of France," June 1, 1945, p. 164,
AFHRC 138.4-37. This study based its figures
on statistics supplied by the Defense Passive,
the French organization responsible for calcu-
lating casualties resulting from air attacks.

49. Draft Itr, Spaatz to Eisenhower, April 22,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary, marked "shown to
General Eisenhower unsigned."

50. Rostow, Pre-Invasion llomhing Strategy,
pp. 41^2.

5 1 . Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
pp. 374-375.

52. Ibid., p. 157.

53. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part
2, pp. 111-112.

54. Interview, Smith by Hasdorff and
Parrish, June 7-8, 1976, pp. 84-85. Smith's fel-
low brigadier generals were David Schlatter,
Richard Nugent, O. P. Weyland, and Ralph
Stearley.

55. Rostow, Pre-Invasion Bombing Strategy,
p. 62.

56. Msg U-61689, Spaatz, to Arnold, May 4,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Subject File 1929-1945.

57. Rostow, Pre-Invasion Bombing Strategy,
pp. 63-64.

58. TLM/MS.136/15. Minutes of Meeting of
6 and 1 1 May 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

59. Rostow, Pre-Invasion Bombing Strategy,
p. 64.

60. Lytton, "Bombing Policy," Military
Affairs (April 1983), 56.

61. Rostow, Pre-Invasion Bombing Strategy,
appendix D, pp. 116-118. This appendix con-
tains a copy of a mission report prepared by the
365th's commanding officer.

62. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 158.

63. AAF Evaluation Board, ETO, "Effec-
tiveness of Air Attack Against Rail Transporta-
tion in the Battle of France," pp. 27 and 31,
AFHRC 138.4-37.

64. Rostow, Pre-Invasion Bombing Strategy,
p. 61.

65. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 158.

66. Tedder, With Prejudice, p. 537.

714

Notes

67. AAF Evaluation Board, ETO, "Effec-
tiveness of Air Attack Agaiost Transportation
in the Battle of France," p. 164, AFHRC file no.

138.4-37.

68. British Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, RAF Narrative, "The Liberation of
North West Europe," vol. 1, "AEAF Planning
and Preparation," p. 173, citing minutes from
Churchill to the British Chiefs of Staff and the
Supreme Commander.

69. Msg S-.il984, Smith to Marshall, May
17, 1944, Walter Bedell Smith Papers, Eisen-
hower Presidential Library, Abilene, Kans.;
Walter Bedell Smith, Eisenhower' s Six Great
Decisions: Europe 1944-1945 (New York:
Longmans, Green, 1956), p. 38; Chandler,
Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 3, note 3 to item
1630, p. 1810.

70. Blumenson, The Palton Papers, vol. 2, p.
456.

71. Draft of presentation. May 15, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

72. For an excellent discussion of Mont-
gomery's briefing and the controversy gener-
ated by the phase-lines, see D'Este, Decision in
Normandy, pp. 90-104.

73. Craven and Cate. Argument to V-E Day,
p. 156.

74. British Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, RAF Narrative, "The Liberation of
North West Europe," vol. 1, "AEAF Planning
and Preparation," p. 178.

75. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
pp. 158-159. 1 could find no record of aircraft
losses attributed only to the bridge campaign.
Given the low-altitude type of attack, the rela-
tive abundance of light antiaircraft artillery, and
the Germans' desperate need to defend the
bridges, losses were probably heavy.

76. USSBS, Transportation Division, The
Effects of Strategic Bombing on German
Transportation (Washington, D.C.: GPO,
1947), p. 53.

77. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
pp. 154-1.55.

78. Ibid., pp. 155, 160.

79. Tedder, With Prejudice, pp. 538-543;
Zuckerman, Apes to Warlords, pp. 256-258.

80. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
pp. 162-166.

81. Ibid.

82. British Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, RAF Narrative, "The RAF in the
Bombing Offensive Against Germany," vol. 6,
"The Final Phase, March 1944-May 1945," p.
25.

83. Entry for May 23, 1944, Vandenberg
Papers, Diary, box 1 .

84. Entry for June 1, 1944, Vandenberg
Papers. Diary, box 1.

85. Ibid.

86. Entry for June 1, 1944, Command Diary,

Spaatz Papers, Diary.

87. Entry for June 2, 1944, Vandenberg
Papers, Diary, box 1.

88. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part
2, pp. 104-105.

89. Entry for June 3, 1944, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

90. Entry for June 3, 1944, Vandenberg
Papers, Diary, box 1 .

91. Entry for June 3, 1944, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

92. Entry lor June 6, 1944, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

93. Ltr, Spaatz to Giles, June 27, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary; Craven and Cate, Argu-
ment to V-E Day, pp. 188-193.

94. British Air Ministry, Rise and Fall of the
German Air Force, p. 329.

95. Ltr, Spaatz (o Giles, June 27. 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

96. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, n.d.[late February
1944], AFHRC File No. 168.491, AF/CHO
microfilm reel A 1657A, frames 1082-1085.

97. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 155.

98. Ibid.

99. Eighth Air Force Statistical Summary of
Operations, August 17, 1942, May 8, 1945,
June 10, 1945, p. 47.

100. Eighth Air Force Monthly Summary of
Operations, December 1944, with year-end
summary, n.d. [early January 1945], p. 17.

101. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, pp.
256-259.

715

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Part Five
The Mortal Blow
Normandy to Berlin

Chapter 12
Summer 1944
Crossbow, Thunderclap
and Strategic Bombing

1. Entry for June 17, 1944, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

2. Eighth Air Force Monthly Summary of
Operations, June 1944, n.d. [July 1944],
AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5874, frame 1398.

3. British Air Ministry, Rise and Fall of the
German Air Force, pp. 329-330.

4. Kinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part 2,
p. 220.

5. Ibid. See also AF/CHO Research
Collection, SRH-013, Ultra: History of US
Strategic Air Forces Europe vs. German Air
Forces, pp. 197-206.

6. SRH-013, Ultra History of USSTAF, p.
197.

7. Ibid., p. 196.

8. Ibid., pp. 201-202.

9. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part 2,
pp. 220-221.

10. British Air Ministry, Rise and Fall of the
German Air Force, pp. 332-333.

1 1. Pogue, The Supreme Command, p. 252.

12. Terraine, A Time for Courage, pp.
546-547.

13. Chandler, Eisenhower's Papers, vol. 3,
note to item 1758, p. 1933.

14. Entry for June 18, 1944, Vandenberg
Papers, Diary, box 1.

15. Entry for June 18, 1944, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

16. Ibid.

17. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 528.

18. Ibid.

19. Ibid., p. 531.

20. Ibid.
21. Ibid.

22. Ltr, Spaatz to Eisenhower, June 28, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary. Craven and Cate,
Argument to V-E Day, p. 880, note that the copy
of the document available to them carried die
notation, "Carried to General E. by Gen. S.,
June 29, 1944."

23. Chandler, Eisenhower's Papers, vol.3.

item 1763, msg, Eisenhower to Marshall, June
19, 1944, pp. 1936-1937.

24. Ibid., item 1771, memo, Eisenhower to
C/S, SHAEF [Smith], June 23, 1944, pp.
1946-1947.

25. Ibid., item 1786, memo, Eisenhower to
DSC, SHAEF [Tedder], June 29, 1944, pp.
1960-1961.

26. Ltr, Spaatz to Eisenhower, July 10, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

27. Ibid.
28. Ibid.

29. Entry for July 10, 1944, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

30. Ibid.

31. Ibid., ltr, Spaatz to Tedder, July 15, 1944.

32. Memo, subj: Joint Air Staff-USSTAF
Crossbow Committee, F. L. Anderson to
Spaatz, July 21, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

33. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 533.

34. Ibid., p. 534

35. Ibid., p. 540.

36. Minute, Portal to Churchill, June 20,
1944, PRO PREM 3/14/2.

37. Minute, ACAS(P)/8235, ACAS(I) to
Under Secretary of State (C), June 22, 1944,
PRO AIR 20/842.

38. Minute, Portal to Churchill, June 21,
1944, PRO PREM 3/14/2.

39. Entry for June 20, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

40. Eighth Air Force Target Summary,
"Statistical Summary of All Bomber Attacks,
Alphabetically by Location, Period 17 August
1942-8 May, 1945," n.d. [May 31, 1945], pp.
7-8, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5875, starting at
frame 610.

41. Memo to Brig. Gen. George C. Mc-
Donald, Director of Intelligence, USSTAF,
subj: Operation "Shatter," June 27, 1944,
AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5616, frame 523.

42. Minute VCAS 1803, VCAS to CAS,
subj: Crossbow, July 2, 1944, PRO AIR

716

Notes

8/1229.

43. Extract from COS(44) 219th Meeting
(O), July 3, 1944, PRO AIR 8/1229.

44. Ibid., extract from Minutes of COS(44)
220th meeting (O), July 4, 1944.

45. Ibid., minute, CAS (Portal) to DCAS
(Bottomley), July 5, 1944.

46. Ibid., COS(44) 598 (O), subj: Crossbow:
Question of Retaliation, July 5, 1944.

47. 222d Meeting of the British Chiefs of
Staff, cited in memo, Kuter to Arnold, August
9, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

48. Memo by the Air Staff, subj: Attack on
German Civilian Morale, July 22, 1944, PRO
AIR 20/3227.

49. Memo to DCAS from D.B.Ops, S.6, July
28, 1944, PRO AIR 20/3227.

50. Entry for July 21, 1944, Command Diary,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

5 1 . Memo, Anderson to Director of Opera-
tions, July 21, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Subject File
1929-1945.

52. See table [Eighth Air Force Tonnage
Dropped by Type Target], n.d. [ca. late May
1945], AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5871, frame
1363. This is a work sheet or draft of statistical
bombing information collected by USSTAF; the
column "Towns & Cities" was dropped from
the final publication of this compilation.

53. COS(44) 650(0), Attack on German
Civilian Morale. August 2, 1944, PRO AIR
20/4831. See attached note "Operation
Thunderci-ap," August 1, 1944.

54. Ibid,

55. Joint Board Numbered Document 355
(Serial 707), subj: Joint Board Estimate of
United States Over-All Production Require-
ments, September 11, 1941, AFHRC file no.
145.81-23, AF/CHO microfilm reel A1370,
starting frame 1413.

56. Ltr, Kuter to Anderson, August 15, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

57. Memo for Maj. Gen. F. L. Anderson,
subj: "Attack on German Civilian Morale,"
from Col. Charles G. Williamson, September
12, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

58. Extract from COS(44) 257th Meeting
(O), August 3, 1944, PRO AIR 8/1229.

59. Draft D.B.Ops comments on Attack on
the German Government Machine, Outline Plan
by Joint Planning Staff, J.P.(44)203(O) Revised
Preliminary Draft, August 15, 1944, PRO AIR
20/4831.

60. J.P.(44) 203 Final, Attack on the German
Government Machine, August 17, 1944, PRO
AIR 20/8152.

61. B.Ops.l .comments on Attack on the

German Government Machine to Wing Com-
mander Ford-Kelsey, August 6, 1944, PRO AIR

20/4831.

62. COS(44) 774(0), Minute (D(K) 4/4) by
the Prime Minister, Attack on the German
Government Machine, August 28, 1944 [Minute
dated August 23, 1944], PRO AIR 20/8152.

63. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
pp. 638-639. This chapter demonstrated no under-
standing of the background of Thunderclap and
presented a somewhat confused account of the
proposed operation.

64. "Notes of the 81st Allied Air Command-
ers' Conference Held on Thursday, 24th August
1944, at HQ AEAF— 1100 Hours," Spaatz
Papers, Subject File 1929-1945.

65. Ltr, Spaatz to Eisenhower, August 24,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

66. 1st endorsement, Eisenhower to Spaatz,
August 28, 1944, Spaatz Paper, Diary.

67. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, August 27, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

68. Entry for September 9, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

69. Webster and Frankland, The Strategie Air
Offensive, vol. 1, p. 89, citing a Joint Planning
Committee Appreciation dated August 1, 1935.

70. AAF Statistical Digest, World War II,
table 159, p. 255; Freeman, Mighty Eighth War
Diary, pp. 256-282.

71. AAF Statistical Digest, World War II,
table 159, p. 255.

72. Ibid,

73. Ibid., table 59, p. 255.

74. Ibid., table 60, p. 256.

75. Murray, Strategy for Defeat, p. 177.

76. British Air Ministry, Rise and Fall of the
German Air Force, p. 285.

77. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, p.
362.

78. British Air Ministry, Rise and Fall of the
German Air Force, p. 286.

79. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, pp.
361-362.

80. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 3,
item 1786, memo, Eisenhower to Tedder, June
29, 1944, pp. 1960-1961.

8 1 . Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, pp.

283-307,

82. Ibid, See also AAF Statistical Digest,
World War II, table 159. p. 255.

83. Roger Freeman, The US Strategic
Bomber (London: Macdonald and Jane's,
1975), pp. 153-154. This work's section on
operational statistics extracts most of the vital
bomber statistics from the AAF Statistical
Digest, World War II, and presents them in a

717

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

more compact, useful, and more widely avail-
able form.

84. SRH-013, Ultra History of USSTAF, p.
217.

85. Ibid., p. 225.

86. Daily Intelligence Summary, August 18,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary. Although unmarked,
this appears to be an Ultra summary.

87. Compiled from Freeman, Mighty Eighth
War Diary, pp. 311-336.

88. COPC/S.501/10/INT. "Ninth Periodic
Report of Enemy Daylight Fighter Defences
and Interception Tactics, 1 August 1944-31
August 1944," September 15, 1944, AF/CHO
microfilm reel A 5220, frames 1551-1570.

89. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 298.

90. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part
2, p. 509.

91. AAF Statistical Digest, World War II, pp.
255-256, tables 159 and 160.

92. Speer, Inside the Third Reich, pp.
350-351.

93. Ibid.

94. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part
2, pp. 510-511.

95. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 4, appendix 49 (table xxxviii), p. 516.

96. Speer, Inside the Third Reich, p. 406.

97. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 306.

98. Ltr, Eaker to Arnold, June 1, 1944,
AFHRC File no. 168.491, AF/CHO microfilm
reel A 1658, frames 957-958.

99. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, p.
312.

100. Table, Inventory Aging Record, Heavy
Bomber Combat Crew Experience Level, n.d.
[late 1944], AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5614,
frames 636-637.

101. Eighth Air Force Narrative Summary,
July 1944, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5814,
frame 310.

102. Ltr, B. M. Giles to Spaatz, June 19,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

103. Ibid.

104. Ltr, Spaatz to Giles, July 21, 1944,

Spaatz Papers, Diary.

105. Msg U-65737, Spaatz to Arnold, July
31, 1944, War Department Communications
Center (WDCC) Message File, reel 828,
Modem Military Field Branch, NARA,

106. Compiled from individual mission
reports in Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary,
pp. 234-306.

107. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, pp.
270-273.

108. Msg U-64841, Spaatz to Arnold, July
13, 1944 WDCC, reel 828.

109. Msg WARX-71515, Arnold to Spaatz
and Eaker, July 27, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

110. Ibid.

111. Msg U-65658, Spaatz to Arnold, July
29, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

112. Ibid.

113. Ibid.

1 14. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, August 14, 1944,

Spaatz Papers, Diary.

115. Ibid.

116. Ltr, Arnold to Col. James W. Wilson,
subj: "Instructions," August 14, 1944, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

117. Memo, Lt. Col. James W. Wilson to
CG, AAF, subj: Combat Crew Morale in the
Eighth Air Force, September 15, 1944, AFHRC
File no. 168.491, AF/CHO microfilm reel A
1658, frames 1429-1431.

1 18. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
pp. 306-307. See also the report of the USSTAF
Surgeon General, Memorandum Report on
Morale of Combat Crew Personnel of the Eighth
Air Force, August 31, 1944, AFHRC File no.
519.701, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5737, frames
188-189. This report undermined the credibility
of the diplomatic reports by pointing out that the
U.S. Consul interviewed only two crews.

Chapter 13
Summer 1944
Heavy Bombers in Close Air Support

1. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day, p.
233.

2. Ibid., p. 237.

3. Gordon A. Harrison, United States Army in
World War II, subseries: The European Theater
of Operations, Cross-Channel Attack (Washing-

ton, D.C.: OCMH, GPO, 1951), p. 284.

4. Tedder, With Prejudice, p. 552.

5. Zuckerman, Apes to Warlords, p. 268.
Zuckerman also attended this meeting.

6. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day, p.
620.

718

Notes

7. Entries for May and June 1944, Vanden-
berg Papers, Diary, box 1.

8. Entry for June 6, 1944, Vandenberg
Papers, Diary, box.l.

9. Entry for June 7, 1944, Vandenberg
Papers, Diaiy, box. 1 .

lO.Interview, Spaatz by Hopper, June 27,
1945, p. 13.

11. D'Este, Decision in Normandy, p. 214.
D'Este, who has based this section of his work
on AEAF historical files has by far the most
complete and reliable account of the air com-
mand situation in Normandy.

12. Ibid., p. 215.
13. Ibid.

14. Nigel Hamilton, Master of the Battlefield,
p. 648.

15. Entry for June 15, 1944, Vandenberg
Papers. Diary, box 1. In this reference Mont-
gomery's old and famous desert army, the
British 8th Army, was confused with the new
2nd British Army just established on the beach-
head.

16. Zuckerman, Apes to Warlords, p. 268.

17. Entry for June 15, 1944, Vandenberg
Papers, Diary, box 1 .

18. D'Este, Decision in Normandy, p. 223.

19. Minutes of Daily Air Commanders'
Meeting, June 15, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Subject
File 1929-1945; Tedder, With Prejudice, p.
552.

20. Tedder, With Prejudice, p. 552.

21. Ibid.

22. D'Este, Decision in Normandy, p. 224.

23. Zuckerman, Apes to Warlords, p. 268.
Zuckerman incorrectly identifies Schlatter as
belonging to USSTAF rather than Ninth Air
Force.

24. Ibid., p. 270.

25. Tedder, With Prejudice, p. 552.

26. Ibid.

27. Zuckerman, Apes to Warlords, p. 270.

28. Entry for June 15, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

29. Ibid.

30. Entry for June 17, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

31. Entry for June 27. 1944, daily reflections
on the course of the battle by Air Chief Marshal
Sir Trafford Leigh-Mallory, dictated to Flight
Lieutenant Hilary St. George Saunders, June 5,
1944-August 15, 1944, PRO AIR 37/784.

32. Leigh-Mallory Diary, June 29, 1944,
PRO AIR 37/784.

33. Leigh-Mallory Diary, July 1, 1944, PRO
AIR 37/784.

34. Tedder, With Prejudice, pp. 557-559.

35. Ambrose, The Supreme Commander, p.
435.

36. Tedder, With Prejudice, p. 557.

37. Leigh-Mallory Diary, July 8, 9, 10, 1944,
PRO AIR 37/784.

38. Tedder, With Prejudice, pp. 559-560.

39. D'Este, Decision in Normandy, p. 313.

40. British Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, RAF Narrative, "The Liberation of
North West Europe," vol. 4, "The Breakout and
the Advance to the Lower Rhine, June
1944-September 1944," p. 23.

41. Zuckerman, Apes to Warlords, p. 276.

42. British Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, RAF Narrative, "The Liberation of
North West Europe," vol. 4, "Breakout and
Advance," p. 24. This narrative contains a
detailed description of Zuckerman's report.

43. Zuckerman, Apes to Warlords, p. 277.

44. Ambrose, The Supreme Commander, pp.
436-^37.

45. Tedder, With Prejudice, p. 561.

46. Leigh-Mallory Diary, July 8, 9, 10, 1944,
PRO AIR 37/784.

47. Ibid.

48. Leigh-Mallory Diary, July 11, 12, 1944,

PRO AIR 37/784.

49. Tedder, With Prejudice, p. 565.

50. British Air Ministry, Air Historical
Branch, RAF Narrative, "The Liberation of
North West Europe," vol. 4, "Breakout and
Advance," p. 52. This monograph has detailed
examinations of several of the heavy-bomber
ground support operations.

51. D'Este, Decision in Normandy, pp.
370-378. This book offers particularly good
insights into British methods, performance, and
personalities during the Normandy campaign.

52. See Webster and Frankland, The
Strategic Air Offensive, vol. 3, pp. 166-173, for
a discussion in the improvement in British accu-
racy for the last year of the war. Much of this
improvement came from Bomber Command's
use of electronic bombing aids, such as Oboe
and Gee-H, whose accuracy surpassed that of
the American-employed H2X. For similar cov-
erage and a comparison of the average bomb
weight carried by U.S. and British heavy
bombers, see the Report of the British Bombing
Survey Unit (BBSU), "The Strategic Air War
Against Germany 1939-1945" (London: BBSU,
1947), pp. 42-50. A copy of this work can be
found in the files of the AFHRC file no.
512.552-1 1(c). Effectiveness is a combination
of accuracy and bomb damage. The evidence
indicates that Bomber Command, on the whole,
delivered more of its bombs closer to its aiming

719

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

points than USSTAF. In any case many British
bombs were much larger than American ones
and, when on target, inflicted a higher degree of
damage. German reports of damage to oil tar-
gets after AAF and RAF raids speak of the
greater damage caused by heavier British ord-
nance.

53. Tedder, With Prejudice, p. 571.

54. D'Este, Decision in Normandy, p. 385.

55. Leigh-Mallory Diaiy, July 18, 19, 1944,
PRO AIR 37/784.

56. Ambrose, The Supreme Commander, p.
439.

57. Bradley, A Soldiers Story p. 330.

58. Weigley, Eisenhower' s Lieutenants, p.
137.

59. Ralph Bennett, Ultra in the West: The
Normandy Campaign, 1944-1945 (New York:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1980), pp. 99-101.

60. Omar N. Bradley, Memorandum [for the
Record], subj: "Combined Air and Ground
Operations west of St. L6 on Tuesday, 25 July
1944," July 25, 1944, Chester B. Hanson
Diaries, U.S. Army Military History Institute,
Carlisle Barracks, Pa. This memo purports to
have been written on the day of the second
Cobra bombing. Although it was certainly
written as a justification of Bradley's actions
during the period, it seems entirely too polished
and knowledgeable for a document written at
the time and under stressful circumstances. I
assume this memo was written some time after
the event, perhaps soon after the war, and
inserted in the files, probably by Hanson,
Bradley's personal aide-de-camp. It was proba-
bly written closer in time to the actual events
than Bradley's 1951 memoirs and is at least as
authentic. See also Bradley, A Soldier's Story,
p. 339.

61. Bradley, A Soldier's Story, p. 338.

62. Martin Blumenson, United States in
World War II, subseries: European Theater of
Operations: Breakout and Pursuit (Washington,
D.C.: OCMH, GPO, 1961), p. 220. Blumen-
son's account of Cobra is by far the most
detailed, accurate, and objective published to
date.

63. Ibid.

64. Bradley, A Soldier's Story, p. 341.

65. Blumenson, Breakout and Pursuit, p.
220. See also the report by Col. Harold W.
Ohkle to CG, USSTAF, August 14, 1944, subj:
"Report on Investigation," Spaatz Papers,
Subject File 1929-1945.

66. Blumenson, Breakout and Pursuit, p.
220.

67. Ibid.; Bradley, A Soldier's Story, p. 340.

68. Bradley, A Soldier' s Story, p. 330.

69. Ibid., p. 339.

70. Ibid., p. 340. Bradley says Spaatz at-
tended, but Vandenberg's diary implies that
Spaatz did not attend. I could find no record in
Spaatz' s papers to confirm his presence.
General Quesada in his USAF oral history inter-
view of May 12-13, 1975, places Spaatz and
Doolittle at the meeting.

71. Ibid., p. 341.

72. Ibid.

73. Blumenson, Breakout and Pursuit, p.

221.

74. Entry for July 19, 1944, Vandenberg

Papers, Diary, box 1.

75. Interview, Lt. Gen. El wood A. Quesada
by Lt. Col. Steve Long and Lt. Col. Ralph
Stephenson, May 12-13, 1975, USAF Oral
History Collection, AFHRC file no. K239.0512-
838.

76. Pogue, The Supreme Command, p. 271.

77. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 3,
item 1833, msg S-55586, Eisenhower to
Marshall, July 15, 1944, p. 2008. See also the
editor's notes to this source for Marshall's
refusal.

78. Entries for July 19-22, 1944, Vandenberg
Papers, Diaries.

79. Bradley Commentary on World War II,
Chester B. Hansen Collection, U.S. Army
Military History Institute, Carlisle Bairacks, Pa.

80. Ibid.

81. Ibid.

82. D'Este, Decision in Normandy, p. 384.
D'Este obtained the use of Tedder's diary from
Tedder's son.

83. Tedder, With Prejudice, p. 564.

84. Ltr, Montgomery to Maj. Gen. Frank
Simpson, Director of Military Operation, cited
in R. Lamb, Montgomery in Europe 1943-1944
(London: Buchan and Enright, 1983), pp.
126-127.

85. Tedder, With Prejudice, p. 564.

86. Entry for July 19, 1944, Vandenberg
Papers, Diary; box 1. Interview, Smith by
Hasdorff and Parrish, June 7-8, 1976, pp. 95-96.

87. Bradley, A Soldier's Story, p. 341.

88. Blumenson, Breakout and Pursuit, p.
221.

89. Special Report on Operations July 24 and
25, HQ, Eighth Air Force, n.d. [ca. August 9,
1944], AF/CHO microfilm reel B 5050, frame
1185; entry for July 23, 1944, Vandenberg
Papers, Diary, box 1.

90. Minutes of the 53d Allied Air Com-
manders' Conference, July 24, 1944, Spaatz
Papers, Subject File 1929-1945.

720

Notes

91. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 230.

92. Blumenson, Breakout and Pursuit, p.
231.

93. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part
2, p. 229.

94. Bradley, A Soldier's Story, p. 347.

95. Entry for July 24, 1944, Vandenberg
Papers, Diary, box 1 .

96. Ibid.

97. Ibid.

98. Memo for Gen. Spaatz's Diary, subj:
"Operation Cobra," from Maj. Gen. Frederick
L. Anderson, July 24, 1944, Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

99. Entry for July 24, 1944, Vandenberg

Papers, Diary, box 1 .

100. Bradley, A Soldier's Story, pp. 347-348;
Bradley's memo for the record of July 25, 1944,
Hanson Collection.

101. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part
2, p. 228.

102. Ibid.

103. Blumenson, Breakout and Pursuit, p.
240.

104. D'Este, Decision in Normandy, p. 393.
See also Air P/W Interrogation Detachment
Report, "A.P.W.I.U.(Ninth AF Adv.) 63/1945,"
May 29, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Subject File
1929-1945. Bayerlein was a favorite of post-
war American interrogators because of his
excellent English, which enabled him to present
his case more sympathetically than some of his
compatriots.

105. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part
2, p. 231.

106. Bennett, Ultra in the West, p. 102.

107. Blumenson, Breakout and Pursuit, p.
246.

108. Ibid., p. 236. Blumenson bases his fig-
ures on a USSTAF report of August 14, 1944.
A possible contributing factor to McNair's
death was his complete deafness. He may not
have been aware of dropping bombs until it was
too late to take cover.

109. Ibid.

1 10. Entry for July 25, 1944, Diary of Chester
B. Hanson, U.S. Army Military History Institute,

Carlisle Barracks, Pa.

111. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 234. Craven and Cate put the figure at thirty -
five "heavies" and forty-two mediums. In his
diary for July 26, Spaatz, in looking at the bomb
plots presented to him by Doolittle, estimated
that "approximately sixty heavy bombers
dropped short." Entry for July 26, 1944,
Command Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

1 12. Craven and Cale, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 234.

113. Ibid., p. 233.

1 14. Interview, Quesada by Long and Stephen-
son, May 12-13, 1975.

115. "Special Report on Operations July 24
and 25, 1944," Col. Walter K. Todd, Deputy
Chief of Staff for Operations to Commanding
General, Eighth Air Force, n.d. [ca. August 8,
1944], AF/CHO microfilm reel B 5050, frames
1181-1204.

116. Entry for July 26, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

117. Ibid.; see also "Minutes of Combat
Wing and Group Commanders Meeting," HQ,
First Bombardment Division, July 27, 1944,
AF/CHO microfilm reel B 5050, frames
1283-1284, and memo to General Doolittle,
subj: "Bombing of Tactical Targets in Support
of the 1st Army Assault," n.d. [August 1,
1944?], AF/CHO microfilm reel B 5050, frame
1101.

118. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Manual
pp. 23, 47, 234. This recent work contains a
most detailed and accurate account of day-to-
day operations of the Eighth Air Force. Its
description of the typical mission is unequaled.

119. Entry for July 26, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

120. Ibid.

121. Ltr, Brig. Gen. George C. McDonald,
Director of Intelligence, USSTAF, to Brig. Gen.
Thomas D. White, Assistant Chief of the Air
Staff, Intelligence, July 25, 1944, Papers of
George C. McDonald, Air Force Academy.

122. Ltr, White to McDonald, August 1,

1944, McDonald Papers, Air Force Academy.
White's comment is in a handwritten postscript.

123. Eighth Air Force, Statistical Summary
of Eighth Air Force Operations, 17 August
1942-May 1945, n.d. [May 31, 1945], p. 31,
Table on Bombing Accuracy.

124. By mid-1944 the Eighth Air Force had
approximately two B-17 groups for every B-24
group; Fifteenth Air Force had the opposite
ratio. An absolutely fair comparison of bombing
accuracy between the two forces would have to
account for such factors as opposition over tar-
get, escort, weather over target, distance to the
target, and availability and type of electronic
aiming assistance. The following figures, which
convey only a very rough measure of the
Eighth's and Fifteenth's accuracy, are from the
forces' final statistical reports (Statistical
Summary of Eighth Air Force Operations, 17
August 1942-8 May 1945, prepared June 10,

1945. Fifteenth Air Force Summary of Its

721

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Results and Operations, 1 November 1943-8
May 1945, prepared May 20, 1945).

Eighth

Fifteenth

Air Force

January 1944

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September-October

November-December 25

January 1945

February

March

April

Eighth Air Force figures cite the percentage
of bombs falling within 1 ,000 feet of the preas-
signed mean point of impact (MPI) on visual
missions under conditions of good to fair visi-
bility. Fifteenth Air Force figures merely give
the total percentage of bombs within 1,000 feet
of the briefed MPI, apparently without regard to
visibility.

125. "Eighth Air Force to CG, USSTAF," all
figures talcen from Special Report of Opera-
tions, July 24, 25, 1944, AF/CHO microfilm
reel B 5050 frames 1181-1 197.

126. Eighth Air Force, Statistical Summary
of Operations, 17 August 1942-8 May 1945, p.
31. Some of this increase in accuracy can be
attributed to the equipping of some of the 2nd
Air Division's B-24s with advanced radar aids
not made available to the other divisions.

127. Ltr, Bradley to Eisenhower, July 28,
1944, Omar N. Bradley Papers, U.S. Army
Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pa., Corre-
spondence with Eisenhower.

128. Vandenberg officially became Com-
manding General of the Ninth Air Force on
August 7, 1944.

129. Entry for August 5, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary; entry for August 5,
1944, Vandenberg Papers, Diary, box 1.

130. Entry for August 7, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary

131. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
pp. 250-251.

132. Weigley, Eisenhower' s Lieutenants, p.
204.

133. Ltr, Doolittle to Spaatz, August 10, 1944,
Doolittle Papers, box 18; Freeman, Mighty
Eighth War Diary, p. 3 19.

134. C. P. Staccy, Offiniil History of the
Canadian Army in the Second World War, vol. 3,
The Victory Campaign: The Operations in
North-West Europe, 1944-1945 (Ottawa: The
Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationery,
1960), pp. 223-224.

135. Weigley, Eisenhower' s Lieutenants, p.
204. Hamilton, Master of the Battlefield, p. 785,
contains a misleading account of the Eighth's
performance on August 8. In this hagiography
of Montgomery the author claims that, after the
brilliant initial Canadian breakout, bombers of
Spaatz 's Eighth Air Force ran amok, bombing
their own troops and causing more casualties
than on the first day of Cobra, when Collins
had to close down the offensive and start again
the following day.

1 36. "Report of Bombing Results by Units of
1st Bombardment Division, 8 August 1944,"
n.d. [ca. August 10, 1944], AF/CHO microfilm
reel B 5050, frames 1647-1657.

137. Entry for August 9, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

138. Ibid.

139. Terraine, A Time for Courage, p. 661 .

140. Stacey, The Victory Campaign, pp.
243-245.

Chapter 14
Stalemate on the German Frontier

1 Msg U-68483, Spaatz to Arnold,
September 24, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

2. Ltr, Spaatz to Lovett, October 1. 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

3. Haywood S. Hansell, Jr., The Strategic Air
War Against Germany and Japan: A Memoir
(Washington, D.C.: AF/CHO, GPO, 1986), p.

119.

4. Michael S. Sherry, The Rise of American
Air Power: The Creation of Armageddon (New
Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1987), p.
259.

5. Ronald Schaffer, Wings of Judgement, p.
103.

722

Notes

6. Memo, Eaker to Spaatz, subj: "Items on
Conference Agenda during General Spaatz's
Visit to MAAF," August 29, 1944, Spaatz
Papers, Diary,

7. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, August 27, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

g. Ibid.

9. Ltr, Spaatz to Lovett, September 1, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

10. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, September 1, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary,

1 1 . Ibid.

12. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, August 27, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

13. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, September 1, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

14. Entry for September 1, 1944, Command
Diary. Spaatz Papers, Diary.

15. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 4,
item 1930, msg FWD-13605, Eisenhower to
Marshall, September 2, 1944, p. 21 1.

16. Ibid., item 1931, msg FWD-13657,
Eisenhower to Arnold, September 3, 1944, pp.
2112-2113.

17. Ltr, Arnold to Eisenhower, September 6,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

18. Ibid.

19. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, September 29,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

20. Matloff, Strategic Planning 1943-1944,
p.511.

2 1 . Hastings, Bomber Command, p. 302.

22. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 4, pp. 47, 50-51.

23. Terraine, A Time for Courage, p. 672.

24. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 2, p. 80.

25. Hastings, Bomber Command, pp.
323-337. See also Webster and Frankland, The
Strategic Air Offensive, vol. 3, pp. 80-93.

26. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 3, p. 60, note 1.

27. Ibid., pp. 58-59.

28. Msg Octagon 29, Portal and Arnold to
Bottomley and Spaatz, September 15, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary. See also Webster and
Frankland, The Strategic Air Offensive, vol. 4,
pp. 170-172, appendix 8, xxxix.

29. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 3, p. 62.

30. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, n.d. [c.a. September
19, 1944], Spaatz Papers, Diary. This is misfiled
in Spaatz's papers, having been erroneously
annotated "23 October?" Spaatz's reply to this
letter is dated September 30, 1944. This source
appears to be Arnold's letter to Spaatz of
September 19 cited in Craven and Cate,
Argument to V-E Day, p. 622, note 80.

31. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, September 29,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary,

32. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 4,
ltr, Eisenhower to Marshall, September 18,
1944, pp, 2157-2159 and ltr, Spaatz to Arnold,
September 30, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.
Eisenhower described Spaatz as "disturbed."
Spaatz spoke of Eisenhower as "disconcerted."

33. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisen-
hower, p. 673.

34. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, September 30,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

35. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 4,
item 1954, msg FWD-14819, Eisenhower to
Arnold, p. 2145.

36. Pogue, The Supreme Command, p. 274.

37. Ltr, Arnold to Eisenhower, September 6,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

38. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 4,
item 1986, ltr, Eisenhower to A.H.M. Sinclair
(Secretary of State for Air), September 2, 1 944,
p. 2180.

39. Pogue, The Supreme Command, p. 275.

40. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 622.

41. Ltr. Spaatz to Lovett, September 20,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

42. Ltr, Spaatz to Lovett, October 1, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

43. Craven and Cate. Argument to V-E Day,
pp. 666-668. The information cited by Craven
and Cate, although dated after September 1 944,
pertains equally to this earlier period, Spaatz
would surely have known of the relative inaccu-
racy of H2X by September 1, 1944.

44. Kinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part
2, p. 512.

45. SHDCS/S.1020/44, Minute, Robb to CG,
USSTAF subj: "Employment of Strategic Air
Forces," September 17, 1944, Spaatz Papers,
Diai7.

46. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 4, pp. 172-173, appendix 8, xl,
has a complete text of this directive.

47. "Directive Agreed by D.C.A.S., R.A.F.
and Lt. Gen. Carl Spaatz, 23 September 1944,"
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

48. Ibid. A list of "Relative Priorities" is
attached to Spaatz's copy of the directive. For
an example of how quickly these relative priori-
ties w ould shift in the light of new perceptions,
see TLM/F/S.34, "Notes of the 100th Air
Commanders' Conference," September 26,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

49. TLM/F/S.34, "Notes of the lOOth Air
Commanders' Conference," September 26,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

50. TLM/F/S.34, "Notes of the lOlst Air

723

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Commanders' Conference," September 29,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

51. Ibid.

52. Ibid.

53. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 639, implies that the Hurricane plans were
of solely British origin. However, Spaatz's
Command Diary for early October, his corre-
spondence, and the minutes of the 102d Air
Commander's Meeting show that Spaatz and
USSTAF not only participated heavily in the
development of the schemes but initiated them.

54. Ltr, Spaatz to Lovett, October 1, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

55. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, October 4, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

56. Memo, Spaatz to CG's 8th and 15th Air
Forces, subj: "Enemy Oil Production," October
3, 1944. Spaatz Papers, Diary.

57. Entry for October 3, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

58. Msg W-40454, Arnold to Spaatz, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

59. Pogue, The Supreme Command, pp.
302-308.

60. Chandler, Eisenhower's Papers, vol. 4,
item 2063, msg S-63616, Eisenhower to
Marshall, October 23, 1944, pp. 2247-2248.

61. Pogue, The Supreme Command, p. 308.

62. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
pp. 647-649.

63. Terraine, A Time for Courage, p. 675.

64. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 3, p. 84, note 3.

65. Ibid., p. 68.

66. DCS/TS.lOO, "Notes on Air Policy to be
Adopted with View to a Rapid Defeat of
Germany," October 25, 1944, Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

67. Ibid.

68. Ibid.

69. Ibid.

70. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3. part
2, p. 526.

71. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 4, pp. 178-179 Appendix 8 xiii
(b) is a copy of "Directive No. 2 for the Strategic
Air Forces in Europe."

72. Ibid., vol. 4, pp. 177-178, appendix 8,
xliii (a).

73. Ibid., vol. 3, p. 84, note 3,

74. Ibid., vol. 4, pp. 431-433. appendix 40.

75. The literature dealing with the Allies'
pause at the German border, their logistics
problems, and Eisenhower's decision to support
Montgomery is voluminous, acrimonious, and
tendentious. For some of the most rational

accounts, read Weigley, Eisenhower' s Lieuten-
ants, pp. 277-319; Charles B. MacDonald,
United States Army in World War II, subseries:
The European Theater of Operations, The
Siegfried Line Campaign (Washington, D.C.:
OCMH, GPO, 1963), pp. 119-175, and Ambrose,
The Supreme Commander, pp. 504-552.

76. Memo for the CG, Eighth Air Force, subj:
"Cargo Trucking Operations, 29 August-30
September." n.d. [October 1944], AF/CHO
microfilm reel A 5875, frames, 1 149-1 154.

77. Ibid.

78. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, November 6, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

79. MacDonald, The Siegfried Line Cam-
paign, p. 198.

80. Ibid.

81. Ltr, Kuter to Giles, November 3, 1944,
AF/CHO, manuscript and collected material for
proposed volume of the correspondence of Gen.
H. H. Arnold, European Theater of Operations,
item 220, pp. 540-542. This letter summarizes
the reports of Col. Sidney F. Griffin and Lt.
Col. Arthur C. Carlson.

82. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, pp.
348-349.

83. TLM/F/S.34, "Notes of the 98th Allied
Air Commanders' Conference held al A.E.A.F.,
Versailles," September 20, 1944, Spaatz Papers,
Subject File 1929-1945.

84. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, pp.
348-353.

85. Ltr, Spaatz to Lovett, December 13,
1944, Spaatz Papers Diary.

86. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, December 13,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

87. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 667.

88. HQ, Eighth Air Force, Operational
Analysis Section, "Report on Bombing Accuracy
Eighth Air Force, 1 September-31 December
1944," pp. 5-7, April 20, 22, 1945, Spaatz
Papers, Subject File 1929-1945.

89. USSBS, Military Analysis Division,
Bombing Accuracy: USAF Heavy & Medium
Bombers in the ETO, vol. 63 (Washington,
D.C.: GPO, n.d. [ca. 1947]), p. 4.

90. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 4, p. 335, appendix 32, iv:
Report of 5th October, Speer to Hitler.

91. Ibid., vol. 4, p. 517, appendix 49, xxxix.

92. For German production, see ibid.; for the
Eighth Air Force, see Eighth Air Force Monthly
Summaries of Operations, September, October,
November, and December 1944, AF/CHO
microfilm reel A 5871, frames 927-1292; for
the Fifteenth Air Force, see "Statistical Story of

724

Notes

the Fifteenth Air Force." n.d. [June 1945], p.
10, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 6432, frame 811;
and for the RAF, see Webster and Frankland.
The Strategic Air Offensive, vol. 3, pp. 84,
233-234.

93. Webster and Franlcland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 4, p. 516, appendix 49, xxxviii.

94. USSBS, Oil Division, Oil Division Final
Report, vol. 109 (Washington, D.C.: GPO,
1947), p. 121.

95. Ibid., p. 4.

96. USSBS, Military Analysis Division, Air
Force Rate of Operations , vol. 61 (Washington,
D.C.; GPO, 1947), p. 33.

97. Ibid., pp. 66 and 85.

98. Memo 55-24, Headquarters Eighth Air
Force, Office of the Commanding General,
Standard Operating Procedures: Operations,
subj.: Attack of Secondary and Last Resort
Targets, October 29, 1944, AFHRC file no.
519.5991-1.

99. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, pp.
338-339.

100. Alfred C. Mierzejewski, "Wheels Must
Roll for Victory: Allied Air Power and the
German War Economy 1944-1945," Ph D. dis-
sertation. University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill, 1985, pp. 207-208.

101. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part
2, p. 526.

102. Mierzejewski, "Wheels Must Roll," pp.
282-283, 287.

103 Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part
2, p. 527.

104. Mierzejewski, "Wheels Must Roll," pp.
298-299.

105. Ibid., p. 304.

106. COPC/S. 501/10/INT, "Tenth Periodic
Report on Enemy Daylight Fighter Defenses
and Interception Tactics. Period 1 September
1944-30 September 1944," October 15, 1944,
AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5220, frames
158-1593.

107. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, pp.

354-355.

108. Ltr, Anderson to Arnold, September 3,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

109. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, September 21,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

110. Ltr, Doolittle to Spaatz, September 28,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

111. Ltr, Doolittle to Spaatz, October 18,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

112. Ibid.

113. Ltr, Spaatz to Lovett, October 1, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

114. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, October 4, 1944,

Spaatz Papers, Diary.

115. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part
2, pp. 408^09.

1 16. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, October 4, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

1 17. "Notes on Conference at Bari," October
15, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

118. Ltr, Spaatz to Portal, October 20, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

119. Ltr, Spaatz to Robb, October 20, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

120. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part
2 , p. 525.

121. Ibid., vol. 3, part 2, p. 409.

122. Entry for October 21, 1944, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

123. MacDonald, The Siegfried Line Cam-
paign, p. 390.

124. "Notes of the Allied Air Commanders'
Meeting," November 7, 1944, Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

125. MacDonald, The Siegfried Line Cam-
paign, pp. 405^06.

126. Ibid., pp. 411^14; for the subsequent
fighting see pp. 411^39.

127. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold (Eyes Only)
December 13, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

128. "Notes of Meeting Held at S.H.A.E.F.
on Tuesday, 5 December, at 14:30 Hours to
Discuss the Employment of Strategic Air
Forces," Spaatz Papers, Diary.

129. Ibid.

130. Ibid.

131. Ibid.

132. Entries for December 6-S, 1944,
Command Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

133. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic
Air Offensive, vol. 4, pp. 494-495, appendix 49,

xxii.

134. Ibid., p. 500, appendix 49, xxvii.

135. Ibid., p. 325, appendix 32, iv.

136. A.D.I. (K) Rpt 373/1945, "The Birth,
Life and Death of the German Day Fighter Arm
as Related by Adolf Galland," August 15, 1945,
p. 57, Spaatz Papers, Subject File 1929-1945.

137. Ibid.

138. AAF Statistical Digest, World War II,
pp. 157-159, table 89.

139. British Air Ministry, Rise and Fall of
the German Air Force, p. 373; see also A.D.I.
(K) 373/1945, p. 59.

140. A.D.I. (K) Rpt 373/1945, p. 57.

141. Ibid., p. 59.

142. Ibid.

143. AAF Statistical Digest, World War II, p.
255, table 159.

144. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, pp.

725

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

375, 384, 386.

145. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, November 5,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

146. Ibid.

147. Ibid.

148. Ibid.

149. COPC/S.501/10/INT, "Twelfth Periodic
Report on Enemy Daylight Fighter Defences
and Interception Tactics, Period 3 November
1944-16 December 1944," December 26, 1944,
AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5220, frames
1634-1658.

150. Ltr, Spaatz to Giles, December 15,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

151. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, November 30,
1944, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 1658, frame
1155.

152. Ltr, Giles to Spaatz, December II,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

153. Ltr, Spaatz to Lovett, December 13,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

154. Ibid,

155. Ltr, Giles to Spaatz, June 8, 1944,
Spaatz Papers, Diary,

156. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz (Eyes Only)
September 26, 1944, annotated "to Anderson
for reply. CS," Spaatz Papers, Diary.

157. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold (Eyes Only)
October 10, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

158. Craven and Cate, Men and Planes, p.
46.

159. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, November 19,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

160. Ibid.

161. "Resume of General Arnold's Remarks
on Saturday, 18 November, 12 Noon" [n.d.],
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

162. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, November 26,
1944. Spaatz Papers, Diary.

163. Ibid.

164. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, December 9,
1944. Spaatz Papers, Diary.

165. Ltr, Spaatz to Vandenberg, December
12, 1944. Spaatz Papers, Diary.

166. Ltr, Brig. Gen. E. P. Curtis, Chief of
Staff, USSTAF, to Lt. Gen. Ira C. Eaker, CG,
MAAF, December 30, 1944. Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

167. British Air Ministry, Rise and Fall of
the German Air Force, p. 356.

168. Based on figures compiled from
Freeman. The U.S. Strategic Bomber, pp.
153-157.

169. AAF Statistical Digest, World War II,
table 90, p. 160 and table 89, p. 159.

170. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 596.

171. Ibid., p. 595.

Chapter 15
Victory

1. Ltr, Spaatz to Lovett, May 2, 1945,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

2. CCS 166/1/D, January 21, 1943, title:
The Bomber Offensive from the United
Kingdom, cited in Matloff, Strategic
Planning 1943-1944, p. 28.

3. USSTAF, Daily Staff Meeting,
December 21, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

4. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, January 7, 1945,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

5. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Manual,
p. 241.

6. Minutes of a meeting held on
December 20, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary,

7. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary,
pp. 398-400, 404.

8. Ibid., pp. 398^7.

9. Notes of meeting held in Chief of
Staff's office, December 26, 1944, Robb
Papers, RAF Museum.

10. Memo, Office of the Director of
Operations, USSTAF, subj: Air Effort
Against Tactical Targets for Period 16
December 1944—4 January 1945 Inclusive,
January 5, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

11. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E
Day, p. 706.

12. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3,
part 2, p. 449.

13. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E
Day, p. 711.

14. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3,
part 2, pp. 443-450.

15. Ibid., pp. 444-449.

16. Entry for December 31, Command
Diary, 1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

17. Entry for December 31, 1944, Hobart
R. Gay Papers, Diary, U.S. Army Military
History Institute, Carlisle Barracks, Pa. Gay
was on Patton's staff.

726

Notes

18. Entry for January 1, 1945, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

19. Bradley and Blair, A General's Life, p.
363.

20. Entry for January 1, 1945, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

2 1 . British Air Ministry, Rise and Fall of the
German Air Force, p. 380.

22. Entry for January 2, 1945, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary,

23. Ambrose, The Supreme Commander, pp.
581-588; Pogue, Organizer of Victory, pp.
511-512.

24. Ltr, Kuter to Arnold, Roundup No. 1,
January 28, 1945, Kuter's Notes on Trip to
Malta & Yalta, AF/CHO.

25. Memo, USSTAF Directorate of Opera-
tions, to Col. F. Miller, January 5, 1945, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

26. British Air Ministry, Rise and Fall of the
German Air Force, pp. 380-381.

27. COPC/S.510/10/INT., "Thirteenth
Periodic Report of Enemy Daylight Fighter
Defences and Interception Tactics," February
12. 1945, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5520,
frames 1670-1690.

28. Mierzejewski, "Wheels Must Roll," p.
329. The next few paragraphs are based almost
exclusively on the exhaustive and authoritative
research of Mierzejewski. I can offer only a
quick gloss on the mass of detail and analysis
contained in this outstanding work.

29. USSBS, Transportation Division, The
Effects of Strategic Bombing on German
Transportation (Washington, D.C.: GPO,
1947), vol. 200, p. 53.

30. Mierzejewski, "Wheels Must Roll," p.
332.

31. Ibid., p. 335.

32. Ibid., pp. 359-360, 368-369.

33. Ibid., pp. 376-377,

34. Ibid,, p, 411,

35. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part
1, p. 607.

36. Mierzejewski, "Wheels Must Roll," p.
429.

37. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, December 30,

1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary,

38. Rpt, subj: "Allied Air Supremacy and
German Jet Planes," Director of Intelligence,
USSTAF, to Lt. Gen. Carl A. Spaatz, Janury 3,

1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

39. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 4, appendix 49, xxxviii, p. 5 1 6.

40. Intelligence Report, subj: "Allied Air
Supremacy and German Jet Planes," Director of
Intelligence, USSTAF, to Lt. Gen. Carl A.

Spaatz, January 3, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

41. Ibid.

42. Ibid.

43. Entry for January 5, 1945, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

44. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part
2, p. 853.

45. Entry for January 5, 1945, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

46. Msg, Anderson to Spaatz, Janury 5, 1945,
Spaatz Papers, Diary, See also entry for January
7, 1945, Vandenberg Papers, Diary, box 1;
memo for the record, Lt, Gen, Giles, January 5,
1945, on conference with Anderson and
Winant, AFHRC file no, 168,491. AF/CHO
microfilm reel A 1658, frames 1463-1466.

47. SHAEF Meetings, January 6, 1945, Robb
Papers, RAF Museum.

48. Entries for January 8, 9, 1945, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

49. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, January 7, 1945,
Spaatz Papers, Diary. This letter is a reply to
Arnold's of December 14, 1944.

50. Ltr, Arnold to Spaatz, December 30,

1944, AFHRC File no. 168.491, AF/CHO
microfilm reel A 1658, frame 1178.

51. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, January 7, 1945,
Spaatz Papers, Diary. This letter is a reply to
Arnold's three letters of December 30, 1944.

52. SHAEF Meetings, January 9, 1945, Robb
Papers, RAF Museum.

53. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, January 10, 1945,
Arnold Papers, Correspondence with Field
Commanders.

54. "Notes of the Allied Air Commanders'
Conference held at S.H.A.E.F., 11 January,

1945, at 1 1 :30 Hours," Spaatz Papers, Diary.

55. Minutes of USSTAF Staff Meeting,
January 16, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary; msg.
Air Staff SHAEF to Chairman Combined
Strategic Targeting Committee, January 13,
1945, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5543, frame
229.

56. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, January 16, 1945,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

57. Directive No, 3 for the Strategic Air
Forces in Europe, Spaatz Papers, Diary,

58. Memo for General Kuter, subj: Comments
on Strategic Directive No, 3 by AC/AS Plans,
AFHRC File no, 168,491, AF/CHO microfilm
reel A I658A, frames 1471-1472,

59. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 3, p. 97, In addition, see msg
SX-588, Bottomley to Spaatz, January 15,
1945, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5543, frame
155,

60. Msg U-68114, Curtis (signed Spaatz) to

727

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Doolittle, January 16, 1945, AF/CHO microfilm
reel B 5046, frame 1819.

61. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 3, p. 99.

62. Minute, D.B.OPs (Bufton) to DCAS
(Bottomley), January 22, 1945, PRO AIR
20/3227.

63. Minute, ACAS (Ops.) to DCAS, January

23, 1945, PRO AIR 20/3227.

64. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 3, p. 100.

65. Ibid.

66. "Notes of the Allied Air Commanders'
Conference held at S.H.A.E.F. on 25 January,
1945, at 11:30 Hours," Spaatz Papers, Diary,
and msg UA-53417, Spaatz to Doolittle,
January 28, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Cables.

67. SHAEF Meetings, January 24, 1945,
Robb Papers, RAF Museum.

68. J.I.C.(45) 22 (O) (Final), subj: German
Strategy and Capacity to Resist, January 21,
1945, PRO PREM 3/193/6A.

69. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 3, p. 101.

70. Ibid.

71. Ibid., p. 103.

72. Ibid., vol. 4, p. 301, appendix 28, Itr,
Bottomley to Harris, January 27, 1945.

73. Ibid., vol. 3, p. 104.

74. Msg S-77217, Bottomley to Portal,
January 31, 1945, AF/CHO microfilm reel A
5543, frames 1405-1406.

75. Entry for January 28, 1945, Command
Diary, Spaatz Papers, Diary. See also A-2
[Intelligence] Planning Notes for the Eighth Air
Force, 28 January-3 February 1945, AF/CHO
microfilm reel A 5884, frames 1639-1641.
These notes centered on planning for oil mis-
sions if visibility allowed. Otherwise they con-
centrated on a Berlin strike. The note for
February 3 spoke of a "verbal USSTAF direc-
tive that requires 400 aircraft on any of the four
active synthetic oil plants" (frame 1641).

76. Msg SP-184, Spaatz to Doolittle, January

24, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

77. Msg UA-53417, Spaatz to Doolittle,
January 28, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Cables; and
[Thunderclap Target List], January 28, 1945,
Spaatz Papers, Subject File 1929-1945.

78. Tedder, With Prejudice, p. 659.

79. Combined Strategic Targets Committee,
Minutes of the 16th Meeting held at the Air
Ministry on Friday, 2nd February, 1945,
AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5221, frame 1256;
see also the Thunderclap Target List, January
28, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Subject File
1929-1945. This list shows the "primary aiming

points" as Friedrichstrasse (main line and
underground station), the Air Ministry, Gestapo
HQ, the Foreign Office and governmental agen-
cies, the Alexanderplatz railway station, and
two bridges over the River Spree.

80. Msg S-77217, Bottomley to Portal,
January 31, 1945, AF/CHO microfilm reel A
5543, frames 1405-1406.

81. "Notes of the Allied Air Commanders'
Conference held at S.H.A.E.F., on 1 February,
1945, at 1 1:30 Hours," Spaatz Papers, Diary.

82. Msg S-77217, Bottomley to Portal,
January 31, 1945, AF/CHO microfilm reel A
5543, frames 1405-1406.

83. Ltr, Kuter to Arnold, Roundup No. 2,
January 31, 1945, Arnold Papers,
Correspondence.

84. Minutes of [USSTAF] Staff Meeting,
January 26, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

85. Ltr, Kuter to Arnold, Roundup No. 2,
January 31, 1945, Arnold Papers, Correspon-
dence.

86. Msg War-29863 (Hearth 88), Giles to
Kuter, signed Arnold, January 31, 1945, War
Department Classified Message Center
(WDCMC), NARA, microfilm reel 1347.

87. Msg Cricket-35, Kuter to Giles, February
1, 1945, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5543, frame
1372.

88. Ltr, Anderson to Spaatz (Eyes Only),
February 2, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary;
Foreign Relations of the United States
Diplomatic Papers: The Conferences at Malta
and Yalta 1945 (Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of State, GPO, 1955), pp. 468-469,
Minutes of 182d Meeting of the Combined
Chiefs of Staff, January 30, 1945.

89. Ltr, Anderson to Spaatz (Eyes Only),
February 2, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

90. Ibid.

91. Memo, R.A.L. [Lovett] to Arnold,
January 9, 1945; enclosed in Itr, Arnold to
Spaatz, January 14, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

92. Excerpts from memo, Kuter to Arnold,
January 11, 1945; enclosed in ltr, Arnold to
Spaatz, January 14, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

93. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, Febreuary 5, 1945,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

94. Ltr, Anderson to Spaatz, (Eyes Only),
February 2, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

95. Msg Cricket-^0, Anderson to Spaatz,
February 1, 1945, AF/CHO microfilm reel A
5543, frame 1354.

96. Msg UAX-53637, Spaatz to Twining,
February 2, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

97. Minutes of [USSTAF] Staff Meeting,
February 2, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

728

Notes

98. Msg UAX-53637, Spaatz to Twining,
February 2, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

99. Msg CS-93-JD (Redline), Doolittle to
Spaatz, January 30, 1945, AF/CHO microfilm
reel B 5046, frame 1808. For Doolittle's opin-
ions on the shortcomings of the B-24 as com-
pared to the B-17 see Itr, Doolittle to Giles,
January 25, 1945, AFHRC file no. 168.491,
AF/CHO microfilm reel A 1657A, frames
827-83 1 . Doolittle noted that the B-24 flew at
24.000 feet compared to the B-17's 28,000
feet, and therefore suffered higher flak
losses.

100. Msg JD-104-CS (Redline), Spaatz to
Doolittle, AF/CHO microfilm reel B 5046,
frame 1818, January 30. 1945.

101. [Eighth Air Force] A-2 Planning Notes,
January 30, 1945, AFHRC file no. 520.321,
AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5884, frame 1639.
Also see msg D-61064, Doolittle to Spaatz,
February 2, 1945, and msg D-61068, Doolittle
to Spaatz, February 2, 1945, AFHRC file no.
519.332 February 1-19, 1945.

102. Msg UA-53649, Spaatz to Doolittle,
February 2, 1945, AF/CHO microfilm reel B
5046, frame 1809.

103. Memo {D-W-33), Major J. Rifkin,
Assistant D/Ops, to DCS Ops, February 2,
1945, AF/CHO microfilm reel B 5046.

104. Msg CS-96-JD (Redune), Doolittle to
Spaatz, February 2, 1945, Spaatz Papers,
Cables.

105. Ibid. This notation is signed C. S. [Carl
Spaatz].

106. Spaatz may have recalled portions of the
prewar AWPD/1 plan in connection with bomb-
ing Berlin. AWPD/I (tab. 3, p. 3) had stated, in
August 1941, "Immediately after some very
apparent results of air attacks on the material
objective listed above [power plants, oil, and
transportation] or immediately after some major
set-back of the German ground forces, it may
become highly profitable to deliver a large
scale, all-out attack on the civil population of
Berlin. In this event, any or all of the bombard-
ment forces may be diverted for this mission."
See also interview, Gen. Carl A. Spaatz by
Murray Green, August 8. 1969, Green
Collection on "Hap" Arnold. U.S. Air Force
Academy Archives, Colorado Springs, Colo., p.
5. For an alternate view on Thunderclap see
Mark A. Clodfelter, "Culmination Dresden:
1945" Aerospace Historian XXVI, no. 3
(September 1979), 134-147 (in particular, pages
142-144).

107. Eighth Air Force Monthly Summary of
Operations, February 1945, AF/CHO microfilm

reel A 5875, frame 333; Freeman, Mighty
Eighth War Diary, pp. 432-433; "Thunderclap
Target List," Spaatz Papers, Subject File
1929-1945.

108. Memo D-M-8, HQ 1st Air Division,
Office Director of Intelligence, subj: Immediate
Interpretation Report No. 229, 4 February 1945.
AFHRC file no. 525.332, AF/CHO microfilm
reel B 5287.

109. Eighth Air Force Target Summary:
Statistical Summary of All Bomber Attacks, 31
May 1945, pp. 7 -8, AFHRC file no. 520.3084-
I, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5875, frames
618-619.

110. New York Times, February 6, 1945, cit-
ing Swedish news service stories based on
reports from returning plane passengers.

111. Craven and Gate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 726.

112. Figures cited by Professor Doctor Olaf
Groehler, Akademie der Wissenschaften der
DDR, Zentralinstitute fiir Geschichte, Berlin, in
letter to Mr. Herman Wolk, Office of Air Force
History, March 6, 1990. Given the number of
homeless. Professor Groehler assessed the raid
as the heaviest to hit Berlin during the war.

113. 3rd Air Division Mission Report of
February 3, 1945, n.d. [ca. early February
1945], Eighth Air Force Mission Reports, RG
18, NARA.

114. USSBS, Area Studies Division, A Brief
Study of the Effects of Area Bombing on Berlin,
Augsburg, Boehum, Leipzig, Hagen, Dortmund,
Oherhausen, Schweinfurt, and Bremen, vol. 39
(Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1947), pp. 35-36.

115. Translation of Allied propaganda leaflet
dropped on Holland, "The Flying Dutchman
No. 101," February 5, 1945, AF/CHO micro-
film reel A 5823, frame 150-151.

116. Sydney Gruson, "3000-Ton Blow Hits
Berlin in Steady Bombing of Reich," New Yoric
Times, February 4, 1945, pp. 1 and 5.

117. Minutes of [USSTAF] Staff Meeting,
February 5, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

118. Msg Argonaut-23, Anderson to Spaatz,
February 5, 1945, AF/CHO microfilm reel A
5544, frame 703.

119. Msg USSTAF-MAIN-IN 15905,
Spaatz to Anderson, AF/CHO microfilm reel B
5046, frame 699, February 5, 1945.

120. A-2 Planning Notes, AFGRC file no.
520.321, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5884,
frame 1640.

121. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, February 5, 1945,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

122. A-2 Planning Notes, February 13, 1945,
AFHRC file no. 520.321, AF/CHO microfilm

729

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

reel A 5884, frame 1643.

123. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, p.
439; Eighth Air Force Monthly Summary of
Operations, February 1945, AF/CHO microfilm
reel A 5875, frames 313-382.

124. Alexander McKee, Dresden 1945: The
Devil's Tinder Box (New York: E. P. Dutton,
1984), pp. 21 1-243, in particular, p. 225.

125. USSBS, Area Studies Division, Area
Studies Division Report, vol. 31 (Washington,
D.C.: GPO, 1947), p. 5, for an excellent discus-
sion of Bomber Command's new techniques
and accuracy.

126. USSBS, Physical Damage Division, Fire
Raids on German Cities, vol. 193 (Washington,
D.C.; GPO, 1947), pp. 1, 35-37, 47.

127. The bombing of Dresden has given birth
to a large body of literature, both of accusation
and justification. In addition to the previously
cited works by David Irving and Alexander
McKee, both highly critical of Allied policy,
one should read the official AAF historical
study on Dresden, "Historical Analysis of the
14-15 February 1945 Bombing of Dresden,"
prepared by Chief Historian Charles Angell in
1953, which can be found in the AF/CHO
Dresden Subject File; and Melden E, Smith,
"The Bombing of Dresden Reconsidered: A
Study in Wartime Decision Making," unpub-
lished Ph.D. dissertation, Boston University,
1971.

128. HQ, 1st Air Division, Office of the
Director of Intelligence, "Immediate Interpreta-
tion Report No. 232, 0530 hours, 15 February
1945," AFHRC file No. 525.332, AF/CHO
microfilm reel B 5288, frame 676.

129. Notes of the Allied Air Commanders'
Conference held at S.H.A.E.F., Versailles, on
Thursday, 15th February 1945, at 11:30, Spaatz
Papers, Diaiy.

130. Eighth Air Force Monthly Summary of
Operations, February 1945, p. 22; Freeman,
Mighty Eighth War Diary, p. 440.

131. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 731.

132. Excerpts of Broadcast of February 17,
1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

133. Msg UA-64471, Anderson to Arnold,
February 19, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

134. Ibid.

135. Ibid.

136. Ltr, Kuter to Anderson, February 21,
1945, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5534, frames
412-413.

137. Msg WAR-39722, Col. Rex Smith to
Spaatz, signed Arnold, February 18, 1945,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

138. See the cover sheet for the January 31
Directive, which clearly indicates that Kuter's
delegation received two copies, msg S-77217
(CM-IN-108), Bottomley to Portal, January 31,
1945, WDCMC, microfilm reel 1122. See also
msg Cricket-35, Kuter to Giles, January 31,
1945, WDCMC, microfilm reel 1122; and
Cricket^O, Anderson to Spaatz, signed Kuter,
February 1, 1945, WDCMC, microfilm reel
1122.

139. Msg MX-46131 (WDCMC, CM-IN-
13314), Kuter to Spaatz, February 13, 1945,
WDCMC, microfilm reel 1 152.

140. Msg WAR-37181, Giles to Kuter,
February 14, 1945, WDCMC, microfilm reel
1352.

141. Msg UAX-64205 (WDCMC, CM-IN-
14466), Spaatz to Kuter, February 14, 1945,
WDCMC, microfilm reel 1152. Spaatz also sent
a copy of this message to Giles.

142. Ibid.

143. Msg WAR-39222, Giles to Spaatz,
February 17, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

144. Msg WAR-39730, Arnold to Spaatz,
February 18, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

145. Memo, Anderson to Spaatz, February
19, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

146. Msg UA-64462, Spaatz to Arnold [for
Giles], February 18, 1945. Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

147. Msg UA-64470, Anderson to Arnold,
signed Spaatz, February 18, 1945, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

148. Ibid.

149. Ibid., msg UA-64462.

150. Ibid., msg UA-64470.

151. Msg WAR-39954, Arnold to Spaatz,
February 19, 1945, WDCMC, microfilm reel

1354.

152. Msg U A- 64484, Anderson to Arnold,
February 19, 1945, WDCMC, microfilm reel
1155.

153. Msg UA-64603, Anderson to Arnold,
February 20, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

154. Ltr, Spaatz to Lovett, February 21,
1945. Spaatz Papers, Diary.

155. Msg Argonaut-43, Anderson to Spaatz,
February 7, 1945, AF/CHO microfilm reel A
5544, frame 635. See also FRUS: Malta-Yalta,
Minutes, Second Tripartite Military Meeting,
February 6, 1945, pp. 641-644.

156. FRUS: Malta-Yalta, First Plenary
Meeting, February 4, 1945, CCS minutes, p.
583.

157. Angell, Analysis of the Bombing of
Dresden, pp. 14-16.

158. Ibid., p. 5.

730

Notes

159. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic
Air Offensive, vol. 3, p. 44.

160. Notes of the Allied Air Commanders'
Conference, March 1, 1945, Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

161. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic-
Air Offensive, vol. 4, pp. 484-486, appendix 49,
xiv.

162. HQ, Eighth Air Force, Operational
Analysis Section, "Report on Bombing
Accuracy, 1 September 1944-31 December

1944, " April 20, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Subject
File 1929-1945; interview, Spaatz by Green,
August 8, 1969, p. 5.

163. Memo, Anderson to Director of Bomber
Ops., subject: "Bombardment Policy in Regard
to Enemy Occupied Territories," February 21,

1945, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5534, frame
415; see also ibid., microfilm reel A 5534,
frame 388, HQ, USSTAF, Office of the Deputy
Commander, Operations, Circular, subj:
"Bombardment Policy," March 1, 1945.

164. USSBS, Military Analysis Division,
Weather Factors in Combat Bombardment
Operations in the European Theater, vol. 62
(Washington, D.C.; GPO, 1947), p. 29.

165. Ltr, Spaatz to Marshall, March 13, 1945,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

166. Ltr, Spaatz to Arnold, March 14, 1945.
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

167. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Manual, p.
225.

168. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 795, citing USSBS, Oil Division Final

Report.

169. Eighth Air Force Monthly Summary of
Operations, March 1945, AF/CHO microfilm
reel A 5875, frame 455.

170. Eighth Air Force Monthly Summary of
Operations, May 1944, AF/CHO microfilm reel
A 5875, frame 1327.

171. Eighth Air Force Monthly Summary of
Operations, June 1944, AF/CHO microfilm reel
A 5875, frame 1398.

172. Eighth Air Force Target Summary,
Statistical Summary of All Bomber Attacks,
AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5875, frames
618-619.

173. Eighth Air Force Monthly Summary of
Operations, February 1945, AF/CHO microfilm
reel A 5875, frame 333.

174. See Eighth Air Force Target Summary,
n.d.. |ca. May 31. 1945], AF/CHO microfilm
reel A 5875, starling frame 610; and Eighth Air
Force Statistical Summary of Operations,
European Theater, August 17-May 8, 1945,
June 10, 1945, AF/CHO.

175. Eighth Air Force Monthly Summary of
Operations, December 1944, with a summary of
the year, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5875, start-
ing frame 129; table: Distribution of Bomb
Tonnage by Type of Target.

176. Eighlh Air Force Monthly Summary of
Operations, May 1944, AF/CHO microfilm reel
A 5874, frame 1317.

177. "A Review of Bombing Results January
1943-May 1945," n.d. AF/CHO microfilm reel
A 5871, frame 1364. This list adds 1,425 tons
for January 1945; otherwise, its monthly totals
are exactly the same as those found in the
Monthly Summary of Operations.

178. Msg UA-64603, Anderson to Arnold,
signed Spaatz, February 20, 1945, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

179. USSBS, Air Force Rate of Operations,
pp. 32, 56.

1 80. The Statistical Summary of Eighth Air
Force Operations lists for Germany only
174,633 tons, not counting 6,520 tons dropped
on "railroad shops and stations" and 5,409 tons
on "communications centers." "A Review of
Bombing Results" lists 199,524 tons on "Marshal-
ing Yards."

181. USSBS, Air Force Rate of Operations,
exhibit e.

182. Ibid., p. 85.

183. Eighth Air Force Statistical Summary of
Operations, p. 41.

184. Eighth Air Force Monthly Summary of
Operations, February 1945.

185. Derived from Eighth Air Force Target
Summary, Statistical Summary of all Bomber
Attacks, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5875, start-
ing frame 610.

186. Sherry, The Rise of American Air
Power, pp. 252-254.

187. Mierzejewski, "Wheels Must Roll," p.
429.

188. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 732.

189. "Summary of Clarion," Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

190. Notes of the Allied Air Commanders'
Conference, February 1, 1945, Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

191. Ltr, Anderson to Spaatz, (Eyes Only),
February 2, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

192. Msg XVAF E-0695, Twining to Spaatz,
February 3, 1945, AF/CHO microfilm reel A
5544, frame 827.

193. Ltr, Spaatz to Anderson, February 5,
1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

194. USSBS, The Effects of Strategic
Bombing on German Transportation, p. 16;

731

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

USSBS, Military Analysis Division, The Impact
of the Allied Air Efforts on German Logistics,
vol. 64a (Washington, D.C: GPO, 1947), pp.
6(M1.

195. Ltr, Anderson to Brig. Gen. Joe L.
Loutzenheiser, Chief, Operational Plans
Division, HQ, AAF, March 20, 1945, AF/CHO
microfilm reel A 5534, frame 344-345.

196. Msg, Anderson to Spaatz, February 22,
1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

197. Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, pp.
442-456.

198. Hinsley, British Intelligence, vol. 3, part
2, p. 613.

199. COPC/S. 501/10/INT, "Fourteenth
Periodic Report on Enemy Daylight Fighter
Defen.ses and Interception Tactics, Period 3
February-28 February 1945," March 5, 1945,
AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5520, frames
1702-1719.

200. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 722.

201. AAt Statistical Digest, World War 11, p.
255, table 159.

202. Ibid., p. 256, table 160.

203. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic
Air Offensive, vol. 4, p. 516, appendix 49,
xxxviii.

204. Figures for USSTAF from "Review of
Bombing Results," AF/CHO microfilm reel A
5871, frames 1363-1364.

205. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 729.

206. Ibid.

207. COPC/S. 501/10/INT, "Fifteenth
Periodic Report on Enemy Daylight Fighter
Defenses and Interception Tactics, Period 1
March-31 March 1945," April 11, 1945,
AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5219, frames
1731-1760.

208. AAF Statistical Digest, World War II, p.
255, table 159.

209. Ibid., p. 256, table 160.

210. Ltr, Spaatz to Giles, March 11, 1945,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

211. Memo, Anderson to Spaatz, subject:
Report on Jet Tactics Against Heavy Bombers
on Mission of 18 March," March 19, 1945,
AF/CHO microfilm reel A 5534, frame 355.

212. COPC/S. 501/10/INT, "Fifteenth
Periodic Report," April 11, 1945, AF/CHO
microfilm reel A 5219, frames 1731-1760
[para. 39].

213. "Notes of the Allied Air Commanders'
Conference, held at Forward S.H.A.E.F.,
Reims, on Wednesday, 21st March 1945, at
1 1:30 Hours," Spaatz Papers, Diary.

214. Ibid.

215. Notes of the Allied Air Commanders'
Conference, Reims, March 29, 1945, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

216. Ibid.

217. Msg WX-43671, Marshall to Eisen-
hower, February 26, 1945, Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

218. Msg WAR^7850, Marshall to Spaatz,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

219. Ltr, Spaatz to Chief of Staff, U.S. Army,
"Report on Visit to Switzerland, 7-8 March
1945," March 10, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

220. Ibid.

221. Msg WAR-53409, Marshall to Spaatz,
n.d. [ca. mid-MarchJ, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

222. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisen-
hower, pp. 769-770.

223. Ltr, Arnold to Eisenhower, September 4,
1944, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

224. Chandler, Eisenhower^ s Papers, vol. 4,
pp. 2129-2131, item 1941, ltr, Eisenhower to
Arnold, September 1 1, 1944.

225. Ibid., vol. 4, pp. 2367-2368, item 2191,
msg S-71794, Eisenhower to Marshall, Decem-
ber 21, 1944.

226. Ibid., vol. 4, pp. 2424-2428, item 2237,
ltr, Eisenhower to Marshall, January 12, 1945,
and item 2238, msg S-7490I/SG 962,
Eisenhower to Marshall, January 14, 1944.

227. Ibid., vol. 4, pp. 2460-2461, item 2264,
Conference Notes, January 28, 1945.

228. Ltr, Kuter to Arnold, January 28, 1945,
Arnold Papers, Correspondence.

229. Eighth Air Force Monthly Summary of
Operations, March 1945, AF/CHO microfilm
reel A 5875, frame 403.

230. Vincent C. Jones, United States Army in
World War II, subseries: Special Studies,
Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb
(Washington, D.C: CMH, GPO, 1985), pp.
287-288; Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary,
p. 464; Leslie R. Groves, Now It Can Be Told:
The Story of the Manhattan Project (New York:
Harper & Brothers, 1962), pp. 230-231; and
msg SP-201, Spaatz to Marshall, March 15,
1945; and msg UAX-66143, Spaatz to
Marshall, March 19, 1945, Spaatz Papers,
Diary.

231. Notes of Allied Air Commanders'
Conference, Reims, March 15, 1945, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

232. Ltr, Spaatz to Marshall, (Eyes Only),
March 13, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

233. Notes of iJie Allied Air Commanders'
Conference, Reims, March 8, 1945, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

732

Notes

234. Ltr, Spaatz to Giles, March 19, 1945,
Spaatz Papers, Diary.

235. Msg MX-23614, US Military Mission
in Moscow to Spaatz, April 3, 1945, Spaatz
Papers. Diary.

236. [USSTAF] Weekly Staff Meeting No.
16, April 2, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

237. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic
Air Offensive, vol. 3, p. 1 12.

238. Ibid., p. 117.

239. Ibid.

240. Dudley Saward, Bomber Harris: The
Story of Sir Arthur Harris, Marshal of the Royal
Air Force (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday,
1985), pp. 291-292, ltr, Bottomley to Harris,
March 28, 1945.

241. Ibid., pp. 292-294, ltr, Harris to
Bottomley, March 29, 1945.

242. Ibid., pp. 294-295, Minute, Churchill to
Chief of the Air Staff, April 1, 1945.

243. Ibid., pp. 295-297, Note by the Air
Staff, COS(45)238(0), Portal to Churchill,
"Area Bombing."

244. Memo, F. L. Anderson, subj; "Comments
Re Cablegram WAR 65558 (USSTAF IN-
28993)," 10 April 1945. AF/CHO microfilm
reel A 5616, frame 154.

245. Notes of the Allied Air Commanders'

Conference, Reims, April 5, 1945, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

246. Eighth Air Force Monthly Summary of
Operations, April 1945, AF/CHO microfilm
reel A 5875, frames 509-580, p. 3.

247. Msg FWD-18890, Tedder to Spaatz,
signed Eisenhower, April 10, 1945, Spaatz
Papers, Diary.

248. Msg UA-67340, Spaatz to Doolittle,
April 1 1, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

249. Directive No. 4 For the Strategic Air
Forces in Europe, April 13, 1945, AFHRC File
no. 168.491, AF/CHO microfilm reel A 1658,
frame 857.

250. Msg JD-117-CS (Redline), Spaatz to
Doolittle, April 16, 1945, Spaatz Papers, Diary.

25 1 . Freeman, Mighty Eighth War Diary, pp.
496-497.

252. AAF Statistical Digest, World War 11, p.
255, table 159.

253. Ibid., p. 256, table 160.

254. Craven and Gate, Argument to V-E Day,
p. 752.

255. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisen-
hower, pp. 837-838. Butcher went with the
press party and shared quarters with Spaatz and
Tedder.

256. Tedder, With Prejudice, p. 685.

Chapter 16
Assessment

1. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 3, p. 310.

2. Craven and Cate, Argument to V-E Day, p.
792.

3. Eighth Air Force Statistical Summary of
Operations, June 10, 1945; Statistical Story of
the Fifteenth Air Force, n.d. [ca. June 1945],
AF/CHO microfilm reel A 6432, beginning
frame 800.

4. Surprisingly, after almost fifty years, U.S.
casualty figures are open to question. For AAF
numbers I have used what is considered the
definitive War Department/Department of the
Army casualty report. See Department of the
Army, Statistical and Accounting Branch,
Office of the Adjutant General, "Army Battle
Casualties and Nonbattle Deaths in World War
II, Final Report, 7 December 1941-31
December 1946" (Washington, D.C.; Depart
ment of the Army, June 1, 1953), pp. 84-88.
Unfortunately, this publication does not break
down casualties by numbered air force or lower

AAF unit. See p. 5 of the work for a siunmary
chart which reveals that, overall, the AAF suf-
fered 52,173 deaths among battle casualties.
Nor does the AAF have comprehensive casualty
reports for World War Il-era numbered air
forces and smaller units. For the Eighth Air
Force, the Eighth Air Force Association offers a
figure of approximately 26,000 deaths. Kenneth
P. Werrell in "The Strategic Bombing of Ger-
many in World War II: Costs and Accomplish-
ments," The Journal of American History
LXXIII (December 1986), p. 708, cites a figure
of 29,000 deaths for USSTAF in Europe. This
seems reasonable. Accurate casualty figures for
the Fifteenth Air Force might well show that the
organization made a more substantial con-
tribution to European losses than is generally
acknowledged. For Navy and Marine deaths, see
Department of Defense, American Forces
Information Service, Defense 91 : Almanac
(September/October 1991), p. 47, Chart Service
Casualties in Major War and Conflicts (as of

733

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

September 30, 1990).

5. British Bombing Survey Unit, "The
Strategic Air War Against Germany 1939-
1945," pp. 242-243.

6. Webster and Frankland, The Strategic Air
Offensive, vol. 4, appendices xl and xli, pp.
439-440.

7. Terraine, A Time for Courage, p. 682.

8. USSBS, Area Studies Division, Area
Studies Division, vol. 31, (Washington, D.C.:
GPO, 2nd ed., 1947), p. 3.

9. USSBS, Summary Report {European War)
(Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1945), p. 15.

10. Ibid.

11. Hansen, The Strategic Air War, pp.
130-131.

12. R. J. Overy, The Air War (New York,
N.Y.: Stein and Day, 1980), p. 157.

13. Sherry, The Rise of American Air Power,
p. 254.

14. Schaffer, Wings of Judgement, p. 106.

15. John Keegan, "Berlin," MHQ: The
Quarterly Journal of Military History II (Winter
1990), pp. 82-83.

16. Yitzal4 Arad, Belzec, Sohibor, Treblinka:
The Operation Rheinhard Death Camps
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987),
p. 392.

17. Chandler, Eisenhower' s Papers, vol. 4,
item 2271, memo [for the Record], February 1,
1945, pp. 2466-2469.

18. Ltr, Bradley to Eisenhower, December 1,
1944, Bradley Papers, Correspondence with
Eisenhower.

19. Interview, Doolittle by Burch, Fogelman,
and Tale, September 26, 1970, p. 53.

734

Glossary

A/Cmdr

Air Commodore

AAF

Army Air Forces, U.S. Army

AASC

Allied Air Support Command

ABC

American British Staff Conversations

ABC-1

Anglo-American agreement to make Germany the no. 1 enemy

ABC-2

Anglo-American agreement on allocation of U.S. aircraft production

ACM

Air Chief Marshal

ACS

Assistant Chief of Staff

ADGB

Air Defense of Great Britain

AEAF

Allied Expeditionary Air Force

AEF

American Expeditionary Force

AFB

Air Force Base

AFHQ

Allied Force Headquarters

AGF

Army Ground Forces, U.S. Army

AGWAR

Adiutant General, War Department

AHB

Air Historical Branch (RAF)

Air Intelligence (RAF)

Air Corps

Army Air Branch 1926-1941

Air Service

Army Air Branch 1920-1926

Air Marshal

AMC

Air Materiel Command

Anvil/Dragoon

Allied invasion of southern France, executed August 1944

AOC

Air Officer Commanding (RAF)

Aphrodite

Project to use radio controlled bombers to crash into German targets

Army regulations

Arcadia

Anglo-American conference in Washington,

December 1941 -January 1942

Argument

Joint operation against German aircraft industry by Eighth and

Fifteenth Air Forces, February 1944

ASP

Air support party

Avalanche

Invasion of Italy at Salerno, executed September 1943

AVM

Air Vice-Marshal

AWPD

Air War Plans Division

AWPD/1

Air War Plans Division/ Plan Number 1 (1941)

AWPD/42

Air War Plan Division/ Plan (1942)

Bluie West 1

Narsarssuak, Greenland

Bolero

Scheduled buildup of American forces in Britain, 1942

737

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

CCS U.S.-British Combined Chiefs of Staff

CG Commanding General

CINC Commander in Chief

Clarion Allied air operation against German rail system, February 1945

CNO Chief of Naval Operations

CO Commanding Officer

Cobra Air support operation for breakout of American First Army at St. L6,

France, executed July 24-25, 1944

Corkscrew Invasion of Pantelleria, executed June 1943

COSSAC Chief of Staff, Supreme Allied Commander, established 1943

Crossbow Allied bombing effort to counter German V-1 and V-2 effort

CSTC Combined Strategic Targeting Committee

DFC Distinguished Flying Cross

DSC Distinguished Service Cross

DSCAEF Deputy Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force

EAC Eastem Air Command

EOU Economic Objective Unit of OSS, stationed in U.S. Embassy,
London. Provided targeting information to AAF

ETO European Theater of Operations

ETO USA European Theater of Operations, U.S. Army

FDM Field Marshal (German)

Flak German acronym for antiaircraft artillery (Fliegerabwehrkanone)

Flax Allied air operation to cut off German air transport into Tunisia, April 1943

FM Field manual

GAF German Air Force

GC and CS Government Code and Cypher School

GOC General Officer Commanding (British)

Goodwood British attack on German positions in Normandy, executed July 18, 1944

Gymnast Plan to invade Casablanca

HB Heavy bomber

Hurricane I Plan for Allied air operation against the Ruhr, not executed

Hurricane II Plan for Allied air operation against German communications,
not executed

Husky Invasion of Sicily, executed July 1943

lAF Italian Air Force

IFF Identification Friend or Foe

JCS Joint Chiefs of Staff

Jeb Stuart Plan for strategic fighter-bomber force in Europe, late 1944,
not executed

738

Glossary

Junior

Code name for establishment of Twelfth Air Force

Luftwaffe

German Air Force, 1933-1945

MAAF Mediterranean Allied Air Force

MAC Mediterranean Air Command

Market-Garden Allied airborne and land offensive across Holland, executed

September 1944

MEW Microwave Early Warning (Radar)

MTO Mediterranean Theater of Operations

MTOUSA Mediterranean Theater of Operations, U.S. Army

NAAF Northwest African Air Forces

NAAFTCC Northwest African Air Forces Troop Carrier Command

NACAF Northwest African Coastal Air Force

NAPRW Northwest African Photographic Reconnaissance Wing

NASAF Northwest African Strategic Air Force

NATAF Northwest African Tactical Air Force

NATO North African Theater of Operations

NATOUS A North African Theater of Gyrations, U.S. Army

OCAC Office of the Chief of the Air Corps

OCAS Office of the Chief of the Air Service

Octagon Second Quebec Conference between the Americans and the British

August-September 1944
OPD Operations Plans Division, War Department General Staff

OSS Office of Strategic Services

Overlord The cross-channel invasion from Britain to Normandy, executed

June 6, 1944

PFF Pathfinder aircraft equipped with early versions of H2X radar

PiNETREE Code name for VIII Bomber Command and later Eighth Air Force

Headquarters

PoiNTBLANK American strategic bombing effort before the cross-Channel

invasion, executed June 1943— May 1944
Queen Heavy bomber mission in support of American First Army,

executed November 1944

RAF British Royal Air Force

RAFDEL Royal Air Force Delegation to Washington D.C., 1 939-1945

Rainbow No. 5 Joint Army-Navy War Plan calling for the major effort against

Germany and defense of the Pacific, partially executed immediately

after Pearl Harbor

Redhne AAF communication circuit set up to provide private, high-level

communication between senior AAF officers in Europe and in
the Mediterranean

739

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Reichsbahn The German state railway system

Roundup Plan for Anglo-American invasion of France in Fall 1942, not executed

S/Ldr Squadron Leader

Satin Plan for American offensive in Southern Tunisia, January 1943,
not executed

SCAEF Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force

SHAEF Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force

Shatter Plan for bombing small towns in Germany, July 1944, not executed

Sledgehammer Plan for Allied invasion of France in the spring of 1943, not executed
SOE Special Operations Executive (clandestine British intelligence

organization)
SOS Service of Supply, U.S. Army

Super-Gymnast Invasion of North Africa, later became Torch

Thunderclap Plan for terror bombing of Berlin, executed February 3, 1945
Torch Allied invasion of North Africa, executed November 8, 1942

Ultra

USAFBI

USMA
USSBS
USSTAF

British code name for intelligence gathered by decrypting
German wireless communications enciphered on the Enigma
machine in World War II

U.S. Army Forces in the British Isles

U.S. Military Academy, West Point, New York

U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey

U.S. Strategic Air Forces in Europe

WAAC Women's Auxiliary Army Corps, U.S. Army

WAC Women's Army Corps, U.S. Army

WD War Department

WDAF Western Desert Air Force

WDFM War Department Field Manual

WDGS War Department General Staff

Weary- Willie Project to send radio-controlled war-weary heavy bombers

against Germany, not executed

Wehnnacht German Armed Forces, 1933-1945

WiDEWiNGS Code name Eighth Air Force and later USSTAF Headquarters

WPD War Plans Division, War Department General Staff

" Y" Service British radio-telephone intercept organization

740

Bibliography

Manuscript Collections

Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Wastiington, D.C.

Papers of Carl Andrew Spaatz

These papers, which comprise 379 containers, form the foundation of this

volume. They were given to the Library of Congress by General Spaatz and the
U.S. Air Force in 1948. They are divided into eight series, two of which proved
of particular importance to this book — ^Diary and Notebooks, 1910-1953, and
Subject File, 1929-1945. The diary file does not consist of Spaatz's private
recollections and reminiscences. Rather, it contains copies of correspondence,
cables, reports, meetings, and office diaries arranged chronologically, and
personally selected by Spaatz at the time he received them for inclusion in this
file. I could find no evidence of a systematic exclusion of derogatory or sensitive
material from this file. The Subject File, which makes up half the collection, is a
mixture of nuggets of historical gold and trivia. This file grudgingly yields
extremely valuable information about almost every imaginable aspect of the air
war in Europe. Archivists at the Library of Congress note that, year in and year
out, the Spaatz collection is heavily used by researchers.

Papers of Henry H. Arnold
Papers of Hoyt S. Vandenberg
Papers of Ira C. Eaker
Papers of James H. Doolittle
Papers of Nathan F. Twining
Papers of Frank M. Andrews

These collections, listed in order of their importance to this work, flesh out
the full details of Spaatz's relationships with six of his most important con-
temporaries. The Arnold collection provides copies of Arnold-Spaatz and
Arnold-Eisenhower correspondence unavailable elsewhere. Arnold's personal
notebooks on the great Anglo-American political and military conferences
supply unique insights into his and the AAF's thinking. Vandenberg's diary
gives useful information on his relationship with Spaatz, the extent of Spaatz's
control of the Ninth Air Force, and relationship with Leigh-Mallory. The Eaker,

743

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Doolittle, and Twining collections contain occasional pieces of correspondence
and insight into the thinking of both men.

Center for Air Force History (CAFH), Washington, D.C.

Microfilm Collection

This microfilm collection of at least 17,000 reels is one of three microfilm
copies of the paper records of the Air Force Historical Research Center
(AFHRC) at Maxwell AFB, Alabama. AFHRC and the Washington National
Records Center, Suitland, Maryland, store the other two copies of this film.
Among the varied items included on the microfilm are personal papers,
USSTAF office files, historical files of numerous AAF organizations, series of
Eighth Air Force and Fifteenth Air Force statistical reports, mission reports, and
special reports on operations, tactics, and significant events. Unfortunately, the
file does not have a detailed finding aid, thus researchers are reduced to time-
consuming and often fruitless searches for pertinent material. AF/CHO refers to
the center's former designation — ^The Office of Air Force History.

AF/CHO. Dresden Subject File.

AF/CHO. USAF Historical Research Studies Collection.
AF/CHO. Air Force Oral History Collection

Interview of Maj. Gen. Frederick L. Anderson, K239. 512-607
Interview of Gen, Orvil Anderson, K239.5 12-898
Interview of Gen. Samuel E. Anderson, K239.5 12-905
Interviews of Lt, Gen. Arthur C. Agan, K239.5 12-857, 899
Interviews of Gen. James H. Doolittle, K239.5 12-623, 625, 793, 799
Interview of Maj. Gen. Edward P. Curtis, K239.512-875
Interviews of Gen. to C. Eaker, K239.512-626, 627, 799, 868, 918
Interviews of Lt. Gen, Barney M. Giles, K239.2512-779, 804
Interviews of Maj. Gen. James P. Hodges, K239.5I2-565, 799
Interview of Gen. Laurence S. Kuter, K239.512-810
Interview of Gen. Lauris Norstad, K239.512-1116
Interview of 1st Lt. Charles R. D'OIive, K239.512-612
Interview of Gen. Earle E. Partridge, K239.25 12-729
Interview of Lt. Gen. Elwood R. Quesada, K239.5 12-838
Interview of Gen. Frederic H. Smith, K239.5 12-903
Interviews of Gen. Carl A. Spaatz, K239.5 12-583, 754, 755, 767
Interview of Mrs. Carl A. Spaatz (Ruth), K239.512-I266
Interview of Maj. Gen. Arthur Vanaman, K239.512-1030

The foregoing interviews and files contain unique information on controversial
or obscure incidents or technical and doctrinal points. Like all oral histories, these
must be used with circumspection.

744

Bibliography

Numbered AAF/USAF Historical Studies

39. Layman, Martha E. "Legislation Relating to the Air Corps Personnel and Training

Programs, 1907-1939." (1945).
70. Hennessey, Juliette. "Tactical Operations of the Eighth Air Force, 6 June 1944-8 May

1945." (1952).

78. Goldman, Martin R. R. "Morale in the AAF in World War II." (1953).
88. Ackerman, Robert W. "The Employment of Strategic Bombers in a Tactical Role,
1941-1951." (1953).

158. Schmid, Josef, and Grabmann, Walter. "The German Air Force Versus the Allies in the

West: The Air War in the West." (1954).

159. Schmid, Josef. "The German Air Force Versus the Allies in the West: The German Air

Defense." (1954).

164. Grabmaim, Walter. "German Air Force Air Defense Operations." (1956).

These works are of uneven quality but provide technical details not readily
available elsewhere. The German generals monograph project (150-195) gives a
valuable inside look at various aspects of the Luftwaffe.

U.S. Air Force Academy Library, Colorado Springs, Colorado

Papers of Lawrence S. Kuter
Papers of George C. McDonald

Kuter's papers supply useful information on his participation in the North
African campaign. Baker's removal from command of the Eighth Air Force, the
Yalta Conference, and the Dresden controversy. McDonald served as Spaatz's
intelligence chief throughout the war. His papers help to establish what Spaatz
knew and when he knew it.

U.S. Army Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pennsylvania

Papers of Omar N. Bradley
Papers of Hobart Gay
Papers of Chester Hanson

This collection supplies useful information on the ground Army's attitude
toward the AAF and Spaatz.

Royal Air Force (RAF) Museum, Hendon, England

Papers of Air Chief Marshal James Robb

These papers contain transcripts of high-level meetings at SHAEF during

745

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

the Battle of the Bulge. They also supply handwritten notebooks of daily affairs
in North Africa, North African photos, and notes by the marshal on William
Welsh's Final Torch Report.

Public Records and Documents,
Unpublished

U.S. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA)

National Archives, Washington, D.C.

Record Group 18-Records of the Office of the Chief of the Air Corps

Record Group 107-Records of the Office of the Secretary of War
Assistant Secretary of War for Air Files

Record 165-Records of the War Department General Staff
Assistant Chief of Staff Files
Intelligence Files

Record Group 337-Records of the Army Ground Forces

Washington National Records Center, Suitland, Maryland

Record Group 18-Records of the Office of the Chief of the Air Corps
Air Adjutant General Central Cable Files

Reference Collection

War Department Classified Message Center File, 1942-1947

Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene, Kansas

Papers of Lloyd R. Fredendall
Unpublished portions of the Butcher Diary

The War Department Classified Message Center File is one of the most

historically valuable and least-known collections of records dealing with U.S.
military history. It contains microfilm copies of every message sent or received
(including information copies of intratheater messages) by the War Department,
the General Staff and all its branches, and by the GHQ, AAF, as well as trans-
cripts of the wartime transatlantic teletype and telephone conversations between
Marshall and Eisenhower, Roosevelt and Churchill, and all others who used the
circuits. Although these records, unfortunately, cannot be searched by subject, a
researcher who already has a reasonable citation, including date of origin, can

746

Bibliography

obtain a copy of all of the key high-level messages and cables of the war. The
Operations Division records contain information on training and high-level
telegrams. G-3 and AGF records give background on air-ground relations and
training manuals. The Fredendall Papers (one small folder) and Butcher's diary
give insights into the North African campaign.

The Public Records OfTice (PRO), Kew, England

PRO AIR/2
PRO AlR/8
PRO AIR/9
PRO AIR/20
PRO AIR/23

The PRO contains records of the Air Ministry and miscellaneous corre-
spondence from field commanders and is the most important source for Portal's
and Bottomley's wartime thoughts and actions. The field correspondence gives
crucial data from Coningham, Tedder, and Welsh.

PRO AIR/37

These records of Leigh-Mallory's Allied Expeditionary Air Force, including
his daily post-D-day diary and many records concerning the background and
formation of the AEAF, form a key source for the study of Overlord.

PRO AIR/41

These RAF historical monographs give the RAF's own view of its activities
and include valuable documentation and insights not available elsewhere.

PRO CAB/101

These records contain copies of the British World War n official histories
with additional information and backup documents not released at the time of

publication.

PRO PREM/3

These records of the Prime Minister as Secretary of Defense and war leader
provide Churchill's views unfiltered for postwar publication.

British Air Ministry, Air Historical Branch, London England

Unpublished, undated campaign narratives by the RAF:

747

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Anglo-American Collaboration in the Air War over North West Europe

The Liberation of North West Europe

Vol. 1 : The Planning and Preparation of the Allied Expeditionary Air Force for the

Landings in Normandy
Vol. 4; The Breakout and the Advance to the Lower Rhine, June 1944-September

1944

The North African Campaign, November 1942-May 1943

The RAF in the Bombing Offensive Against Germany

Vol. 3: Area Bombing and the Makeshift Force, June 1941-February 1942
Vol. 4: A Period of Expansion and Experiment, March 1942-Janurary 1943
Vol. 5: The Full Offensive, February 1943-February 1944
Vol. 6: The Final Phase, March 1944-May 1945

The RAF narrative histories were security-classified monographs intended
for internal RAF use; as such, they are unusually frank in their criticisms of both
the RAF and its sister services. They are of uneven quality, but represent a
valuable historical source well worth examination. Microfilm copies of all listed
narratives but the first are available at the Center for Air Force History, Wash-
ington, D.C. The office also maintains an extensive annotated index of RAF
records given to the PRO and backup documentation for its historical monographs.

Public Records and Documents,
Published

U.S. Official Histories

Craven, Wesley Frank, and Cate, James Lea, eds. The Army Air Forces in World
W^ar//, 4 of 7 vols:

Vol. 1: Plans & Early Operations, January 1939 to August 1942. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1948.
Vol. 2: Europe: Torch to Pointblank, August 1942 to December 1943. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1949.
Vol. 3: Europe: Argument to V-E Day, January 1944 to May 1945. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1951.
Vol. 6: Men and Planes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955.

Craven and Cate, recently reprinted by the Center for Air Force History, is
the starting point for any serious study of the AAF in World War IL One of its
chief faults, however, is its lack of perspective concerning air problems. It tends

748

Bibliography

to be subjective and is somewhat unreliable for enemy casualty and loss figures.
On many doctrinal points it fails to present an objective viewpoint. Because the
combat volumes are all well over thirty years old they lack the benefit of more
recent scholarship. In addition, the source materials for several of the work's
chapters seem to have been scattered or broken up, so it is difficult to identify and
locate key documents used by the original authors. Despite quibbles about a few
judgments and statistics. Craven and Gate nevertheless remains the authoritative
history of the AAF during the war.

UNITED STATES ARMY IN WORLD WAR H

Subseries: The War Department

Cline, Ray S. Washington Command Post: The Operations Division.Washington, D.C.: OCMH,
GPO, 1951.

Coakley, Robert W., and Leighton, Richard M. Global Logistics and Strategy, 1943-1945.

Washington, D.C.: OCMH, GPO, 1968.
Leighton, Robert W., and Coakley, Richard M. Global Logistics and Strategy, 1940-1943.

Washington, D.C: OCMH, GPO, 1955.
Matloff, Maurice, and Snell, Edwin M. Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1941-1942.

Washington, D.C: OCMH, GPO, 1953.
Matloff, Maurice. Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1943-1944. Washington, D.C:

OCMH, GPO, 1959.

Watson, Mark S. Chief of Staff: Pre-War Plans and Preparations. Washington, D.C: OCMH,

GPO, 1950.

Subseries: The European Theater of Operations

Blumenson, Martin. Breakout and Pursuit. Washington, D.C: OCMH, GPO, 1961.
Hairison, Gordon A. Cross-Channel Attack. Washington, D.C: OCMH, GPO, 1951.
MacDonald, Charles B. The Siegfried Line Campaign. Washington, D.C: OCMH, GPO, 1963.
Pogue, Forrest C. The Supreme Command. Washington, D.C: OCMH, GPO, 1954.

Subseries: The Mediterranean Theater of Operations

Garland, Albert N., and Smyth, Howard McGaw, Sicily and the Surrender of Italy. Washington,

DC: OCMH, GPO, 1965.
Howe, George F. Northwest Africa: Seizing the Initiative in the West. Washington, D.C:

OCMH, GPO, 1957.

Subseries: The Army Ground Forces and Miscellaneous

Beck, Alfred M.; Bortz, Abe; Lynch, Charles W.; Mayo, Lida; and Weld, Ralph. The Corps of
Engineers: The War Against Germany. Washington, D.C: CMH, GPO, 1985.

Holley, Irving Brinton, Jr. Buying Aircraft: Matiriel Procurement for the Army Air Forces.
Washington, D.C: OCMH, GPO, 1964.

Jones, Vincent C. Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomft.Washington, D.C: CMH, GPO,
1985.

Palmer, Robert R.; Wiley, Bell I.; and Keart, William R. The Procurement and Training of

Ground Combat Troops. Washington, D.C: OCMH, GPO, 1948.
Treadwell, Mattie E. The Women's Army Corps. Washington, D.C: OCMH, GPO, 1954.
United States Army. Office of the Chief of History. The War Against Germany and Italy:

749

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Mediterranean and Adjacent Areas: The Pictorial Record. Washington, D.C.: OCMH, GPO,
1951.

The Army "green series," published by the Office of the Chief of Military

History (OCMH), now the Center of Military History (CMH), and produced by
the U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO), supplies information on air-ground
support, technical aspects of procurement, and prewar planning. Pogue's volume
on the Supreme Command, Matloff's two volumes on Strategic Planning, and
Leighton's and Coakley's two volumes on logistics provide essential information
on high-level planning and give adequate treatment to air issues.

United States Strategic Bombing Survey (USSBS)

Aircraft Division. Industry Report, Vol. 4, 2d ed. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1947

Area Studies Division. Area Studies Division Report, Vol. 31. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1947.

Area Studies Division. A Brief Study of the Effects of Area Bombing on Berlin, Augsburg,

Bochum, Leipzig, Hagen, Dortmund, Oberhausen, and Bremen, Vol. 39. Washington, D.C.:

GPO, 1947.

Military Analysis Division. The Defeat of the German Air Force, Vol. 59. Washington, D.C.:
GPO, 1947.

Military Analysis Division. Air Force Rate of Operations, Vol. 61. Washington, D.C.: GPO,
1947

Military Analysis Division. Weather Factors in Combat Bombardment Operations in the

European Theater, Vol. 62. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1947.
Military Analysis Division. Bombing Accuracy: USAAF Heavy & Medium Bombers in the

ETO, Vol. 63. Washington, D.C.: GPO, n.d. [ca. 1947].
Military Analysis Division. The Impact of the Allied Air Effort on German Logistics, Vol. 64a.

Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1947.
Oil Division. Oil Division Final Report, Vol. 109. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1947.
Physical Damage Division. Fire Raids on German Cities, Vol. 193. Washington, D.C.: GPO,

1947.

Summary Report (European War). Vol. 1. Washington, D.C.: GPO, September 30, 1945.
Transportation Division. The Effects of Strategic Bombing on German Transportation, Vol.
200. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1947.

The Strategic Bombing Survey began its studies before the end of the war in
Europe and collected an extraordinary amount of data about all phases of U.S.
strategic bombing in Europe and Japan. The various published reports of this
independent, but AAF-dominated, group deserve careful scrutiny by anyone
interested in the technical aspects of the American strategic bombing offensive.

U.S. Government and Air Force Publications

Boylan, Bernard. Development of the Long-Range Escort Fighter. U.S. Air Force Historical
Study No. 139. 1955.

Carter, Kit C, and Mueller, Robert, eds. The Army Air Forces in World War II: Combat

Chronology. Washington, D.C.: AF/CHO, GPO, 1973.
Frisbee, John L. Makers of the United States Air Force. Washington, D.C.: AF/CHO, GPO,

1987,

750

Bibliography

Futrell, Robert Frank. Ideas, Concepts, Doctrine: A History of Basic Thinking in the United

States Air Force, 1907-1964. Maxwell Air Force Base, Ala.: Air University Press, 1971.
Greenfield, Kent Roberts. Army Ground Forces and the Air-Ground Battle Team: Including

Organic Light Aviation. Historical Study No. 35, Ft. Monroe, Va.: Air Ground Forces, 1948.
Greer, Thomas H. The Development of Air Doctrine in the Army Air Arm, 1917-1941. U.S. Air

Force Historical Study No. 89. Maxwell Air Force Base, Ala.: Air University Press, 1955.
Hansell, Haywood S., Jr. The Strategic Air War Against Germany and Japan: A Memoir.

Washington, D.C.: AF/CHO, GPO, 1986.
Kohn, Richard H., and Harahan, Joseph P., eds. Air Superiority in World War II and Korea.

Washington, D.C.: AF/CHO, GPO, 1983.
Maurer, Maurer. Aviation in the U.S. Army, 1919-1939. Washington D.C.: AF/CHO, GPO,

1987.

, ed. The U.S. Air Service in World War I, Vols. 1 and 3. Washington D.C.; AF/CHO,

GPO, 1978.

Momyer, William W. Airpower in Three War.^. Washington, D.C.: AF/CHO, GPO, 1978.
Mortensen, Daniel R. A Pattern for Joint Operations: World War II Close Air Support, North

Africa. Washington, D.C.: AF/CHO and CMH, 1987.
Murray, Williamson. Strategy for Defeat: The Lvftwt^e, 1933-1945. Maxwell Air Force Base,

Ala.: Air University Press, 1983.
Osur, Alan M. Blacks in the Army Air Forces During World War II: The Problem of Race

Relations. Washington, D.C.: AF/CHO, GPO, 1977.
Putney, Diane T., ed. ULTRA and the Army Air Forces in World War II: An Interview with

Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Lewis F. Powell, Jr. Washington, D.C.:

AF/CHO, GPO, 1987.

Thompson, Wayne, ed. Air Leadership: Proceedings of a Conference at Boiling Air Force
Base, April 13-14, 1984. Washington, D.C.: AF/CHO, GPO, 1986.

U.S. Congress, House. Select Committee Inquiry into the Operations of the United Air Services,
Hearings. 68th Cong., 2d Sess., 1924.

U.S. Department of State. Foreign Relations of the United Stales: The Conferences at Cairo
and Teheran. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1961.

U.S. Department of State. Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conferences at Malta
and Yalta, 1945. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1955.

U.S. Department of State. Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conferences at Wash-
ington, 1941-1942, and Casablanca, 1943. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1968.

U.S. Military Academy. The Howitzer 1914. West Point: USMA, 1914.

U.S. National Security Agency. Ultra: History of US Strategic Air Force Europe vs. The Ger-
man Air Forces. NSA Special Research History No. 13, June 1945.

U.S. War Department. Annual Reports of the Chief of the Air Service and Air Corps,
1921-1938. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1921-1938.

U.S. War Department. Annual Reports of the. Secretary of War, the Chief of Staff, arui the
Assistant Secretaries of War, 1919-1941. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1919-1941.

U.S. War Department. Office of Statistical Control. Army Air Forces Statistical Digest, World
War 11. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1945,

Watts, Lt. Col. Barry D. The Foundations of US Air Doctrine: The Problems of Friction in
War. Maxwell Air Force Base, Ala.: Air University Press, 1984.

The AAF Statistical Digest is a prime source for the quantitative analysis of
AAF operations in this book. Murray's book provides data on both the AAF and
the Luftwaffe, but, unfortunately, the author concluded his study in September
1944. One copy of the Annual Reports of the Secretary of War is available in
the Army Library in the Pentagon, while a copy of the Reports of the Chief of
the Air Corps is in the CAFH reference library. Greenfield's study gives the
Army Ground Forces' view of close air support. Putney's work has an excellent
introduction on World War II intelligence.

751

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

British Official Histories

Butler, J.R.M. Grand Strategy. Vol. 2: September 1939-June 1941. London: HMSO, 1957.
Ehrman, John. Grand Strategy. Vol. 5: August 1943-September 7944 .London: HMSO,

1956.

Gibbs, Norman H. Grand Strategy. Vol. 1: Rearmament Policy. London: HMSO, 1976.
Great Britain, Air Ministry. The Rise and Fall of the German Air Force, 1933—1945. New

York: St. Martin's Press, 1983.
Gwyer, J.M.A., and Butlei, J.R.M. Grand Strategy. Vol. 3, parts 1 and 2: June

1941-August 1942. London: HMSO, 1964.
Hinsley, F. H. British Intelligence in the Second World War: Its Influence on Strategy and

Operations. Vols. 1, 2, and 3 of 4 in 5 books. London: HMSO, 1979-1988.
Playfair, I.S.O., Flynn, F. C, Molony, C.J.C., and Toomer, S. E. The Mediterranean and

Middle East, Vol. 2: The Germans Come to the Help of Their Ally (1941). London:

HMSO, 1956.

Playfair, I.S.O., Molony, C.J.C., Flynn, F. C, and Gleave, F. L. The Mediterranean arul the
Middle East. Vol. 4; The Destruction of the Axis Forces in Africa. London: HMSO,
1966.

Richards, Denis. The Royal Air Force, 1939-1945. Vol. 1: The Fight at Odds. London:
HMSO, 1953.

Richatds, Denis, and Saunders, Hilary St. George. The Royal Air Force. Vol. 2: The Fight

Avails. London: HMSO, 1954.
Roskill, S. W. The War at Sea, 1939-1945. Vol. 3, part 1: The Offensive 1st June

1943-31st May 1944. London: HMSO, 1960.
Webster, Charles, and Frankland, Noble. The Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany,
1939-1945. London: HMSO, 1961.

Vol. \: Preparation parts, 1, 2, and 3.
Vol. 2: Endeavor, part 4.
Vol. 3: Victory.

Vol. 4: Annexes and Appendices.

Hinsley 's works constitute the definitive British intelligence histories of
the war. They have precise information on the all-important Ultra organi-
zation as well as other sources of information. We are unlikely ever to get
government information on the activities of Allied intelligence other than in
this series. The Air Ministry history of the Luftwaffe, originally published in
1947 as a security-classified document, is based on Luftwaffe records
captured by the British and postwar interrogations of Luftwaffe and other
high Nazi officials. Because of the fragmentary nature of surviving
Luftwaffe documentation — almost 90 percent of it was destroyed at the end
of the war — the work still presents one of the best comprehensive views of
the German air arm. Webster and Frankland's supply valuable operational,
strategic, and statistical data. Playfair's volume, while glossing over some
British shortcomings, is a good integrated history of the campaign. All
British Official Histories are published through Her Majesty's Stationery
Office (HMSO).

British Bombing Survey Unit (BBSU)

The Strategic Air War Against Germany, 1939-1940

752

BiBUOGRAPHY

This document, completed in 1947, is the final report of the BBSU. It served
as a statistical basis for many of the assessments of bombing results contained in
the British official history of the strategic bombing offensive and stands in its
own right as a useful summary of the bombing campaign.

Dissertations

Davis, Richard Green. "The Bomber Baron: Carl Andrew Spaatz and the Army Air Forces in

Europe, 1942-1945" (PhD., George Washington University, 1986).
Fanton, Jonathan Foster. "Robert A. Lovett: The War Years" (Ph.D., Yale University, 1978).
Flugel, Raymond Richard. "United States Air Power Doctrine: A Study of the Influence of William

Mitchell and Giulio Douhet at the Air Corps Tactical School, 1921-1935" (Ph.D., University of

Oklahoma, 1965).

Julian, Thomas Anthony. "Operation FRANTIC and the Search for American-Soviet Military

Collaboration, 1941-1944" (Ph.D., Syracuse University, 1967).
Meilinger, Phillip Stanley. "Hoyt S. Vandenberg: The Life of a General" (Ph.D., University of

Michigan, 1985).

Mierzejewski, Alfred C. "Wheels Must Roll for Victory: Allied Air Power and the German War
Economy, 1944-1945" (Ph.D., University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 1985).

Reynolds, Jon A. "Education and Training for High Command: General Hoyt S. Vandenberg's
Early Career" (Ph.D., Duke University, 1980).

Smith, Melden E., Jr. "The Bombing of Dresden Reconsidered" (Ph.D., Boston University, 1971).

Tate, James P. "The Array and Its Air Corps: A Study of the Evolution of Army Policy Towards
Aviation, 1919-1941" (Ph.D., Indiana University, 1976).

Mierzejewski's work is a masterly exposition of the effects of Allied
bombing on the German transportation system and the fatal damage done to the
German war economy by the choking off of its coal distribution system. Tate
shows that, contrary to myth, the Army made a sincere effort to support its air
arm, despite limited resources. The works on Vandenberg and Lovett give
useful details on the careers of those important men. Meilinger's work has
recently been published by Indiana University Press.

Articles

Barnett, Lincoln. "General Spaatz: America's No. 1 Airman in Africa," Li/e (April 19, 1943): 72-84.
Beaumont, Roger. "The Bomber Offensive as a Second Front," Journal of Contemporary History

XXn (January 1987): 3-19.
Bottomley, Norman H. "The Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany," Royal United Services

Institute Journal XCHI (May 1948): 225-239.
Coningham, Arthur. "The Development of Tactical Air Forces," Royal United Services Institute

Journal XCI (May 1946): 21 1-226.
Davis, Richard G. "Operation Thunderclap: the U.S. Army Air Forces and the Bombing of Berlin,

'The Journal of Strategic Studies XIV (March 1991): 90-1 1 1.
. "Carl A. Spaatz and the Development of the Royal Air Force-U.S. Army Air Corps

Relationship, 1939-1940," The Journal Military History LIV (October 1990): 453^72.
. "RAF-AAF Higher Command Structures and Relationships, 1942-45," Air Power History

XXXVIII (Summer 1991) : 20-28.

753

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

. "Bombing Strategy Shifts, 1944-45," Air Power History XXXVI (Winter 1989): 33^5.

Eaker, Ira C. "Part H: Memories of Six Air Chiefs," Aerospace Historian XX (December 1973):
188-197.

. "Gen. Carl A. Spaatz, USA?" Air Force Magazine LVII (September 1974): 43-53.

Holley, Irving B., Jr. "Of Sabre Charges, Escort Fighters, and Space Craft," Air University Review

XXXIV (September-December, 1983): 2-11.
Jacobs, W. A. "Strategic Bombing and American National Strategy, 1941-1943," Military Affairs L

(July 1986): 133-139.

Keegan, John. "Berlin," MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Military History II (Winter 1990): 72-83.
Kindlebeiger, Charles F. "World War 11 Strategy," Encounter LlII (November 1978): 39^2.
Lloyd, Hugh. "Allied Air Power in the Mediterranean 1940-45," Royal United Services Institute

Journal XCII (November 1947): 554-566,
Lytton, Henry D. "Bombing Policy in the Rome and Pre-Normandy Aerial Campaigns of World War

II: Bridge-Bombing Strategy Vindicated and Railroad-Bombing Strategy Invalidated," Military

Affairs XLVIl (April 1983): 55-58.
McFarland, Stephen L. "The Evolution of the American Strategic Fighter in Europe, 1942-44." The

Journal of Strategic Studies X (June 1987): 189-208.
Murray, Williamson. "Attrition and the Luftwaffe," Air University Review XXIV (March-April

1983): 66-77.

Rostow, Walt W. "The Controversy Over World War II Bombing," Encounter LV (August-
September 1980): 100-102.

Simpson, Albert F. "Tactical Air Doctrine — ^Tunisia and Korea," Air University Quarterly Review
IV (Summer 1951): 5-20.

Spaatz, Carl. "Strategic Air Power: Fulfillment of a Concept," Foreign Affairs XXV (April 1946):
385-396.

Sullivan, John J. "The Botched Air Support of Operation Cobra," Parameters XVIII (March 1988):

97-110.

Tedder, Arthur. "Air, Land and Sea Warfare," Royal United Services Institute Journal XCI

(Febi-uary 1946): 59-68.
"TRAINING: Experiment Proved?" Time (September 20, 1943): 66, 68.

Werrell, Kenneth P. "The Strategic Bombing of Germany in World War II," The Journal of
American History LXXllI (December 1986): 702-713.

Wolk, Herman S. "Men Who Made the Air Force," Air University Review, XXV (September-Octo-
ber 1972): 9-23.

. "Prelude to D-Day: The Bomber Offensive," Air Force Magazine LVII (June 1974): 60-67.

Wyman, David S. "Why Auschwitz Was Never Bombed," Commentary LXV (May 1978): 137-146.

Tedder's and Coningham's RUSI lectures are important to understanding
their views on air doctrine and its application during World War II.

Memoirs, Biographies, and
Published Personal Papers

Ambrose, Stephen E. The Supreme Commander: The War Years of General Dwight D. Eisenhower.

New York: Doubleday, 1970.
Arnold, Henry H. Global Mission. New York: Harper & Row, 1949.

Blumenson, Martin, ed. The Patton Papers. Vol. 2: 1940-1945. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974.
Bradley, Omar N. A Soldier's Story. New York: Henry Holt, 1951.
Bradley, Omar N., and Blair, Clay. A General's Life. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983.
Brereton, Lewis H. The Brereton Diaries: The War in the Pacific, Middle East and Europe, 3

October 1941-8 May 1945. New York: William Morrow, 1946.
Butcher, Harry C. My Three Years with Eisenhower, The Personal Diary of Harry C. Butcher, USNR

754

BiBUOGRAPHY

Naval Aide to General Eisenhower, 1942-1945. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1946.
Carver, Michael, ed. The War Lords: Military Commanders of the Twentieth Century. Boston: Little,
Brown, 1976.

Chandler, Alfred D., ed. The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower: The War Years. 4 vols. Balti-
more: John Hopkins Press, 1970.

Churchill, Winston S. The Second World War. Vol. 4: The Hinge of Fate. Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
1950,

Coffey, Thomas M. HAP: The Story of the US Air Force and the Man Who Built It: General Henry

H. "Hap" Arnold. New York: Viking, 1982.
Eisenhower, David. Eisenhower: At War, 1943-1945. New York: Random House, 1986.

. Crusade in Europe. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1948.

Ford, Corey. Donovan of OSS. Boston: Little, Brown, 1970.

Galland, Adolph. The First and the Last: The Rise and Fall of the German Fighter Forces,

1938-1945. New York: Henry Holt, 1954.
Groves, Leslie R. Now It Can Be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project. New York: Harper &

Brothers, 1962.

Hamilton, Nigel. Master of the Battlefield: Monty's War Years, 1942-1944. New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1983.

Harmon, E. N., and MacKaye, Milton. Combat Commander: Autobiography of a Soldier. New York:

Prentice-Hall, 1970.
Harris, Arthur. Bonder Offensive. New York: Macmillan, 1947.

Hurley, Alfred F. Billy Mitchell: Crusader for Air Power. New York: Franklin Watts, 1964.

James, D. Clayton. A Time for Giants: The Politics of the American High Command in World War

II. New York: Franklin Watts, 1987.
Kelsey, Benjamin S. The Dragon's Teeth. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1982.
Kingston-McClourghiy, E. J. The Direction of War: A Critique of the Political Direction and High

Command in War. New York: Praeger, 1956.
Lairabee, Eric. Commander in Chief: FranMin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and Their War.

New York: Harper & Row, 1987.
Lay, Beime, Jr., and Bartlett, Sy. Twelve O' Clock High! New York: Ballantine Books, 1965.
Lowenheim, Francis L.; Langley, Harold D.; and Jonas, Manfred, eds. Roosevelt and Churchill:

Their Secret Wartime Correspondence. New York: Saturday Review Press/E. P. Button, 1975.
Meilinger, Philli p. Hoyt S. Vandenberg: The Life of a General. Bloomington: Indiana University

Press, 1989.

Mets, David R. Master ofAirpower: General Carl A. Spaatz. Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1988.
Montgomery, Bernard L. The Memories of Field-Marshal the Viscount Montgomery of Alamein.

New York: World Publishing, 1958.
Parton, James. "Air Force Spoken Here": General Ira Baker & the Command of the Air. Bethesda,

Md.: Adler & Adler, 1986.
Pogue, Forrest C. George C. Marshall: Ordeal and Hope, 1939-1942. New Yoik: Viking, 1966.

. George C. Marshall: Organizer qf Victory, 1943-1945. New York: Viking, 1973.

Puryear, Edgar F. Stars in Flight: A Study in Air Force Leadership. Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press,

1981.

Roosevelt, Elliot. As He Saw It. New York: Duell, Sloan, and Pearce, 1946.

Saward, Dudley. Bomber Harris: The Story of Sir Arthur Harris, Marshal of the Royal Air Force.

Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1985.
Sherwood, Robert E. Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History. New York: Haiper & Brothers,

1950.

Slessor, John. The Central Blue: Recollections and Reflections. London: Cassell, 1956.

Smith, Walter Bedell. Eisenhower' s Six Great Decisions: Europe, 1944-1945. New York:

Longmans, Green, 1956.
Speer, Albert. Inside the Third Reich. New York: Macmillan, 1970.

Tedder, Arthur. With Prejudice: The War Memoirs cf Marshal qf the Royal Air Force, Lord Tedder

GCB. Boston: Little, Brown, 1966.
Truscott, Lucian K. Command Decisions: A Personal Story. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1954.
Zuckerman, Solly. From Apes to Warlords. New York: Harper & Row, 1978.

755

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Arnold's memoirs, although hastily ghost-written and pooriy edited, are still
superior to any biography written about him. Tedder and Zuckerman, both of
whom knew Spaatz well, also yield important information, especially on the
transportation plan. Eisenhower's papers are extremely valuable, especially if
one is unable to make the haj to Abilene, Kansas, to check the originals. They
must be used with care, however, because comments on personnel serving with
or under him have been severely edited. Ambrose's biography of Eisenhower is
probably the best military biography of the Supreme Commander. Anyone
wishing to appreciate Spaatz's contributions as a pioneer aviator and as the
second Commanding General of the AAF and the first Chief of Staff of the
USAF should start with Mets's biography published in 1988, which covers
Spaatz's entire career before, during, and after World War II, concentrating on
Spaatz the man. Prior to the publication of Mets's book, Alfred Goldberg's
fourteen-page article on Spaatz in The War Lords was the only published and
reasonably widely available biography of Spaatz.

Monographs and Secondary
Sources

Arad, "^fitzak. Behec, Sobibor, Trehlinka: The Operation Reinhard Death Camps. Bloomington:

Indiana University Press, 1987.
Beck, E^arl R. Under the Bombs: The German Home Front, 1942-1945. Lexington: University Press

of Kentucky, 1986.

Bennett, Ralph. Ultra in the West: The Normandy Campaign of 1944-1945. New York: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 1980.

Bidwell, Shelford, and Graham, Dominick. Fire Power: British Army Weapons and Theories of War,

1904-1945. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1982.
Comparato, Frank E. Age of Great Guns: Cannon Kings and Cannoneers Who Forged the

Firepower of Artillery. Harrisburg, Pa.: Stackpole, 1965.
Copp, Dewitt S. A Few Great Captains: The Men and Events That Shaped the Development of U.S.

Air Power. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1980.
. Forged in Fire: The Strategy and Decisions in the Air War Over Europe, 1940—1945.

Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1982.
Davis, Burke. The Billy Mitchell Affair. New York: Random House, 1967.
D'Este, Carlo. Decision in Normandy. New York: E. P. Button, 1983.

Frankland, Noble. Bomber Offensive: The Devastation of Europe. New York: Ballantine, 1970.
Freeman, Roger A. The US Strategic Bomber. London: Macdonald and Jane's, 1975.

. Mighty Eighth War Diary. London: Jane's, 1981.

. Mighty Eighth War Manual. London: Jane's, 1984.
Freidel, Frank. Over There: The Story of America' s First Overseas Crusade. New York: Eiiramhall
House, 1964.

Gilbert, Martin S. Auschwitz and the Allies. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1981.
Hansen, Haywood S. The Air Plan That Defeated Hitler. Atlanta: Higgins-McArthur/Longino and
Porter, 1972.

Hastings, Max. Bomber Command. New York: Dial, 1980.

Irving, David. The Destruction of Dresden. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1964.
Kahn, David. The Codehreakers: The Story of Secret Writing. New York: Macmillan, 1967.
Lewin, Ronald. Ultra Goes to War: The First Account of World War IFs Greatest Secret Basd on

756

BiBUOGRAPHY

Official Documents. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978.
McKee, Alexander. Dresden 1945: The Devil's Tinderbox. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1984.
Mierzejewski, Alfred C. The Collapse of the German War Economy, 1944—1945: Allied Air Power

and the German National Railway. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988.
Morison, Samuel Eliot. History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. Vol. 9: Sicily-

Salerno-Anzio, January 1943-June 1944. Boston: Little, Brown, 1954.
Orpen, Neil. Airlift to Warsaw: The Rising of 1944. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1984.
Overy, R. J. The Air War. 1939-1945. New York; Stein and Day, 1981.

Rostow, W. W. Pre-Invasion Bombing Strategy: General Eisenhower's Decision of March 25,

1944. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981.
Schaffer, Ronald. Wings of Judgement: American Bombing in World War II. New York: Oxford

University Press, 1985.

Sherry, Michael S. The Rise of American Air Power: The Creation of Armageddon. New Haven:

Yale University Press, 1987.
Stanley, Roy M. World War II Photo Intelligence. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1981.
Terraine, John. A Time for Courage: In the Royal Air Force in the European War, 1939-1945. New

York: Macmillan, 1985.
Verrier, Anthony. The Bomber Offensive. Rev. ed. London: Pan Books, 1974.
Weigley, Russell F. Eisenhower' s Lieutenants: The Campaign of France and Germany, 1944-1945.

Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981.
Winlerbotham, F. W. The Ultra Secret. New York: Dell, 1979.

Wykeham, Peter. Fighter Command: A Study of Air Defence , 1914-1960. London: Putnam, 1960.
Wyman, David S. The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941-1945. New
York: Pantheon, 1984.

Roger Freeman's books on the Eighth Air Force, although written for trivia

buffs, give an accurate and colorful picture of equipment, tactics, and operations
of the American heavy-bomber forces in Europe. Weigley's book on north-
western Europe is the best single account of the campaign, while D'Este has
written an excellent account of Normandy. John Terraine's work on the RAF
also is worthwhile. Frankland's short work for the Ballantine War Series
presents an interesting contrast to his official endeavors. In the Ballantine work
Frankland draws conclusions apparently denied to him in an official role; for
instance, he gives Spaatz the laurel for winning the bomber offensive.
Schaffer' s book is a well-researched, balanced account of the moral dilemma
faced by the AAF when the pursuit of victory led it beyond precision bombing
to city bombing. Sherry offers good research and stimulating writing in an
ultimately unsuccessful attempt to apply anti-Vietnam War morality to
American bombing in World War II. Both books make a stronger case for the
immorality of bombing Japan than Germany, focusing on the AAF's massive
fire raid on Tokyo and on the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The
current social trends rejecting nuclear war and open racism, one unheard of and
the other not questioned in the 1940s, make the war against Japan a hot topic of
modern research. The atrocities and racism of the Japanese regime are
dismissed as cultural differences. Such a case cannot be made for the Germans.
They belonged to the mainstream of Westem culture, were Caucasian to a fault,
and committed atrocities on a numbing scale.

757

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Unpublished Material

Cabell, CP. Unpublished autobiography.

Hughes, Richard D'O. Unpublished autobiography.

Mets, David. Untitled manuscript biography of Spaatz, 1982.

The Hughes autobiography gives useful inside details on the Eighth Air
Force and USSTAF. I thank Professor W. W. Rostow for giving me the wartime
chapters of this work. The edited version of Mets's work, published under the
title Master of Air Power, is included under Memoirs, Biographies, and Published
Personal Papers above. This manuscript is particularly strong on Spaatz' s pre-
World War II career and benefits from Mets's numerous interviews with
Spaatz's family and associates. General Cabell was one of the AAF's leading
intelligence officers. He also served in combat, leading a wing of Eighth Air
Force heavy bombers. He was present in Spaatz's headquarters at Park House on
the day of the initial Big Week mission, and he gives an important account of
the events of that evening. The CAFH archives contains a copy of this work.

758

Index

Aachen, Germany, raid oru 376, 482
AAF. See United States Army Air
Forces.

AAF Evaluation Board, targets of: 410
AAF Office of Infotmation Services:
524

ABC talks, agreements in: 79-80
ABC-1

report submitted: 59

theato- air forces created by: 71
ABC-2, report submitted: 59
Afr^ Korpy. 136

Air Commanders Conference: 572, 574.
See also Allied Air Commanders
Conference
Air Corps Tactical School: vii, 28, 131.
See also Air Service Tactical
School,
attended by Spaatz: 14
tenets ofi 29-31
Aircraft types (British)
Beaufighter: 176
Boston Bomber: 90
Hurricane: 53, 64, 125, 139
Lancaster: 94, 556, 557
Mosquito: 307

Spitfire: 29, 53, 64. 90, 96, 125, 137,
139. 144. 183. 195, 203, 225, 241,
364, 371, 463

Wellington: 48
Aircraft types (Frerjch)

Morane: 14
Aircraft types (Japanese)

Zcto: 29
Aircraft types (German)

Bf 109: 323, 371, 372, 512, 542, 574

Bf 110: 53, 64, 65, 370

FW 190: 100, 371, 372. 373, 512,
542. 574

Ju 52: 191n, 195

Ju 87 (Stuka): 205

Ju 88: 323

Me 210: 372

Me 262: 484, 512, 539^540, 574
Aircraft types (U.S.)
A-20: 40, 171, 183

A-36: 248, 316
B-9: 28
B-10: 28, 32

B-17: 24, 28, 30, 31, 38, 40, 42, 45,
62, 64, 72, 74, 77, 79, 81, 82. 83,
85, 90, 96, 97, 98, 100. 103. 104,
109, 132, 140, 14i 157, 163, 191,
195, 196, 198. 199, 200, 233, 234,
235, 253, 261, 262, 263, 268, 271,
303, 359, 365, 371, 393. 395.
439-440, 448, 468, 478, 55Z 556.
557, 558, 564

B-24: 31, 40, 97. 103, 104, 195, 253,
257, 260, 262, 263, 303, 359, 365,
393, 395, 398, 439, 448, 462, 468,
478, 501, 503, 512. 526, 550, 55%
556, 584

B-25: 40, 74, 125, 198, 262

B-26: 40, 198

B-29: 31, 32, 260, 264, 311, 588

C-47: 85, 584

C-54: 272

DB-7: 171

DH-4: 14

P-26: 28, 29

P-38: 65, 66. 74, 77, 79, 85, %, 100,
m, 109, 139, 174, 191. 264. 288,
303, 312, 321, 322, 361, 371, 376

P-39: 74, 183, 259

P-40: 29, 40, 65, 74. 171, 176, 183,
225, 233, 239

P47: 65, 66, 174, 303, 322, 357, 361,
371, 376, 396, 408, 512

P-51: 31, 62, 65, 66. 275, 288, 297,
309, 316, 321, 323, 357, 361, 367,
371, 372, 373, 376, 396, 512

P-80: 512, 574

YB40: 62
Air Defence of Great Britain (ADGB)

established 80

Rghter Cammand redesignated' 307
Air Divisions. See Divi»ons (USAAF)
Air Force Combat Command

formed: 58
Air Force Manual 2-1: 119
Air Forces (numbaed, British)

761

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

1st Tactical: 319n

2d Tactical: 273n, 307, 309, 310, 318.
338, 364, 409, 454, 456, 4S9, 521.
526

Air Forces (numbered, U.S.)
Fourlh: 82. 88

Eighth {see indtvidual entry under
Eighth Air Force)

Ninth: 156. 196, 240; 249. 250.
260-261. 26i 267. 273. 276. 277.
278. 290, 299, 307, 309, 316, 317,
318. 319, 323, 331, 332, 335, 336,
338. 355, 357, 364, 371, 408, 414,
417. 454, 456, 46i 466, 484, 485,
489. 514, 515, 518, 533

Twelfth: 103, 109^110, 114, 115, 116.
124, 128, 130, 139, 141, 143, 144.
145, 152, 156, 163, 171, 178, 185,
196, 247. 249. 250, 261, 264, 265,
273. 298. 319n. 354. 360. 417. 484.
S48. 564

TTiirteenfli: 273

Fifteenth: 223, 264-268, 273, 274,
278. 283, 290, 315. 319, 321, 323,
346. 351, 354, 358. 379. 383,
384-390, 395, 400, 417, 434, 439.
440, 443, 448. 479, 490, 500. 504.
50!), 506, 514, 526, 536. 549. 571.
573, 574, 584, 587
Air Liaison OfficCT (ALO)
function of: 149-150
introduced in Sidly: 243
Airlifi. si^pfdies to the front: 501-503
Air Service Tactical Schook 19
Air supCTiority
AAF over Germany: 367, 367,
373-379, 414415, 570-571
AAF on D-Day: 341. 414-418
AlHed: 531-532
assessment of: 587
defined: 75

in North Afnca: 121. 145. 299
FoiNTBLANK and Overlord,

requirements for 303, 312, 333
strategy, role in: 93, 109, 214-216.

299

U.S. loss of over Germany: 287

USSTAF over Germany: 358

WWn: 587. 588. 595
Air Support Control Headquarto's (ASC)

estaUkhed in Middle East: 150
Air support doctrine. See dso Close air
siqjport

defined in Nordi Afiica: 210-220
Air supremacy. See Air siq)eriority.
Air Transport Service: 189
Air War Plans E»viaon (AWPD)

formed: 60

reports by: 60-62. 111-112
Alam Haifa, defense of: 150
Albany. New York: 4
Albert Canal, Bel^um

bridge targets at 408
Alexander, Harold R.LG.

Briti^ Army Coinmander in Chief,
Mediterranean: 181, 204

Commander, 18 Army Group: 178,
181

Italian operations planned by: 250
NAAF air support praised by: 256
Pantelloia operations p>rq>aied by:
231

proposed as Comnumder of Allied
groimd forces, SHAEF: 536
Alexandria, Virginia: 67
Algeria

Allied control of: 123

Eisenhower hq in: 230
Algiers: 147, 177, 178. 186. 277

AFHQ in: 173, 174

Allied occupation of: 123, 128

aviation engines in: 145

intelligence activity moved to: 190

invasion forces' dqjaitiire from: 137

NAAF Hq moved from: 189
Algiere Task Force: 125
Allen. Teny

Commander, 1st Inf Div: 203
Allied Air Commanders Confaraice:

544, 546, 558, 564, 572
Allied Air Control Conference: 544.

546, 558
Allied Air Forces

replaced by NW African Air Forces:
178

structure of: 152-154
weakness of: 171
Allied Expeditionary Air Force (AEAF)
abolished: 484-489
conmand and control in: 454
command structure of: 307-318, 454.
467

heavy bombers for ck)se air support

used by: 482
hq at Stanmore: 294
operations, Mar-Apr 44: 364

762

Index

plans for OVERLORD submiaed by:

330-339. 406
premvaskm operations: 410-412,

415-416
lodcet sites assaulted fay: 432
Spaatz, disagreements widv 283, 355,

357

targeting plan disputed l^: 345-352
targets for CROSSBOW: 430-431
targets for CoBRA: 468-470
USSTAF, relationship with: 355-357
War/Op«ations Room: 455
AUied Force Headquarters (AFHQ): 140,

143. 147
Eisenhower hq in Algiers: 173
organizadon of: 178-180
press communiques firom: 188
Allies: 368
air command for OVERLORD settled

by: 341-344
air strength in North Africa: 121
air svperiority doctrine redefined by:

210-220, 516
airfields in North Afiica: 128
aiipower performance in North Afiica:

145-146

air war, WWII, assessed: 588-596
antishipping campiaign of: 189-196
Arcadia Conferaice agreements by:
68-69

Biittle of the Bulge faced by: 531,

532-533
bombing characterized: 571
bombing effects revealed in Jif)anese

c^en 442
bombing efforts, WWII: 588, 590
bombing ethics questioned: 591
campaign in Tunisia: viii
coll^jse of Axis bridgehead in North

Africa: 201-210
defense in Tunisia: 173
drive across France: 421, 439,

453-454, 462, 472, 474, 4S3, 501,

503,515-516,518-519
drive at German border halted by:

526

goals for OvERLMiD: 395-396
iiulial operations for D-Day: 424-426
invasion of Italy: 223, 255-260
invasion of North Africa: 123-154
invasion of Sicily: 243-253
invasion of Sicily {banned by:
239-243

MEW developed by: 513. 514
naval activities in Atlantic: 113
North African operations accelerated

by: 185-200
Thunecroap affected by: 543-563
operations, Mar-Apr 44: 356-377
Pantelleria operations: 225-238
preinvasion operations: 408-418
reorganized in North Africa: 164-184
strafing of French targets, directives

on: 410

strategic bombardmoit canqnign

initiated by: 296-300
strategic bombardment firom

Meditenanean: 262-280
strategic bombardment plan disputed

by: 347-352
strategic plans in Middle East:

106-116, 155-164
targeting priorities against Germany

set by: 284, 490, 49i497, 500
V-1 flying bombs, reaction to: 428
weaknesses in logistics: 123-124
Western Desert, lessons of: 152
Alps: 595

Ambrose, Ste^ien E.: 352
American Expeditionary Force (AEF): 5
Amaican Volunteer Groiq): 28
Andorson, Frederick L. (Fred): 105, 333,
335, 350. 428, 490, 52*, 549
aircraft losses, reaction to: 322
Berlin bomlnng favored fay: 549,
561-562

bonbing of civilian population, views

on: 434, 561. 564
bonibing directives recdved fay: 391,

434

Hurricane n planned fay: 495
Malta Conference, rqxesentadve ac

548, 572

RAF press atmouncemait, reaction to:

381

Sp)aatz's <^iy for opa-ations: 290, 312.

317. 321. 391, 470
SiKANCLE, effects reviewed by: 404
strategic targeting plans, views on:

350-351

Yalta Canference. representative at:
553

Anderson. Kenneth A. N.: 173. 181.
182. 300

air power in North Afinca controlled
by: 143

763

Spaatz and the Am War in Europe

air support pled for by: 143, 145,

176, 209
army organized by: 136
assessment of: 171-172, 177
Bizeite, advance on led by: 139
Commander, Ist British Army: 128,

219, 220
Luftwaffe air attacks, complaints

about: 140
Anderson, Orvil A.
Berlin raid viewed by: 378
Doolittle's operadons ofBcer 469
Anderson, Samuel E.

CG, K Bomber Command: 309
Andrews, Frank M.: 24
Allied organization in Middle East,

views on: 174
Casablanca Conference, views at:

162-163
CG, ETO: 101, 155
operational readiness rates defended

by: 104

War Dept Air Board served by: 131
Angkj-Atnerican Standardizadcsi of

Arms Committee: 47
Antwerp, Belgium: 521-522
ANVnVDRAGOON (Operation): 484
Anzio, Italy, assault on: 321
Aphrodite (remote control aircraft)

initiated: 429
Arabs, attack on RAF fields Li Iraq: 146
Arcadia Conference: 68

effects of: 71
Ardeimes counterofCaisive: 504-505,
511, 517, 521-522, 531-543. See
also Battle of the Bulge
Argument (Operation)

oidered by USSTAF: 319-321
Armies (numbered, British)

Ist 128, 135-136, 139, 140, 142,
143, 145, 153, 164, 167, 112, 203,
205, 208-210
2d: 307, 311, 454, 457, 458, 461
8lh: 135n, 136, 147, 150, 173, 178,
181, 202, 203, 212, 213, 239, 241,
243. 260
Armies (numbered, Canadian)

1st: 479, 481^2
Armies (numbered, Gennan)
Fifteenth: 503
Fifth Paraer. 531
Seventh AIX 531
Sixth 1%

Sbah SS Panzer. 531, 546, 562
Armies (numbo-ed, Italian)

Tenth: 147
Armies (numbered, U.S.)

First 307, 309, 454, 463, 482, 515

Third: 307, 309, 472, 515, 533

Fifth: 127, 164, 230, 256, 260

Seventh: 241, 243

Ninlk 571
Army Air Control Goiter (AACC):
149-151

Army Air Service. See United States

Army Air Service
Army Air Support Staff Section

FM 31-35 drafted by: 133
Army Co-operation Command
formed; 149
dissolved: 307
Army Ground Forces
differoices on air sujjport doctrine:

212, 214, 216-218
European Theater of Operations: 92,
101

organization of: 72
Army Group G (Goman): 538
Army Groups (numboed)

6lh: 484, 517, 573

12th: 307, 515, 517. 573

18: 178, 181

21: 307, 404, 406, 409, 454, 461.

503, 573
Aimy Service Forces: 290
Army Services of Suf^y, organized: 72
Arnold. Heniy H. ("Hsp"): 7, 24, 31,
41, 56, 367, 80, 82, 83, 85, 92,
156, 178, 196, 210, 218, 219, 236,
244, 257, 287-288, 290, 297, 300,
314, 315, 352, 356, 376, 386, 387,
404, 437, 495, 513, 514, 516,
519-520, 532, 541. 553, 564, 572
aircraft aid to Britain opposed by: 59
air support doctrine approved by: 214,
215

aimaft reallocation to England by: 81,
85, 111

assessment of: 32
"Billy" Mitchell supported by: 20
black pilots, performance studied by:
258

bombing effort, distqipcnntments over
103-104

bombing of Balkans agreed to by:
387

764

Index

bombing of Italy, view on: 262, 264
Cairo Conference, reflections on: 273
Casablanca CGnferaKe, views at: 162,
164

CG, AAF: 90, 421

close air support by heavy bomben

viewed by: 458
Commander, OCAC: 37
Combined Bombra- Operation,

st^jported by: 336-337
command problems faced by:

305-306, 387-389, 393
conlinuation of intensive bombing

urged by: 109^110
Doolittle supjported by for CG

Twelfth AF: 127
Dpty C/S for Air 57-58
Eaker moved to Mediterranean by:

274-279

Eaker, relationship with: 31-33, 531,
593

Eighth AF move to England planned

by: 75-76
Eisenhower penned by: 115
fivloughs opposed by: 446-447
fears growth of German fighter force,

1945: 522, 538
heart attack suffered by: 547
internment of U.S. aircraft studied by:

448-450
maneuvers of 1941 analyzed by:

132-133
Marshall-King-Hopkins mission

detailed by: 108
Me 262, reaction to: 512
morale investigated by: 378, 448-450
North Afirican lessons circulated by:

211

Ploesti issue raised by: 385
population bombing, reaction to:

435-436, 495, 591
press covwage, angered by: 304-305
press coverage for AAF sought

198

prewar planning by: 60, 62, 71, 72

promotions of: 9-10

public image of AAF promoted by:

102,448-450
Quebec Conference, issues raised by:

485-490
raid on Romania planned by: 260
redeployment, views on: 96i-99
Roosevelt, meeting with: 37

share of victory, concern ovra: 415

Spaatz assessed by: 421

Spaatz's increased effort urged fay:

523-526
Spaatz move to North A&ica

approved by: 142
Spaatz promotion recommended by:

578-579

Spaatz, reMondiip with: 31-35, 115,

467, 579. 594
strategy proposed by: 80, 111-114
support of Combined Bomber

Offensive by: 336-337
sqjpoit of more active fighter foice

by: 300-303
terror bombing press stoiy, reaction

to: 559-561
USSTAF control viewed by: 270-271,

527

Associated Press

correspondent: 559

cultivated by Spaatz: 103
Atlantic Ocean, feny route across:

77-78, 79
Atomic bomb: 579
Attack aviation, organized: 17
Augsburg, Germany

Luftwaffe defense of: 369

MAAF targets in: 319
Australia

air feny route to: 69

purchases aircraft &om U.S.: 40
Australia-New Zealand Army Corps:

148
Austria

German fighters withdrawn finm: 518
oil targets in: 536
Aviation Engineer Battalion, 809di: 145
AWPD. See Air War Plans Division
AWPD/1: 60-62, 71, 74, 76, 97, 111,
112, 115, 260, 435
objectives evaluated: 484, 526-527,
588

policy on area bombing: 543, 552
AWPD/42
prepared for airoaft productioa'
111-113

Axis: 167. See dso Germany; Italy,
assessment ot WWII: 592
bridgehead shattered in Noth Afiica:

200-210
codes broken: 121
counterattack in North Afiica:

765

Spaatz and the Am War in Europe

173-174
defeat in Tunisia: viii
heavy bombaidment in 'Rinisia faced

by: 196-200
Italy defended by: 264-267

passes from French gained 1^

172

oil industry attadied: 341, 384-393,
440

Pantelleria defended by: 225-238
plan!! against in Sidly: 239-243
resui'gence in Libya: 69
Sidly defended 1^ 243-2S3
si^e of Tobruk by: 150
strategic bombardment against: 280,

296-306
strat(!gy against 155-164, 172
supplies in North Africa, tonnage:

145-146

sillies interdicted in North Africa:

185-200
Tunisia siarendered by: 210

Badoglio, Pietro
secret annistice with Allies made by:
255

Bad Rdchenhall, GamaiQr, raid on: 584
Bagby, Sally

Spaatz's executive ofiBcer 294
Baghdiid, Iraq: 116
Bailey, Sidney: 45
Baker, Newton D., Sec of War: 7
Baldwin, Stanley

Prime Minister (British): 30
Balkans

German operations in: 354

targets in: 384-386, 387, 400
Barksdale Field (later AFB), Louisiana:
25

Basel, Switzwland

acddental bombing of: 575
Barrett, Arthur

CommaiKia', Army Co-operation
Command: 149
BastDgne, Belgium, action at: 533
Bataan, Philippines, sunrendo' of: 126
Batileaxe (Opwation): 150
Battle of the Atlantic: 113, 160

Allied victory and effects of: 288

new threat of: 541
BatUe of Britain: 41-56, 186
Batde of Cassino: 385

Battle of Crete: 146
Battle of the Bulge: 504-^, S2S. See
also Ardennes oounteroffenave
Allied [sssimism in: 538
aircraft losses in: 519
effects on strategK bombardnoent:

536-538
German equipment tost in: 533
launched: 531

Luftwaffe commitment to: 573
Bay of Biscay: 230
B^erlein, Fritz

Normandy bombardment described
by: 472
Beattie, Ed

press coverage by: 83, 102, 383
Belgium

AAF fighters nwved to: 521

Allied airfields attacked in: 535

U.S. aircraft purchased t^: 40

transportation targets in studied: 330
Bendix Tro}Ay

awarded to Doolittle, 1931: 125
Benghazi. Trqpoli. US. bases aC 262
Berlin, Gennatiy: 469

Battle of Berlin: 306

bombing casualties in: 435, 595

bombing in examined: 567-570

casualties inflicted by Soviets in: 591

cloud cover over: 564

fighter escort range to: 361-364

final raid of the war on: 584

German surrender to Soviets in: ix,
584-585

Luftwaffe defense responsibilily
asagned: 369

raids on: 358. 370, 371, 381, 394,
396, 432, 439. 545, 550-551 553,
557, 560-561. 572, 584

reprisal attacks against studied:
435-438, 543, 549-550

strategic importance of: 45, 434,
548-549, 562-564

U.S. losses on raids over. 373, 394
Berliner, Henry

Ass't C/S, Plans, Eghth AF: 74
Bern. Switzeriand: 575
BidweO, Shelfotd

British military theory, views on: 148
"Big Blow": 518-519
"Big Week": 319-326, 358, 593

assessment of: 326-327

losses compared 377

766

Index

missions in: 319-326

planning far: 31S
Biscari, Sidly, aiifield at: 239
Biskra, Algeria: U.S. airfield at: 145
Bismarck, Otto von

parapjirased by Harris: 581
Bissell, Clayton

staff, War Plans Div: 60
Bizerte, Tunisia

drive on; 125

plans for capturing airfield at; 137
Black pUots in AAF; 257-260
Bletchlqr Parte, England- 98, 140, 514.

See also Ul,TOA.
Bluie West (BWI) Hekl. Greenland: 82
Blunixrbuss: 510
Bolero: 70
Boccadifalco, Sicily

Axis airfield raided at; 195
Bohlen, Germany, raid oru 398
Boiling Field (later AFB), Washington,

D.C.: 32, 75, 85
Bone, Algeria

AUied airfield at: 128, 186

plans for cq)turing airfield at: 137

port seized: 139
Borabora Island, U.S. garrison at: 69
Borizzo, Sicily

Axis airfield raided at: 195
Bottomley, Norman H.: 495

Dpty Chief, Air Staff (RAF): 88, 315,
391, 487

bomber escort, views on: 575

German coal famine, report by: 538

THXffflJERCLAP studied by: 544-545

targeting directives issued by:
492-494, 500, 560, 561-562, 582

targeting priorities o£ 391, 492,
528-529, 542, 581
Bougie, Algeria

Luftwaffe sinks Allied ships at: 139,
171

occupation of: 137, 139, 171
Boulogne, France, beachhead at: 70
Bourguebus Ridge

bombs dropped on: 462
Botnke-White, Margaret

L^e magazine {toojoumalist: 198
Bowman, Hal

press officer, USSTAF: 525
Boyd, Max

chief, press relations, USSTAF: 562
Boyertown, Pennsylvania: 3

Boyle, Ardiibald

Chief of bdelligence, RAF: 43, 45
Bradley, Folkstt

continental training faces oommander.
245

Bradley, Omar N.: 409, 481, 501
air support in North Africa,

dissatisfied with: 209, 217
assessed by Eisenhower: 592
Battle of the Bulge, role in: 535
Brereton viewed by: 467
CG, Twelfth Army Gtoi^j: 573
CG, U.S. First Aimy: 307. 454,

463-464,479
command, rdatkmsh^) with: 467-468
Dpiy Corps Commander, North

Africa: 203, 219
heavy bomber eirploymait assessed

by: 464-466, 470471
Normandy breakthrough led by: 472,

474-476, 482
promoted to four-star rank: 579
Sicily paradrop, role in; 244
St Lo breakthrough executed by: 516
St. L6 raid, reaction to: 470-471
Bremen, GennarQr

targeted for bombing: 94
Brereton, Louis H.: 464
Allied organization in Mediterranean

viewed by: 174
"Big Wedc" targets selected by: 321
CG, Ninth AF: 273, 276. 307, 309,

310. 316, 318, 355, 462
Cobra jdarma: 467
Commatxkr, First Allied AiibcniB

Army: 466-467
vxamwA, relationship wiflu 457, 462,

467,468
strategic targeting, views on: 353
Breslau, Germany
Gaman retreat from: 545
MAAF target in: 321
neutralizadon of: 563
Brest, France
raid on: 94

submarine pens targeted in: 113
Brigades (Briti^)

36th: 137
British Admiralty: 45
British Air Ministry: 96, 385, 486

area bombing supported by: 487

bombing policy of: 581

Casablanca Coifo-ence, participation

767

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

iiK 157-164
Gee radio aid aocuracy questianed by:
94

Hurricanes I and n planned by:
494-495

Luftwaffe strength, Jun 44, estimated

by: 425

morale bombing proposed by: 437
ojjeiational question: 88
V-1 sites targeted by: 428
U.S. intelligence liaison to: 274
WWn planning by: 80
British Air Staff
better control over Harris sought by:
496, 527

strategic bombardment plans disputed

by: 348-349
British Chiefs of Staff: 435
Arnold, relationship with: 522-523
Balkan targets viewed by: 385
borrbing French civilians, views on:

401^02

Casablanca Conferetice, views at: 161,
162

cross-channel invasion pos^xmed fay:
107-108

I>resdai bombing, responsibility for:

563

end of war predicted by: 496
moving bomb groups to Italy, view

OIL 264-266
OviRLORD, responsibility in: 344
Ovi3UX>RD command trvicture viewed

by; 313, 337
Ploesti decisions of: 390
Quebec ConloKnx, views at*

486-490

reprisal raids discussed by: 433, 434,

435-436
Tdiran, strategy planning by: 223
British Defence Committee

bombing of French targets considered
by: 402-403
British Expeditionary Force: 136, 171
British Govonment Code and Cypher
School. See also Ultra
capability of: 98, 533
Meditoranean operations: 141
report on rail system in Germany: 538
British Joint Intelligence Committee: 514
Berlin bombing studied by: 436-437,
544

Dresden bombing responsibility shared

by: 563

Gemun resistance studied by: 545
strategic bambardment asse^ed by:

497, 500
strategic bombardment targets
reviewed by: 348-349
British Joint St^ Mission

"saturation" bombing viewed by: 266
British Mediterranean Fleet

bombing of Pantelleria by: 233-234
British Military Delegation: 387
British Military Mission in Washington:
59

British Ministry of Economic Warfare:
284

strategic bombardment plan disputed

by: 348
V-1 policy assessed by: 434
British Special Operations Executive

(SOE): 487n
Broadhurst, Harry: 243
Commander, WDAF: 201
command, issues of: 458, 467
Montgomoy, relationship with: 241,

311

Brooke, Alan: 409, 536
bombing of Rome discussed by: 261
Chief, Imperial General Staffi 347,
460

strategic bombardmoit plan, views on:

347-348

transportation plan siqiported by: 402
Brunswick, Germany

raids on: 303, 305, 306, 322
Brux, Germany, raid on: 398
Budiarest, Romania, targeted: 385, 386
Bud^jcst, Hungary, targeted: 385
Buiton, Sidney O.

Dir. Bomber Operations (RAF): 544

Thunderclap lauitching suggested
by: 544
Bullitt, WiUiam C.

U.S. Ambassador to France: 38
Bundesarduv, casually records in: 553
Bmma, issue at Quebec Conferaice: 488
Bu^y Heath, England: 293
Bti^y Park, England

Eighth AF Hq: 104, 293

SHAEF Hq: 293, 294, 314
Butcher, Harty: 328, 578

German surrender to Soviets
witnessed by: 585

Spaatz's combat missions observed

768

Index

by: 199

Spaatz's status desoibed by; 249
Butler, William O.: 333

Dpty Commander, AEAF: 311-312

replaced by Vandeiberg: 354
Butt Report

RAF night navigation indicted by: 94

Cabell, C. P.: 322

USSTAF rep on Joint Planning
Committee: 335
Caeai, ftance: 411, 457

action at 454, 460, 474

short bombing of: 481

stalemate at* 458
Cagliari, Sardinia, Allied raid on: 198
Cairo Conference: 267-271, 277, 338,
387

Arnold's assessment of: 273, 315
Cairo, Egypt 174

conferences in: 267-271

inteUigoKe activity moved from: 190

Joint Operations Staff in: 147
Cambridge, England: 146
Canada

U^. aircraft purdiased by: 40

U.S. civilian instructors iiu 42
Canadian Army

losses of to friendly bombardment
480, 481-482
Candee, Robert C: 92
Cannon, John K.

black pilots, repeat on pr^ared fay:
258-260

CG, Twelfth AF: 273. 484-485

Commands, NW Afiican Training
Command: 181, 230

Commander, XII Air Support
Command: 142, 170, 174

Coningham's dpty: 242-243, 247

Dpty Commando-, NATAF: 257
Cape Bon, Tunisia; 123

NASAF airfield at 229
Capn, Italy, rest fiacilities at 259
Carolina maneuvers: 167
Carroll, Franklin O.

obseiva: in England: 42
Casablanca: 230

Allied occupation of: 123

Conferences: 155-164, 173, 178,
183-184, 239, 284, 310, 531

directives assessed: 589, 590-591

fadlity assessed by Spaalz: 142

invasion force: 127-128

U,S. air base at 153
Casablanca Task Force: 127, 128
Castelvetrano, Sicily, Allied raid on; 199
Caucasus, Goman offensive to: 111
Chandia, Albot B., U.S. Senator: 246
Chaney, James E.: 82

Chief, Special Army Observer Group:
59

new plans to British presented by: 80,
81

Charlottesville, Virginia

Roosevelt speech in: 45
Chartres, France, cargo airlift to: 501
"Chattanooga Choo-Choo" mission; 410
Chaumont, France: 5
Channitz, Germany

communications center attacked at
572

targets studied: 544, 545, 556
Chennault. Claire: 28-29
Chequers, England: 96
Cherwell, Lord
bridge targets for interdictjon
suggested by: 404
Chiang Kai-shek

Cairo Conference attended by: 268
Chief of Air Corps
Arnold: 32
Westover: 32
Chief of Air Staff (RAF): 79, 81, 283.

See also Portal, Charles A.
Chief of Staff (AAF): 551. See also

Giles, Bamey
Chief of Staff, Supreme Allied
Command (COSSAC): 294
directives: 43, 318
Christmas Island, U.S. garrison at 69
Churchill, Winston S.: 71, 147, 310,
382, 383, 385, 400, 432, 536
Anzio priority supported by: 321
area bombing questioned by: 580-582
bombing of east German cities

favored by: 545, 563
bombing of Rome discussed by: 261
bombing policies of: 390, 567,
580-582

Cairo Conferences, views at 270-271
Casablanca Confo'ence, views at

152-153, 155-164
cross-channel invasion plans, shift

favored by: 107

769

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

execution of war aindnals suggested
by: 437

Harris, relationshq> wifli: 93-96
invasion of fisx&i Afiica directed by:

jolted by Jqianese military successes:
Montgomery, views on; 460
Overlord command viewed by:

337-338, 341-344
Quebec ConferaKe, views at: 264,

483-484
RAF press release, conoem ov«:

382^383

reprisal raids discussed by: 433, 434
Roosevelt, pre-WWII talks with: 46
single air commander agreed to by;
152

Spanish invasion opposed by; 230
strategic bombatdinent buildup, views

on: 266
strategy of: 328

Tehran Conference, views at* 267,
273

tranqxmation plan questioned by: 390
transportation plan delayed by:

4aM08
V-1 attacks, reaction to: 428
Clmuon (Operation)
adopted by USSTAF; 548-549
effe<;ts of: 575

effoits expanded in: 572-573
execution of scheduled: 571-572
incendiaries used in: 570
plans for 553, 5S6

Claik, Bennett C. ("Chan^)")
U^. Sawtor; 246

Clark. Mark W.: 113
CG, Army Ground Forces, ETO: 101
CG, Fifth Amiy: 164. 170, 231. 256
Conjmander, U Corps: 92

Close ijir support
heavy bombers in: 453-482, 516-517
heavy bombers for opposed by

Spaatz: 423-424
North Afiica; viii, 121, 153, 200-220
priority assigned to: 215-216
Sidly: 243

Clutta-back, WaltCT E.
Commander, 1st British Div: 227, 229
Pantelloia communications analyzed
by: 238

Pantelleiia operatians. participaticn in:
231-235

Cobra (Operation): 463-479. 515

air siqjpott for ground farces in: 463

assessed' 475-479

command structure for: 468

dates ananged for: 468
Collins. J. Lawton ("Lightnin* Joe")

Commander. Vn Army Corps: 463,
472.474
Cologne, Gennany

bridge charges set off in: 510

coal diqiments decreased fixnn: 537

raids on: 94. 508, 561-562, 570

rail system strained in: 338

seizure of planned: 571
Combat Support Wing

organized for black troops: 294
Combined Airborne Hq: 466
Combined Bomber Offensive: 263, 279,
280. See also USSTAF

accepted by ComtmiBd Chiefs of
Staff; 260

analyzed: 527

Andiews assigned to: 155-136
"Big Wedc" mounted by: 319-326
directed by Combined Chiefs of Staff:

264, 265, 488
Fifteenth AF, participation in:

384-390
first mission of: 252
Mediterranean, participation in: 280
{biases of: 333-334
plan, reorganization of; 488
pre-invasion. utility ofi 327-339, 409
preparation for 123
role of, Jun-Sep 44: 423-424, 434
Spaatz's responsibility in: 283
success over Luftwaffe of: 345
tactics of; 424

targeting plans disputed: 345-352
target selection for; 284, 428-430
Combined Chie& of Staff (CCS): 343,
545

bombing of Balkans i^jproved by:
388-389

bomlnng of Pbesti, views on: 383,
388-389

bombing of Rome authorized by: 261
Cairo Confoences, pailicipation in:
271, 339

Casablanca Conference, participatian

in: 155-164, 310
Combined Bomber Offensive targets

approved by: 284

770

Index

Combined Bomber Offensive directed

by: 260. 264-265, 267, 268, 280
command arrangonenis, struggle with:

387, 388-389
command assignments of: 496
command and control of: 271
directives received at Quebec

Conference: 487, 581
G«nnan jet fighter threat faced by:

539, 542

invaaon of Italy directed by: 255, 256
Italian operadons decided 1^: 263,
264

Malta meeting, participadon in: 548
Nindi AF missions assigned by: 355
Super-Gymnast dropped by: 69
Overlord, respansiUlities in: 344,
345, 352

Overlord command, views on: 339
Thunderclap spptoved by: 494
Quebec Conference, participation in:

264, 484-490
strategic bombardment, views on: 266
targets in SE Europe q^ved by:

388-389

Tehran Conference strategy planned
by: 223

U.S. troops in hdmd qjproved by:
81

Conibined Strategic Targeting

Committee, USSTAF: 544
Combined War Room, Cairo: 147
Comiso, Sicily, airfield at: 239
Commands (numbered)
Vm Air Service: 72, 127
Vffl Ak Support: 72, 90, 91, 108,
187

Vffl Bomben 71, 72, 98, 162, 290
vm Kghter: 72, 303-304, 316, 376.
478

K Air Support 309, 548

IX Bomber: 309, 317

K Fighter: 307, 317, 318, 414

IX Tactical Air. 464

K TYoop Carrier 309, 413, 414

Xn Air Service: 181

Xn Air Support 142, 164, 170-171,
173, 174, 176, 181, 183, 200,
201-205, 207-210, 218, 219, 233,
238. 241-243, 247, 248, 258, 259

XII Bomber 127, 170, 191

Xll Tactical Air: 484-485
Committee of Operadons Analysts

strategic bomtntig targets selected hy:
284

Command and General Staff School

Arnold at 32
Commonwealth army, short bombing of:

481^82

Condor Legion, strafing tactics in: 366
Coningham, Arthur: 248, 464
air support, doctrine of: 212, 215,
217-218

army-air cantrol system adoplBd by:

150-152, 180
assessment a£ 593
attitude of: 247

background of: 148

bridge busting supported by: 406

CG. NATAF: 157, 177, 181-182.

183-184, 218, 232
Chief, Allied Air Siqipart Commaitd:

174, 178

Commander, 2d Tactical AF: 273n,

279, 307, 310, 489
heavy bonibardment for close air

siqiport accepted by: 517
leadorship in Middle East 146,

200-204
Leigh-Mallory, relationship wide

455-458, 461^2
mistakes cited: 251-253
Montgomery, relation^p with: 311,

456, 461, 467
Normandy situation described by: 454
Pantelleria operations planned 1^

232-233
Patten, dispute vnth: 203-206
short bombing by RAF surWved by:

482

SiciUan operations planned by:
239-243, 250

targeting assessed by: 494

targeting priorities assessed by: 191
Constantine

Andfflson hq at 173, 174

Spaatz hq at: 189, 209, 231, 233
Corkscrew (Openriion): 225, 233

assumption of priority: 227, 238
Corps (numbered, British)

5: 172

9: 207

Corps (numbeied, Cana^an)

2d: 480
Corps (ntanbered, French)

XIX: 164, 170, 178

771

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Corps (numbered, German)

/ F/gAter. 369, 370, 376

// Parachute. 464. 470

LXXKN: 464. 470
Corps (numbered, U.S.)

I Armored: 167

H: 153, 136, 170-172, 174, 178, 202,
203, 206, 207, 208-210, 218, 242,

247

IV ArniofBd 217
Vt 243
Vn: 463

VI Corps Area: 20
Cbnegidor, Philippines

surrender of: 126
Corsica, photo reconnaissance of: 241
COSSAC. See Chief of Staff, Supreme

Allied Command
Cotenlin Peninsula, France

cross-channel invasion, role in: 107
Counterair

campaign launched by RAF: 151

SicUy: 240-241

Spaatz expeiieiKe with: 301, 367

tactics created for 367
Courtney, ChristojAier

chief supply offica-, RAF: 85
Cowan, Howard

AP correspondent: 559

Dresden report by: 559-561

repercussions of story by: 562
Craig, Howard A: 81, 147-148, 174

CG, XH Air Sx^ort Command: 170,
176, 177

delegate to London: 70

gains insight on RAF air control: 151

"misuse of air power" objected to by:
143
Craig, Malin

Chief of Staff, U.S. Army: 38
Crossbow (Operation): 426-428,
429-432, 450

diversion of resources to: 330, 406

installations attacked: 305, 317

Joint Committee, role in: 432

losses in: 439

Luftwaffe reaction to: 396

OverIjORD, effect on: 398, 417-418

priority of: 332, 391, 393

redirected: 468

role of: 296

targets: 391-393, 428. 505-506
CRUSAIffiR (Operation): 150

CULVERIN: 510
Cunningham, Andrew
Pantelleiia bombaidment observed by:

233, 234

Pantelleria operations, preparations by:
231

Straits of Messina, failure to close of:
251

Curtis. Edward P. (Jed)

Spaatz's chief of staff: 206, 248, 593
Cuttiss, Glen: 4
Curty BilL 19

D'Albiac, J. H.

Chief, 2d Tactical AF: 310
Darlan, Jean F.

Commando- in Chief, Vichy French
Forces: 123
Davis, Benjamin O., Jr.

CO, 99lh Fighter Squadron: 230,
258-260
Davison, Tnibee

Ass't Sec of War for Air: 32
Dayton. Oiio: 57
D-day

Normandy: 414-418

Sicily: 243-244
Decimononnu. Sardinia

AAF raid on

Axis airfield at; 199
de Gaulle, Charles: 408
de Guingand, Fraix;is (Freddie): 457
Dempsey, Miles

CG, British 2d Army: 307, 458
Desert Training Center 135, 167
Dessau, Germany, RAF targets in: 45
de Tassigny, Jean de Lattre

accepts German surrender: 584-585
Devers, Jacob L: 167, 275

Commander, Armored Force: 135

Commander, ETO: 263

Commander, 6di Aimy Groi^: 484>
573

moving of bomb groi^K to Italy
opposed by: 263, 264
Dieppe, France, raid on: 498
Dill, Field Marshal John
head of British Military Delegation in
Washington: 387
Directorate of Ground Support
FM 31-35 produced by: 133
Director General of R&D: 146

772

Index

EMviskms (numboed, British)
IsC 227

1st Aiifaome: 457

78th: 139, 140, 142. 172
Divisions (numbered, Canadian)

3d Lifantty: 480

4th: 480
Divisions (numbaed, Gennan)

17th S5 Panzer Grenadier. All

Pamer Lehr. All, 482
Diviaons (Luftwaffe)

7th Fighter. 369
Divisions (numboed, Polish)

1st: 480

1st Pblish Armored: 480
Divisions (numboed, U.S.)

1st Armored 139, 142, 173, 217

1st Infantry: 135, 464

2d Annored 464

3d Armored: 464

4th Armored: 535

9th Infantry: 474

30th Manny: 470, 474

34th Manny: 207, 217

82d Airborne: 230, 481

101st Airborne: 481, 533
Divisions (USAAF)

1st Bombardment: 303, 384, 440, 475,
478-479, 552, 556

2d Bombardment: 303, 373, 448, 462,
478-479, 480, 532. 541

3d Bombardment: 303, 371, 373, 382.
3%. 478-479, 552, 556

converted to air divisions: 478
Djebel Abiod, Tunisia

British spearhead to: 139
Djedeida, Tunisia

Allied advance to: 139
Djidjelli, Algeria

Allied airfield au 137
Donovan, William J.: 56

obsover to England: 48-49
DooMe. James H.: 245, 247, 280, 288,
300, 316, 394. 432. 464. 490, 495,
524, 540, 546. 561. 580. 582

air superiority achieved by: 588

B-25 and B-36 groiq)s converted to
B-17 groups by: 262-263

background of: 125-126

Berlin raids: 433, 438, 439, 549-550

"Big Week" targets selected by: 321,
326

campaign against Luftwaffe: 299-302,

339

CG. Eighth AF: 223. 273, 292. 394.

433. 440. 470. 475
CG, NASAF: 157. 170, 176. 186.

190, 219, 251
CG, Twelfth AF: 109
close air support by heavy bombers

accepted by: 5l7
command of Air Forces for Torch

by: 108
counters etpaioice of: 367
crew rotation policy of: 380, 446-447
Crossbow missions dispatched by:

391-393, 416
E)resden bombing reported by: 558
German jet threat assessed by:

574-575
Gibraltar meeting, participant in:

140-142

Lagh-Mallory, relationship with: 455
Luftwaffe's increasing strengdi,

reaction to: 512-513
Market-Garden assessed by: 503
"misuse of air power" objected to:

143

morale bombing questioned by: 550
oil plan discussed by: 402
Pantellaia bombing directed by: 233
pathfinders employed by: 296-298
preinvasion operations, views on: 41 1
RAF press announcmient, reaction to:

381, 384
reassigned: 273, 276
refuses to cooperate with EAC: 147
Spaatz, relationship with: 593
Spaatz, assessnent by: 592
strategic bombardment, views on: 541,

542

tactics of: 359-364, 367
targeting priorities assessed by: 191
Tokyo Raid led by: 125
Douglas, Sholto
Chief, RAF Coastal Command: 337
Chirf, RAF Fighter Command: 80.
86, 310

Commander in Chief, Middle East:
156

Douhet, Giulio, theories of: 29, 261, 484
Dover, England, Gennan attacks on: 51
Dow Field, Maine: 81
Dowding, Hugh

ACX:, Fighter Command: 310
Dresden, Germany

773

Spaatz and the Am War in Europe

AAF bomWng of: 556, 558-559, 561.

567, 572
bombing of in support of Eastern

Fhmt 543, 545, 546. 550, 563-564,

581

RAF bombing of: 48, 49, 556-559

Spaalz's responsibility in bombing of:
563-564

terror bombing associated with:
580-581
Drop tanks: 61, 593

conadaed for WWII: 64-65

escort range inoeased by: 357

Spaatz's first encounter with: 18
Duisburg, Germany, raid on: 508
Dunam, Asa N.

C/S. Eighth AF: 74

lost at sea: 141
IDunldik, France: 40

evacuation: 43
Dunton, Delmar

Commander, NW Afiican Air Service
Command: 181, 230
Duxford, England

355th Fighter Group at: 384

Eagle Squadrons

transfer from RAF to AAF: 88
Eaker, Ira C: 79, 86, 93, 103, 158. 266,

306, 316, 470, 484, 525, 560. 561,

572

AAF Hq in England set up by: 82
air command structure in ETO. 1944,

viewed by: 485
Arnold, relationdi^ with: 31-32, 593

assessment of: 593
background of: 31-33
"Big Week," alerted for: 319
Casablanca Conference, views at:
162-164.

CG, Eighth AF: 115, 266, 267, 271,
288

Vm B(»nba Command established
by: 71

flight endurance flight proposed by:
22

Mission No. 1 led by: 98
moved to Mediterranean: 233, 272,
274-279

moving bombardment groups to Italy,

views on: 262, 264-265
ixmvisual bombing initiated by: 298

operatianal readiness rates defended

by: 104
prewar planning by: 62-64
radal views of: 294
Spaatz described by: 352
strategic bombaidnient target sdection,

views on: 349
strat^ si^jported by: 111-113
tactics of: 298-299. 300
weariness of troops assessed by:

445-446

Eastern Air Command (EAC): 147. 163,

172, 182
forward air base for: 139
mission of: 143-144, 152, 164, 191
Torch, siqjported and organized

hastily l^: 136
reassignment of: 178
shortages in: 128
strength of: 125
Eastern Front: 574. See also Dresden
antiaircraft guns, sn^iped of: 398
assessment of: 111
Gaman traffic Do: 559
German weakness on: 440, 445, 550
Luftwaffe on: 80, 445, 572-573
shift of bombing effort to: 563, 582
winter offensive on: 536, 544, 556
East Prussia, Red Aimy in: 573
Edea Anthony

Foreign Secretary (British): 402
Egypt, WDAF in: 135n
Eichmann. Adolf

Jewish Holocaust, involvement in: 571
Eighth Air Force: viii, ix, 126, 144, 156,

257, 264, 271, 299, 318, 388, 400,

404, 455, 526, 545, 561. See also

Air Forces (numbered, U.S.);

United States Strategic Air Forces
airfield bombing campaign of: 406
airlift operations by: 501, 503
area bombing, polky of: 508,

551-552, 556. 567-570
Argument, operations: 319-321. 323
assessment of. WWII: 587
authorized to search and destroy

enemy fighters: 53
B-17, backbone of: 72
Battle of the Bulge operations:

504-505, 532-536, 541
Berlin raids by: 370-371, 376-377,

432-433, 547, 549, 550-551. 567
bombing accuracy of: 110, 463,

774

Index

476^77, 478-480, 492. 504, 516,
553

buildup of: 70, 260
cities raided by: 262, 306, 418, 470,
553. 557

bombing of North Italian

communications by: 256
Clarion, role in: 571-573, 575
close air support missions of: 453,

460, 462, 477-482, 503. 531-533
Cobra, role in: 464-465. 468, 470,

472.477-480
communication centen attacked by:

572

control over: 267-268. 283
Crossbow operations: 391-392, 426,

428, 430-432, 443
E)oolittle assumes command of: 108,

223, 273

Dresden raids, role in: 556-559, 564
Eaker moved from command of:

272-278
early operations: 90, 93, 98-100.

103-104, 119
equ^]ped with pathfinders: 296-298.

306
established: 71
evaluated: 478, 480
fighter escort for: 360, 364, 371, 376,

414, 520-522, 546
incendiary bombing by: 556-558, 564,

570

Gemian submarine campaign launched
by: 113

hq at Bushy Park: 104-105, 294
ineffeclivenBss of: 164
instaUations in England: 83-84
integrity achieved by: 86-90
internment pjroblems in: 445, 448
Junior, aided by: 110
"kills" on the ground recorded by:
365, 373

losses, 285, 287-288, 290, 446. 511
losses, Aug 43: 373-376
losses. Oct 43: 373-376
losses, 44-45: 528
bsses, Jm-feb 44: 339
bsses. Jan-^!Qr 44: 417
losses. Mar 44: 358, 370-371. 377,
392

losses. May 44: 395, 417
losses, Jul 44: 440
losses, Aug 44: 443

losses, Sep 44-May 45: 439
losses, Dec 44: 532
losses. Jan 45: 573
losses. Feb 45: 573, 574
losses. Mar 45: 574, 584
losses, Apr 45: 584
losses, WWH: 587
Luftwaffe threat to: 511-514,

517-519, 573, 574
Manhattan Project siq)poitBd by: 579
Market-Garden, role in: 501, 503
military bases raided by: 564, 567
mission of: 110
Mission No. 1: 98, 303
Mis^ No. 494: 472
Mission No. 817: 551
Mission No. 968 (final in WWII>.

584

morale problons in: 445-446, 450
move to England: 74-75, 77-78
movement delayed by Battle of

Midway: 80-82
oil targets struck by: 439-440,

553-556

Overlord, role in: 314-315, 331,
332

P-51s assigned to: 64, 316
parallel bombing by: 476-480
p)ersonnel strength: 160n
POINTBLANK operations: 355
preinvasion role of: 424, 426, 428,
430

press covaage of: 304, 550-551

Queen, role in: 515-517

radar bombing by: 439-440, 462-463,

492, 504. 532. 553. 564, 568. 575
RAF. lelationshq) with: 268
reorganized: 478
rotation, policy in: 445-446, 448
senators' visit to: 246
short bombing in: 479-480
sorties, "Big Wedc": 326, 358
Spaaiz in command of: viii, 33, 64
strafing missions of: 580
strength. May 44: 395
structure of. 72

tactics: 359. 360-361. 367-371. 416.

424. 476-477. 480
targeting priorities for: 326, 332, 346,

347, 351-354, 377-379, 440, 490
ThunderoaP, role in: 435-438, 546,

552

tonnage dropped by: 417-418, 435,

775

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

470. 472, 504-506, 508-510,
532-533, 556, 567-570, 587

Torch, role in: 97, 108, 109

training in England: 85

transportation targets struck by:
409-410, 414, 417, 506, 508-510,
532-534, 552, 553, 567, 571, 573

unified command considaed for:
114-116

weather effects an; 303, 305, 323,
346, 368-369, 374, 375, 440,
468^70, 490, 492, 503-504, 550,
556

YB-40 tested by: 62
Eisenhower, Dwight D.: viii, 96, 172,
191, 230, 245, 263-264, 312, 348,
349, 351, 352, 354. 357, 384,
390-394, 404, 416, 421, 423, 429,
431, 454, 475, 524, 540
AAF in Mediterranean reorganized

by: 249-253
AAJF officers promoted by: 189
AEAF assessed by: 485-487
AFHQ ofi 143, 147. 173
aircraft losses, concem over: 392
"Ail Preparation Plan" of: 335
area bombing assessed by: 591
arrives in London: 313-314
Axii! in North Afiica, surprise over:
140

B-2% for Middle East suggested by:
260

Battle of the Bulge, decisions on: 541,
542

Berlin raid favored by: 432, 436-438
bombing from Italy, views on: 264,
264, 266

bombing of Rome discussed by: 261
Bratiley assessed by: 592
British, relationship with: 86, 88
CG, l).S. Army, North African

Tlieater of Operations: 155, 164,

167, 174, 181, 204
Chief, War Plans Div: 69-70
civilian casualties, views on: 388.

400403

close air support by heavy bomben

assessed by: 459. 474, 481, 496,

516-517
Combined Bomber Offensive

supported by: 337-339
command stmcture confusion faced

by: 312-315. 454, 485-490, 536

Coninghan-Pattcn di^te, angeied

by: 216-217
consultation widi Free trench on

bombing of targets in France: 408
control of air power, view oru 143
Crossbow, assigned top priority by:

429-^31

Doolittle, relationship with: 126-127
Baker's reassignment, views on:
276-279

Eighdi AF operalions halted by: 109
enemy air attacks rqxnted by: 144
ETO command assumed by: 82, 91
Ftedendall assessed by: 136, 183-184
German ordnance targets favored by:
494

German surrender accepted by: 584
halt in operations, Nov 44, opposed

by: 515
hq at Bushy Parte 293
invasion of Span, views on: 231
invasion postpanement studied by:

107-108

investigatian of firing on paratroops

ordered by: 244
Market-Garden adopted by: 501
Marshall's confidence in: 100-101
Mission No. 1 leader selected by: 98
Montgomery, relationship with:

46^463, 536
morale bomWng opposed by: 436-437
North African air power atganized by:

146

Nodi African air support assessed l^.

209L-210, 215, 219
North African offensive postponed by:

145

NAAF support in Italy praised by:
256

oil offensive declared by: 392, 400
OverijORD "Air Preparation" jian,

views on: 335
Overlord command airangonenis

by: 336-339, 341-344. 345, 353
Overlord operations plan, views on:

412. 415. 416. 594
OVBILORD {dan formally presented to:

409

Pantelleria assault prepared by: 227,
229, 231

Pantelloia bombardment observed by:
233, 234

Pantelleria c^tulation, views on: 238

776

Index

plea for reinfoicemrails: 237
press release on tenor bombing,

leactian to: S62
pressuTB to secure Tunisia qiplied by:

141

prestige of: 267
promoted to five-star rank: 579
publicity of war controlled by: 103
Roosevelt visit with: 268
SHAEF reorganized by: 489^90
6th Aimy GiDiq> ccxitrolled by: 484
Spoatz sgjpointed single air

commander by: 1S2-1S4
Spaatz ^)pointed Acting Dpty

Commander in Chief for Air, North

Africa by: 142
Spaatz assessed by: 106, 140, S79,

592

Spaatz as CG, USSTAF, endorsed by:
272

Spaatz summoned to North Africa by:
viii

strategic targeting settled by: 349-352
submarine pen targets ordaed by: 113
Supreme CommaiKler, Allied

Expeditionary Force: 270-271. 307.

354, 458-459
Tedder, relationship with: viii
Torch air forces authorized by: 109
transportation targets, dedsion on:

351-352, 393
unified air command planned by:

114-115
USSTAF removal from SHAEF

contiDl objected to by: 484-489
V-1 sites, attack ordered by: 428
Vandenbexg for CG, Ninfli AF

favored by: 466-467
Vichy forces command gained by:

123

El Alamdn, Egypt 146, 181

Battle of: 150, 201

German retreat to: 106
Elbe River 584

Allied drive to: 574
El Guettar, Tunisia

Axis bombed at 203
Elmas, Sardinia

Axis airfield hit on: 198
Emden, Germany

targeted for bombing: 94, 163, 306
Emmons, Delos C: 53

Commander, GHQ Air Force: 47

Enemy Objectives Unit (EOUX OSS
intodiction canqiaign prepared by:
404

tactical plan of: 350
USSTAF target intelligence section:
347

Enfidaville, Tunisia

AUied drive for 208
England 51, 53

buildup in: 368. 70-72, 74, 77-85.
96. 108. Ill

cargo airlift from: 501, 503

civilian contribution to WWII in: 590

control of U.S. forces in: 86-90, 93

military theory in: 148-149

purchase of aircraft by: 40, 64-66

shipping losses of: 160

strategic bombardmmt from: 262

tours of duty in: 446-448

U.S. military observers in: 41-44

U.S. manufactures for 38

V-1 threat against 424
English Channel, naval si^)port in: 93
Enigma

as element of ULTRA: 425

Gmnan codes decrypted wifli: 98,
141, 533

Locust cracked by: 141
Essen, Germany

decreases in coal shipments from: 537
European Theater of (^)erations (ETO):
71, 82. 92. 113, 114, 421

air theater of operations: 111

aircraft strengdi in: 526

command in: 115

importance of Ultra in: 137

jjress coverage for: 97

reorganized: 155, 4«4-489

WACs in: 294
Evill, Douglas

British Vice Chief of Air Staff: 315

Faid Pass, Axis victory at: 172. 173

Fairbanks. Alaska: 32

Falaise. Prance, action at: 481

Far Eastern Air Force (British): 146

Farmer, Howard: 16

Fechet, James

Ass't Chief of Staff: 32, 275
Feriana-Kasserine '

German forces pounded by Allies at:
183

777

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Fenrying of ahcraft: 81
Gander-Rtestwkk loutB: 271
Hawaii-Australia route: 69

increase m: 187-188
MainB-Labrador-4celand-^gland:
77-78

MaiTakech, tominus of: 153
Field Manual 1-5
fighter support doctrine in: 359^360,
366

lefdaced by FM 100-20: 298

leviaon o£ 216-218

TR 440-15 superceded by: 131
Field Manual 1-15

close air support docuine in: 360
Field Manual 31-35

applied in North Africa: 134-135

revision recommended 213

role of air support defined in:
133-135, 214-215
Field Manual 100-20

air doctrine institutionalized in:
211-21Z 214-219

mixed messages sent by: 298-299
Fighter Command Ostmark

defense of Austria by: 369
Fighter escort

capiibility of: 361

change in tactics of: 358-361, 364
inqxirtance of: 478, 520-521, 590,
593

RAF, use by U.S. bombers: 364
Spaatz's view of: 59-60, 64
Fighter Wing Control Room, fimction
of. 201

First Allied Airborne Army: 466, 503
Fischer-Tropsch

process for fuel: 445
FlAX (Operation): 191, 195-196, 220
Florennes, Belgium

cargo airlift to: 503
Floridii, air proving grounds in: 428
The Flying Game

authored by Arnold: 33
Flying Tigers: 29
FM. See Field Manual
Foggia, Italy: 273

captured 260

Sicily base at: 264
Fort Benning, Georgia

command post exercises at: 133, 135
Fort Dix, New Jasey: 81
Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: 23-24

Fort Sam Houston, Texas: 5
Foulois, Benjamin D.: 7, 24

CO, 1st Aero Squadron: 5
France. See also D-Day

aircraft purdiased by: 40

Air Service in: 30

Allied invasion of planned 70, 223,
283

Allied targets in: 98, 113, 317. 390.

410-411
analysis of bombing in: 567, 570
aimed forces to North Afiica fiom:

123, 137
armistice sought by: 44
Battle of France: 43
assessment of Germans in: 595
bombing of civilians in, concern oven

400-4eB, 408, 412-413
casualties fiom bombing: 351, 461
drive across: 438, 439, 470472, 474,

501

information cn Allied radar leaked by:
47

invaaon of souAiem: 484
Luftwaffe fighters in: 368, 424

Luftwaffe bombos moved to: 241
rail system, effects of bombing on:
401

rail targets assigned for bombing: 353
rail targets studied: 330, 332, 409^10
SHAEF in: 490

transportation targets in: 391, 395

U.S. manufacturing ci^padiy available
for 38

V-1 sites in: 393, 426-429
Frankfurt-am-Main, Germany

Luftwaffe responsibility for 369

raid on: 306
Frank, Walta H.

CG, Vm Air Service Command: 127
Fiedaidall, Ltoyd R.: 127, 167-170, 182

appreciation of tactical air learned by:
187

assessment of by Eisenhower 136.

183-184
background of: 168, 170
CG, n Corps: 167
command post exercises led by: 135
offensive in North Africa, ycepwed

by: 172-174, 176
Free Frendi govemmott
opinion on bombing of Rrench sought

408

778

Index

Spaatz, con&ontadon with: 176-177
Fteanan, Wilfied

Vk»Cliiet RAF Air Staff: 88, 146
Frendi Anny

in Norii Aftica: 164, 173, 178. 595

Gafsii, Ttmisia

cajjtured: 203

Patton hq ac 204
Gallagher, Wes

RAF press release, role in: 383
Galland. Adolph

fighter force empbyment assessed by:
518-519

Goering policy disputed by: 368

losses in Ardennes reported by: 535

tactics planned by: 518

U.S. tactics, views on; 360
Gander, Newfoundland, fory route: 271
GardnCT, Grandison

obsa^CT to Englaixi: 42
Geheimschreiber cypher machine: 510
Gdlbenbog, Edmund

restoration of fuel pnxluctian assigned
to: 443

Gda, Sicily, invasion o£ 227, 239, 244

Gee-H: 94, 532. See also H2X; Radar,
RAF "Y" Service
radar bombing with: 532, 564

George, Harold L.
Chief, Feny Command 81
staff. Air War Plans Div: 60

German Air Force. See Luftwaffe.

Goman Air Transport Savice
losses, North Africa: 196

Gennan Aimy
Allied drive at border halted by: 526
Allied drive in Norfli Africa halted

by: 142, 153
Arderuws counteroffensive of:

504-505, 522, 531-542
bridgehead at Tunis of: 140
capitulation of: 574
counterattack in France of: 480
counteroffensive of, 1944: 483
High Command: ix, 551
offensive in North Africa of: 173-174
paratroops from Bizeite: 139
resistance during Allied breakthrough
of: 482

resistance in Normandy of: 454,
464-472, 474-475

retreat in North Africa ofc 183
wmto' offensive in Russia o£ 543,
545

German Overseas Service
Spaatz, accused of terror bombing by:

558

Gamany: viii 503
air service in: 30
air strength of: 38, 511-512
Allied air offensive, vulnerability to:

423-424, 440, 442-443, 497.

504-506,527. 550-552.553,

571-575
Allied policy toward: 94, 112
antiaircraft artillery in: 439-440, 442
area bombing of: 435-436, 487,

49^493, 508, 564
Armaments Ministry con^laints in:

538

assesanent of: 48-49, 77, 79, 104
Czedioslovakia occqned by: 38
bombing casualties in: 553
bombing effects on: 109-110. 323,

326, 435. 439. 484, 510-511. 564
defeat ofi 60. 70^ 75-8a 97. 155-156,

283. 162. 164. 307. 421. 526-527,

536-537, 571
defense against invasion of Italy by:

255-259
defense of: 364-373, 376-380,

500-501. 514-515, 518-519.

536-537
destruction assessed: 588-590,

595-596
fuel shortages ia- 442-443, 445
Hungarian govemment dqwsed by:

387

information on Allied radar gained by:
47

importance of oil industry to: 398,
526-527

manufacture of thorium send uranium
in: 579

military transportation in France: 410
oil industrial targets in: 341, 384. 389,

393, 400, 484, 490, 504. 526.

588-589

production of fi^tors in: 326. 443.

511, 513-515, 517-518, 560
propaganda broadcasts from: 304
rail transport reduced by bombing in:

410, 572
retaliatory raids on: 432-434

779

Spaatz and the Air War in EuRore

reverses in Middle East suffoed by:
106

reverses on Eastern From suffered by:

107

shoitage of trained crews in: 44
strain of Ardennes counteroffensive

oa- 537-540, 572
strategic targeting against: 284,

25)6-306, 319-327. 345-357.

40(M08. 424, 484. 490i 492-497,

500-501, 503-506. 536. 543-563,

567-570
surrendw of: 584-585
technological inferiority of aircraft

3(38

terror bombing of: ix, 553, 558-561,

567-570, 581-582
transportation targets in: 506, 508,

537, 588-589
U.S. Ambassador to recalled: 37
V-1 sites attacked in: 428-431. 432
weathei factor in bonitnng of: 564,
567, 571
Gerow, Leonard T.

Chief, War Plans Div: 60
Ghonriley, Robert L

Ass 't Chief, Naval Operations: 47
GHQ Air Force: 37, 47
organized: 24, 25
redesignated: 58
revision of TR 440-15: 130
Gibraltar. Spain: 115

Spaatz meeting in: 140-142, 273
Giles, Barney: 574
acting AAF Commander: 548
bombing German cities, views of:

5<)0-561
crev^ replacemait policy set by:
4:17-448

C/S, AAF: 303, 314, 348, 359, 523
LAjftwafFe strength, reaction to:
521-522
Gilletn Board

Spaatz teslimoi^ before: 4, 259
Goering, Hennan: 64, 437, 518
Commander in Chi^. Luftwaffe: 49,
195

fighter protectioii, pressed for: 443,

4^15

fiiel shortage, effect felt by: 442
order to shift to strategic defense: 514
order to restrict flights uncovered: 492
policies criticized: 368-369

U.S. fighter escort ignored by: 368
Goodwood (Operation): 461-463. 467
Goose Bay, Labrador: 82
Goriza

Italian cruiser damaged: 198
Graham, Dominick

British military theorise 148
Grant, Ulysses S.

conq>aied with Spaatz: 288. 593
Graves. William S.

"Billy" Mitcfadl oouit-maitial. rote in:
21

Great Britain. See England

Greece

Commonwealth evacuation from: 146
Grenier Field, New Hampshire: 81, 82
Grierson, C. M.

SHAEF press conference: 558-559
Ground conttol intercept (GCI)

effectiveness of: 186-187
Groups (numbered, RAF)

No. 2:307

No. 4: 148

No. 5: 95

No. 11: 293. 310

No. 12: 51, 81, 309

No. 83: 307, 311

No. 84: 307

No. 242: 172, 174, 187, 200. 208.
209

Groups (numbered, U.S.)

1st Pursuit (later Fighter): 6. 16-18.

20. 68. 82. 96
2d Bombardment: 199
2d Pursuit 6
7th Bombardment: 22
20th Pursuit Oater Fighter): 33, 288
31st Pursuit Qavst Fighter): 68, 90, 96,
183

33d Fighter: 183, 230, 239, 247. 258

44th Bombardmait: 103. 260

52d Fighter: 183

56th Fighter 103, 359

92d Bombardment: 103

93d Bombardmoif 103. 260

97th Bombardmait 82, 96. 103, 199

98th Bombardment 260

100th Bombardment: 371, 381, 479

301st Bombardment 103, 199

303d Bombardment 103

3a5th Bombardment: 103

306th Bombardment: 103

332d Rghlen 259

780

Index

353lh Hghter ^8
3S5th Hghter. 384
360st Fighter S12

3364th Fighter: 408
375th Bombardment: 260
388th Bombardment: 260
445th Bombardment: 512, 514

Groves, Leslie R.
Oiief, Manhattan Project: 579

Giuenther, Alfred M.
C/S. UJS. Fifth Army: 230

Guam, Japanese mack, on: 68

Guderian, Hdnz: 2QS
Chiet Gaman Genwal Staff: 580
incq»citated in raid: 580

H2X: 543. 593. See also Radar
accuracy of: 346, 492, 504-506, 508,

521-522, 532, 543, 567, 570, 582
B-17s equipped with: 296-298
Balin aoacked with aid of: 543, 567
bombing through overcast aided by:

306, 328
D-Day operations aided by: 414
Dresden attacked with aid of: 356,

559, 564
forbidden over occupied countries:

382

Magdeburg attacked with aid of: 553
pennitted against targets in France:
401

Ploesli attacked with aid of: 388

tradced by Geimans: 440

Ztirich attacked with aid of: 575
Halberstadt, Germany, raid on: 303
Halifax, Lord

Foreign Minister (British): 46
Halle, Germany

communications center attacked aC
572

Hallein, Germany, raid on: 584
Halverson, Harty A.

record-setting Question Mark flight,
participant in: 22-23
Hamburg, Germany: 89

Battle of: 426

RAF targets in: 48, 557
Hamilton, Nigel

Pantelleria analyzed by: 238-239
Hamm, Germany

raids on: 391, 410, 508
Hampton Court, England: 104

Hansen, Haywood S.: 60, 271, 322
air planner, ETO: 101
ACTS instructor: 30
moved to Pacific for B-29 opentions:
311

selection of targets, criticized for 588
strategic bombardmoit of Germany

assessed by: 484, 527
strategy refocused by: 111-112
Harmon, Millard F., Chief of Staff: 79
Harris, Arthur T.: 113, 147, 315, 409,

545. See dso RAF Bomber

Command
area bombing, views on: 506, 527,

552, 564, 570, 581
assessment of: 592
background of: 95-96
Berlin raid requested by: 432-433,

544

bomb damage photos used by: 102
Chief. RAF Bomber Command 82,

240, 267. 309, 454, 470, 496, 500
close air support with heavy

bombardment agreed by: 517
command arrangements assessed by:

486

objectives assigned to: 306
Overlord command arrangemoits

viewed by: 327, 334, 336-338, 353
Portal, relationship with: 496-497
preinvasion op>a'ations, views on: 41 1
reprisal raids favored by: 437, 487
strategic bcmbardment plans, views

on: 348, 349, 351
strategy of: 93-95. 329, 330, 570
targeting directives issued to:
492-493, 500

Harrison, Leland
U.S. Minister to Switzerland: 575

Hanisoa Ruth: 7
Spaatz's wife: 5

Hart, Charles E.
acting commander in Fimce: AM

Hartle, Russell P.
Comrrumdei, Oran Task Force: 127

Hawaii: 51
air feny route to Australia: 69

Heston Airfield, England: 481

Hickey, Lawraxie
Commander, XII Air Service

Command: 242
replaced: 242

High Wycombe, England: 83, 93,

781

Spaatz and the air War in Europe

95-%, 103

HiU, Roderic M., Chief, ADGB: 307

Himmler, Heinrich: 437

HiUer, Adolf: 399, 434, 437, 440
assaisinaticm attempt on: 438
decision to defoid Italy by: 265
declaration of war on UJS. by: 67
devastation of oil prodiM^cm faced by.

443, 445
disposition of fighters by: 518
last gamble of: 504-SQ5. 511
meteorological operatians cut by: 302
policies of criticizBd: 36&-369
territorial demands of: 38
"workers" soit to Rtihr by: 510

HMS Argus
carriCT support for North Africa: 137

HMS Auro'a
host for Eisenhower and Cunningham:
233

HMS Largs
communications command ship: 238
Pantelleria operatians hq ship: 233

HMS Prince Woks, loss of: 67

HMS Rq>ulse, loss of: 67

HMS Whadden
McGriggor's flagship: 233-234

Hodges, Courtney
CG. First Army: 515, 523
targeting preferences of: 535

Hodges;, James P.
Commander, 2d Bombardmoit Div:
478-479

HoUand
AAF fighter move to: 521
Allied airfields attacked in: 535
attack on Gennan ^rfields in: 90
paradrop into: 438, 503
supply airlift into: ix
"workers" from: 510

Hooka-, Joseph ("Rghtin' Joe")
morale problem solved by: 189
Spaatz compared with: 188-189

Hojidns, Hairy: 37, 158, 328, 595
Arnold's kka on command and

canttol endorsed by: 267
chief aide to FDR: 70, 112
Combined Bomber Offensive, views

on: 268-270
CTOss-chamel invasion postponement
assessed by: 107-108

Honhy, Miklos
dqiosed: 387

House, Edward J.
black pilots, views on: 258-260
Comrnander, Xn Air Support
Command: 242
Howitzer: 4
Howze, Robert L.
president of "Billy" Mitchell court-
martial: 20
Huei^en Forest, offensive in: 482
Hughes, Ridiaid D'O.
"Big Wedc" assessed by: 327
Eighth AF operatkms planned by:
74-75

Overlord preinvasion plans prepared

by: 332, 333, 334, 335
target for Mission No. 1 selected by:

target planner. 300

Hungary
bombing ban on: 387-388
economic loss to Gomany of: 573
Red Army in: 573

Hunter, R:ank O'D.
CG, Vm Fighter Command: 302, 360
obsenrer to France artd England: 49,
51

prewar planning by: 62
Huntingdcffi, England

U.S. fighter groups stationed near 81
Hurricanes I and n (Operations):

494-495, 528, 548. 571
Husky (Operation): 239-243

IFF: 56, 80
Impact magazine

circulated to publicize airpower: 102
Imperial General Staff: 347
hoendiary bombing

Berlin: 553

Dresden: 556-559
InterdictioiL See also Strang1£
(Operation)

Allied, North Africa: 185, 196

Allied, SidJy: 243. 253

campaign in USSTAF: 404, 411

targets advocated by RAF: 284
Ireland: 83

combat crews delayed to: 85

U.S. fightos planned for 80, 81
Issoudun Pursuit Training Colter, vii, 33
Italian Air Force

radio traffic monitored: 195

782

Index

strength. Sicily: 240
Italian Aimy

holdout of in Abyssinia: 146
Italian Royal Air IForce: 127
Italy; 595

Air Service in: 30

defeat of planned: 162, 230

defeat of Sicily: 245-253

fall of: viii, 263-280

German fighters withdrawn fiom: 518

invasion of: 223, 255-260

Luftwaffe bombers moved to: 241

Pantelleria defended by: 226-238

plans against Sicily: 239-243

RAF targets in: 45

Strangle in: 404

transportation targets attadced in: 385

Jackson, Robert H.: 37
J^i: 28, 77, 581

ail service in: 30

ambassador of in Berlin; 442

attack on Pearl Harbor by: 67-68

codes of broken: 79, 442

informatian on German situation fix»n:
500

victories over British of: 107
Jeb Stuart plan; 556, 572. See also

Quesada plan
Jenson. Richard N.,
Patton's aide killed in bombing raid:
203

Jet aircraft See also Airaafl (Graman):
Me 262; (U.S.): P-80
German: 484, 500-501, 526, 539^-542,
584

production in Germany: 514-515,

538-541
U.S.: 512, 513-514
Jews, murder of at Treblinka: 591
Johnsoa Louis: 37
J<Mnt Board of the Army and Navy:

59-^

Joint Bombing Committee
diqiute over targeting strategic
bombardment 348-349
Joint ChieEs of Staff (JCS): 59, 113
bomber aUocation to Italy, views on:
364

bomber groups to North Africa shifted
by; 97

bombing of cities, policy of: 560-561

Overlord, role in: 344
reform of suggested: 246
resources discussed by: 112
unified bomber cominand insisted on
by: 268
Joint Opaations Staff; 147
Joint Planning Committee
transportation plan discussed by: 336,
345

Junior (code name for Torch)

air power 109-110
Junior (Operation): 110
Junior Military Aviator Rating: 14

Karlsruhe, Germany
raid on; 510

strained rail system in: 538
Kassel, Germany

targets in: 45, 390, 561-562
Kasserine Pass: 136. 172, 181, 183. 184,
191

Allied TBorganizatkxi for 177-184

Battle of: 173. 177, 178. 198
Kaysen, Carl

failure of Overlord forecast by: 350
Kegeknan, Charles C, hoo: 90
Keitel, Field Marshal Wilhelm

German surrender terms presented by:
585
Kellor, R.F.L

Commander. 3d Canadian Inf Div:
480

Kels^. Boijamin S.

ofasover to England: 42
Kennedy, Joseph P.

U.S. Ambassador to England: 43

replaced: 52
Kenney, George C.

promoted to four-star rank: 579
Kait, Tyler, codes compnomised by: 44n
Kepner, William E.

CG, 2d Bombardment EMv: 478

CG, Vm Fighter Command: 302,
316. 317. 359

fighter escort used by: 360

fighter tactics created by: 367
Kern, WiUiam B.

air support criticized by: 217
Kesselring, Field Marshal Albert

German Supreme Commando',
Mediterranean; 141

Italy defended by; 264

783

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

King{ Ernest J.: 112
CominaiideT in Chirf, U^. Fleet and
Chief. Naval Operations: 79, 97,

355

cross-channel invasion postponement
studied by: 107-108
King of England (George VI)
formal Overlord {dans presented to:
408
Kirk. Alan G.

Naval Attache to England: 4S
Kiikpaliick, Helen
a^ced to counter effects of RAF press
release: 383
Klagenfiirt, Austria, raid on: 584
Knerr, Hugh
Battle of the Bulge, reaction to: 532
Dpty for Administration to Spaatz:
290

Koenig, Pierre Joseph
Commander, Rrendi Force in Britain:
408

Kfinigsbeig, Gennany, raid on: 486

Knipp-Otuson Werke
decline in tank production of: 537

Kuter, Laurence S.: 60, 81, 271, 276
Acting Chief, Allied Air Support

Command: 174, 176, 204
air support doctrine of: 214, 215, 218
attacks on cities planned by: 435-436
bombing of troop movements rejected

by: 412
Malta/Yalta participant in: 547
press coverage of war viewed by:

304. 559-560
promotion of Spaatz, view on: 579
reprisal attacks opiposed by: 435

La Kroub, Tunisia

Spaiitz hq at: 231
La Marsa, Tunisia

joint MAC-NAAF Hq at 247. 250

Spaatz hq aC 240, 264
Lampedusa, air strikes on: 236
Lampert Committee: 19
Lampione, air strikes otu 236
Langley Field Qater AFB), Virginia:

ISU^, 25, 28, 37
La Pallice, France

submarine pais targeted: 113
Lawrence, Oliver

strategic bombardment targets, views

on: 351

Lawson, G. M.: 145, 172, 182

state of communications lamented by:
140
Lee, John C.

CG, Services of Supply, ETO: 101
Lee, Raymond E.

U.S. Military Attache, London: 51
Lee, Robert E.

campaign of compared to Spaaiz's:
288

Le Havre. France, beadihead at: 70
Lagh-Mallory. Tiaffwd: 51, 349. 351.
352.364
AEAF command structured by:

307-318

AOC, Fighter Command: 309^310
assessment of: 310, 593
background of: 309-311
bridge targets assessed by: 404, 406,
408

British in levamprng of organizaticnal

structure favored by: 455
Chief, Allied Air Forces in Soudieast

Asia: 488-489
close air support &om heavy bombers

proposed by: 453-454, 466
Cobra planner: 468-469
Commander, Allied Expeditionary AF:

290. 293, 294
Commander, No. 12 Group: 49, 309
command, relationship with: 310-311,

312, 327. 330, 335, 352. 354. 406.

417, 454-458, 462, 467-468, 470,

479, 595

control ova- bomber forces, view on:

337-339

fighter escort for U.S. bombas lent
by: 364

interdiction targeting supported by:

285, 299
killed in air crash: 4^9n
Overlord, responsibility in: 344, 409
preinvasion fdanning, views on: 327,

328, 329. 330-339. 410, 413. 417
St L5 raid, reaction to: 470-471
status oft 354-357, 454-455
targets assessed by: 494
transportation plan, comments on: 410
Leipzig, Germany
attack on requested by Soviets: 553,

560-561

communicalions targets attadtisd at:

784

Index

572

raid an: 321, 322

taigets in studied: 544, 553, 559, 563
L^zig-Erla, Gennany

fighter manufacturing plant at: 398
LeMay, Curtis

CG, 3d Bombardment Div: 371

remembrance of Spaatz: 105-106
Le Sets, Tunisia; 207
Leuna, Germany

bsses over: 440, 526

RAF targets ia- 45, 398, 505

raid on: 399
Liberty Loan Drives: 14
Libya

Axis resurgence in: 69

Axis shijDs sunk in ports of: 146

conquest of: 147, 164
Licata, Sicily, invasion of 227, 239
Liege, Belgium

1st Army Hq at: 535
Ltfe magazine: 198
Lindbergh, Charles A.

flight training of. 9
Linosa. air siiikes oik 236
Litiz, Austtia

Luftwaffe defense ofi 369

raid on: 584
Lippman, Walter

press covwage 1^: 103
Lippstadt, Germany

troop connection at: 573-574
Uoyd, Hugh P.

CG, North Afiican Coaslal AF: 157
Lodge, Henry Cabot, fc. Senator: 246
Loire, France, raids on: 403-404, 408
London. England: 41, 46, 47, 81, 82,
103, 105, 107-108, 116, 330, 333

attacks m by V-1 flying bombs: 426,
432, 434

bombing casualties in: 439

U.S. delegation in: 70
London Times

effectiveness of U.S. bombers reported
in: 100
Longmore, Arthur

Libyan command of: 147
L'Oriait, France

submarine pens targeted at 113
Lossay, France, action at: 464
Louisiana, maneuvers in; 132, 167
Lovet^ Robert A.:

air support doctrine promoted bj^ 212

area bombing assessed by: 591
Ass't Sec of War for Air: 485, 490,

494, 503, 513, 531, 562-563
morale bombing, views on: 437
Pantelloia operations observed by:

236

Quesada plan adopted by: 548
Special Ass't to Sec of War for Air

58, 68, 301
Lucas, John P„ Commands, VI Corps:

243

Li0Me3: 445

Li^lotte Reich, signal decrypted: 514
Luftwaffe: 48, 56, 75, 86, 127, 334, 390
AAF bombers attacked by fighters of:

99^100, 572. 584
air superiority of. over Europe:

287-288
air superiority o^ over Germany:
514-515

air si^Kriority of, over North Afiica:

142, 171
aircraft desboyed in WWII: 587
airlifts siqjplies to l\inisia: 190-191,

195-1%

assessment of: 51, 53, 78-80, 107,
109-111, 350. 351, 353, 396, 398,
595-596

assessment of at Casablanca: 157,
159, 164

assessment of in North Africa: 183,
203

Battle of the Bulge fought by: S32,
535

Ixxnbers from Sicily transfoied by:
241

campaign against airfields of: 144-145
challenged by Spaatz; 300-303, 312,
316-317

consumption of fuel by: 399, 484
D-Day operations: 414-418, 424-426
decline of: 492-493
decline on Eastern Front of: 440, 445.

572-573
decline in effidency of: 364
defeat of claimed by USSTAF: 394.

409, 414
defense of Normandy by: 472
England attacked by: 47
fighter defenses spread by: 263
fight to bittCT end by: 584
impotence of in North AMca: 200.

205, 208

785

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

jet threat of: 484, 500-501, 539^542,

573

losses to: 439, 519
losses, Jan-Feb 44: 339
losses, 14 Oct 43: 376
lossK, 27 Sep 44: 511
losses, Aug 17, 43: 373-376
losses. Mar 44: 358
losses: 104

hired to fight: 332, 333, 392, 396,
562

neunalization oft 42^32, 490, 517

night fighters of: 358, 501

night raids on London: 51-52

pilot training in: 44

resurgence of: 500-501, 511-515,

518-523
signals of tapped: 533, 535
strategic bombardment, effects on: 5%
strategic bombardment, defense

against: 358-379
strategic bcnnbardment, tatget of: 266,

284, 298, 299-300, 350, 390, 395,

411

strength. North Africa: Nov-Dec 42:
140

strength. May 44: 396

strength, Jun 44: 425

strength, Oct 44: 514

slraigth, Sep 44: 526

strength, Etec 44: 517-519

strength. Max 45

strength. Sicily: 240

tactics of: 368-369, 378, 512-513

transports at Bougie sunk by: 139

U^. positions dive-bombed by: 172
Lutzkendorf, Gomany, raid on: 398
Luxemlxjurg: 513
Lyster, Sl G.

Chiei; British Naval Air Staff: 86

MacArthur, Douglas: 25

area of responsibility: 97

Chief of Staff, U.S. Army: 24-25

prestige of: 267
Mackay Trophy: 32
Magdd)urg, Germany

AAF raids on: 398, 553, 556

RAF raid oa- 45
Mainz, Gennany

strained rail system in: 538
Maison Blanche

air facility in Algiers: 142, 145
Maknassy, Tunisia

Axis raid near 176, 177

U.S. attack on: 172
Malaya, defense of: 146
Malta: 545, 579

agreements at 560

RAF fields at 190. 225. 231, 239

raid on: 146

Tripartite Conference at: 543. 545.
546. 547-548. 572
Manhattan Project: 579
Maimheim, Germany

Luftwaffe defense responsibility for
assigned 369
Mantes-Gassicourt, France

raid on: 408
Marble Arch. Tripolitania

WDAF at 147
Maidi Field Qater AFB). California: 23.
25

March of Time: 103
Mareth Line: 208

Axis attack at: 203
Market-Garden (Oparation): 489
assessment of: 503-504
proposed by Montgomery: 501
sdieduled: 438
Maiquis of Lothian

Ambassador to U.S. (British): 41. 46
Marrakech, Afiica: 173, 210
aiifiekl at: 189. 230
ferry route terminus: 153
Senate comminee vi^t to: 246
Marseilles, Fraixs

Tripartite Conference in: 543
Marshall, George C: 38, 41, 57, 60, 68,
70, 79, 112, 113, 152, 136, 234,
249. 260, 272. 290, 299, 313, 335,
344, 354. 536, 548-549. 553, 564,
572. 578, 580
air support doctrine, views on:

212-214, 218
Andrews selected CO, ETO, by: 101
autonomous strategic bombardment

op«-ation suppctted by: 267
AWPD/1 aidorsed by: 435-436
bombing of Switzerland, reaction to:
575

bombing of Rome discussed by: 261
bombing cities, views on: 550, 561,
591

Casablanca Conference, views at: 162.

786

Index

164

Chief of Staff, U.S. Amq^: 270
confidence in Eisenhower 100
cross-channel invasion postponed fay:
107-108

Eaker reassignment, view on: 276-278
Eaker, leadoship of Twelfth AF

favored by: 126
Eighth AF movement delayed by: 82
Eighdi AF operatians {dan ordered by:

74-75

end of war, optiinism an: 496, 538
invasion of Spain, views on: 230
Luftwaffe defeat planned by: 75-77
moving of bomb group to Italy

rejected by: 263-264
press covCTage directed by: 103
press coverage, reaction to: 559
promotion of Bradley and Spaatz

recommended by: 579
resources to Pacific allocated by: 97
strategic Ixnnbardmau plans, view on:

348,496

strategic bombardment, views on: 266,
548

USSTAF command, views on: 314,
348

Vandenborg promotion lefiised by:
466-467

Marshall Memorandum: 70-71, 75, 91
buildup of air power in England
required by: 80, 81
Masefield, Peter
U.S. heavy bombardmatt effort
condemned by: 97
Maxwell Field (later AFB) Alabama: 28
McCloy Conunittee
training policies for blacks, views on:
259

McDonald, George C: 51, 232
Ass't Attache for Air, England: 43,
45, 47

Chief, Intelligence, Eighth AF: 144
Chief, Intelligence, USSTAF: 478,

524-525
German jet threat assessed by:

539-540
Spaatz, relationship with: 593
McGrigor, R. R.
Commander, British naval assault

forces: 227
Pantellcria naval bombardment

directed by: 233

Pantelleria operaticms, prepared for
231

McNabb, C.V. OU
counterattack in North Afiica planned

by: 176
KAJM. Anderson's C/S: 171
McNair, Leslie J.
Commander, Army Ground Forces:
135

killed in action: 474

McNamq^, Joseph T.: 256
air si^jport doctrine iqiproved by: 213
military e}q>ansk)n planned fay: 38
promoted to four-star rank: 579

Mead, James M., Soiator 246

Meade, George G.
campaign of compared to Spaatz's:
288

Meditaranean: 268, 484-485
Allied strategy in: 227
Axis ships sunk in: 146
Axis bases in: 301
coordination of USSTAF in: 315,
385-386

invasion of Sicily planned: 239-243
Italian opa:ations: 255-260
lessons of: 313
operations: 69, 232-239
Sicilian operations: 243-253
Mediterranean Air Command
formali2Bd; 210, 280
formed 178

NAAF arrangonents with: 247-250
Meditoranean Allied Air Forces

(MAAF): 272
"Big Week" undertaken by: 319n.

321-326
created: 250

Eaker assigned CG of: 274
Italian operations: 385
raids on oil targets by: 400
redesignated: 273n
Strangle operations: 385-386
Mediterranean Theater of Operations

(MTO)
aircraft strengdi in: 526
command restructured in: 267-280
heavy bomb groups augmented in:

273

lessons from: 331, 359
strategic bombardmoit in: 260-280
Medjez el Bab, Tunisia
airfieU at: 144

787

SPAATZ AND THE AIR WAR IN EUROPE

Medjez VaUey: 208-209
Moseburg, Gomany

raids on: 398, 442, 505, 526
Messina, Italy

plans for bombing of: 240
Meuse River, France

bridge targets on: 406

drive for: 522

Germans halted at: 533
MEW (microwave early warning): 520,
521-522

introduced: 513

linked with RAF "Y" Service: 514
Mexico: 5

"Middle East Training Pamphlet No. 3:

Direct Air Support": 150
Middleton, Drew: 51-52, 83
Midway, Battle of: 81

effects of on move to England: 82

Navy performance at: 90

U.S . foreknowledge of: 79
Milch, Erhard

German aircraft production,
responsibility for 323
Mildenhall, Englan± 94
Miles, Sherman

Commander, Army Corp Area: 81

MiUtary Attache to England: 45
Military Air Observers: 41-44
Military Aviator Rating: 6, 14
Miller, Henry F., incident involving: 391
Mitchel Field, New York: 32, 81
Mitchell, William ("Billy"): vii, 6, 7

air superiority, views on: 17, 31

Chief, Air Service Training and
Operations Group: 14

court-martial of: vii. 20-21, 32, 33,
245

doctrine of: 93

Spaaiz, relationship with; 16-17
Momyer, William W.

CO, 33d FightCT Group: 257-258
Montgomery, Bernard L.: 106, 521

Commander, British 8th Army: 135n,
147

Commander, 21 Aimy Group: 307,
311, 459-460, 462-463, 464, 503,
573

command at Kasseiine Pass: 173
command at Alam Haifa: 150
heavy bombardment for close air
support requested by: 479, 481
King of England briefed on invasion

plans by: 409
Leigh-MaJloiy, relationship with: 461,
467

Market-Garden proposed by: 501

peisonaUty of: 456^58, 461, 467

jHoblems in Sicily: 239

Rhine aossing led by: 575

"Some Notes on Hi^ Comnund in
War" by: 212, 213

WDAF, relationship with: 241
Morale. See also Germany; Spaatz;
United States Army Air Forces.

affects on of intemtnent: 379

German: bt, 94, 437-438, 450,
459-460, 494, 550-552, 59(^591

leave behavior affected by: 380

problems: 109-110, 188, 379^384,
445-450

rotation policy, effects on: 381
Morgan, Fredaick

C/S, Supreme Allied Command: 294

Overlord jdanner: 312
Moirisdn, Joe, press coverage by: 102
Morocco, Allied control of: 123
Moselle River, France

destruction near 510
Mountbatten, Louis

Commando- in Chief, SEAC: 488

Chief, Combined Operations: 231

transfer of Leigh-Mallory to SEAC
requested by: 488-489
Mulheim, Germany

bridge charges set off aU 510
Munich Conference: 38
Munich, Geimsny

cloud cover at: 564

communications center attacked at
572

Luftwaffe defense of: 369
strategic importance of: 45, 546, 549
tonnage dropped on: 435, 570
Mussolini, fall from powo: of: 255, 262

N^les, Italy: 259

c^tuied: 260-261, 262

plans for bombing ot 240
National Broadcasting Company,

coverage of war: 572
National Defense Act of 1920: 8. 14, 16
Nationalist China: 28
National Theater 22
Naval Attache to London: 45

788

Index

Nazis: 436. See also Geaimsy.

invade unoccupied Irance: 123

policies, 1938: 38

strategy for ddieat of: 223

war criminal list of: 437
Newall, Cyril: 49

Chief of Air Staff, RAF: Al^Z 43
New Caledonia

U.S. troops in: 69
New York, New Yoric 4
New York Times

Anglo-American objectives reported
by: 87-«9. 97

Berlin attack described by: 553

Spaatz's aerial victories in WWI,
described by: 7
New Zealand

U.S. troops in; 69
Nimitz, Chester, prestige of: 267
Norden Bomb Sight

effectiveness of: 462, 476
Normandy, France: 462, 523. See also
Overlord (Operation)

air siqieriority oven 341

assaulted: 4H 426, 430

breakout fix>m: 438, 460, 461,
463-464

Eisenhower inspects beachhead aU
457-458, 470-472, 474

Goman defense of: 453

invasion of studied: 107-108, 594

lessons of: 515
Norstad, Lauris

Ass't C/S, NAAF: 232

Chief, Intelligence, AF Combat
Command: 68

Eisenhower hq joined by: 101

SfKiatz, relationship with: 594
North Africa: 116, 596. See also
Mediterranean Allied Command
Allied airfields in: 225

Allied reorganization in: 164-184

Axis coll^jse in: 200-210

Axis reversals in: 185-200

campaign in: 1 19

consolidation of Allied positions in:

138-154
diversions to: 85, 87, 97, 142
doctrine invoked in: 130-137,

210-220
invasion of assessed: 594—595
invasion of, effects on Eighth AF:

106-116

invasion of launched: 123-125
invasion of planned: 68, 97, 101, 103
operations to capime airfieMs iiu

137-142
Spaatz arrives in: viii
theater created in: 155-164
North African Theater
diversion of P-38s to: 288
observations by ground cotnmanders:
217

organizations in: 178
Senate conunittee tours of: 246
North American Aviation Corp., contract
with British: 65. See also Aircraft
types, (UJS.), P-51.
North Carolina, maneuvers in: 132
North Field, San Diego, California: 5
Northwest African Air Forces (NAAF).
See also Allied Air Forces;
Meditenanean Allied Air Foices
Allied Air Force rqilaced by: 178,
185

antishipping efforts of: 186
command formalized: 210, 219, 246
invasion of Italy by: 255-260
invaskm of Sic% by: 243-248
Marrakech airfidd con&olled by: 189
mission of. 180, 202
Pantelleria operations: 225-238
photo reconnaissance of: 209
preinvasion planning for Sicily by:

239- 243

press coverage for: 188
radar net established by: 187
redesignated Mediterranean Allied Air

Fcxces: 273
reorganized: 249-253
strategic bombardttient from Italy by:

260-280

tonnage dropped on Pantelleria by:
236

Northwest African Air Service command

fonned 181
Northwest African Coastal Air Force
(NACAF): 186, 280

anti^pping campaign of: 190-196

effectiveness analyzed: 189

invasion of Italy by: 255-260

mission ot 157

Pantelleria operations: 233-239

reassigned: 178

preinvasion planning for Sicily by:

240- 243

789

Spaatz and the air War in Europe

Sicily operations: 247-253
Noclhwest Afirican Strategic Air Force

(NASAF)
antishipping campaign of: 190-1%
effectiveness analyzed: 189
heavy bombardment canqxdgn in

Tunisia by: 196-200
invaaon of Italy by: 255-260
mission of: 157, 180, 186. 200-210
morale problems in: 187
Pantelleria campai^ ot 229-239
pidnvaaoti pUomiiig Sat Sicily by:

239-243

prdnvasion strikes in Italy by: 255

reassigned: 178
Northwest African Training Command

fornied 181, 596
Norway: 595

aircraft bom U.S. purchased by: 40

Allied liberation of: 329
Nurembwg, Germany

bombing of: 570

Luftwaffe defense of: 369

Oahu, Hawaii: 67
Ober Raderach, Germany
rocket manufacturing site in attached:
432

Oboe, accuracy of: 564
O'Connor, Richard

Commander, WDAF: 147
OcTACX)N. See Quebec Conferaice
Oda River

Soviet drive to: 543, 544
Office of the Chief of Air Corps
(OCAC). See also OfBce of the
Chief of Air Service.
Plans Section: 37, 38
sands observCTS to England 42
Training and Operations Section: 23
Office of the Chief of Air Service. See
also Office of the Chief of Air
Corps.

Training and Operations Section: 20
Office of Suategic Services: 347, 487n
Office of War Liformalion: 383
Oil jto; 345-352. See also Combined
Bomber Offensive; Sp>aatz, Carl A.

debated- 347

implemented 395-400

salviiged by Spaarc 384-394
Oissel, France

raid on bridge at: 408
01i{diant, Hemum: 37
Omaha Beadi

D-Day invasion on: 414n
Oran Task Force: 127
Oran, Tunisia: 125

engineer battalions at: 145

invasion force at 128

occupation by Allies of: 123

repair facilities aC 141-142

Roosevelt visit to: 268

U.S. airfield at 153
"Order of the White Fbaiher"

awarded to Spaatz: 558
Oranienburg, Germany

manufacture of thorium and uranium
in: 579
Orival, France

raid on: 408
Orleans/Briey Airfield (Paris)

airlift to: 501
Ome River, Irance

action at: 454
Oschersleben, Germany

fightCT manufacturing plant at 398

raid on: 303
Oscoda, Michigan: 20
Oujda, Morocco

U.S. airfieki at 230
Overlord (Operation): 272, 285. 294,
316, 327-339, 385, 387, 449, 485,
497, 501

control over: 271, 277, 315

coordination with PoiNTBLANK:
395-418

dispute over targets related to:
349-359

diversion of effort from: 389

fightCT assistance for 300

launched: 414-418, 424-426

planned 223, 264, 270, 283, 309.
310, 312, 316, 327-339

prdnvasion operations: 409-413

priority of: 306

requiremoits of: 588

Spaatz's misjudgment of: 595

tranqiortation plan related to:
400-408. 570

Pacific

commitments to at Casablanca: 161
designated U.S. Navy arena: 97

790

Index

diversion of aircraft to: 108

strategy for at Quebec Conference:
484-489

war {dans for 67-68
Palermo, Sicily

plans for bombing of: 240

landing site on: 239

raid on: 198, 199
"Pabn Sunday Massacre"

German transports shot down in: 195
Panama Canal Zone: 51
Pan-American Flight: 33
Pantelieria: 330

bombing of intensified: 233-234

can^gn against 225-238

opendians analyzed: 236, 238-241

I»eliininaiy bombardment of: 229

reduction of: viii

surrender of: 235

U.S. airfield on: 239
Parachute operations

Market-Garden: 489

Overlord: 312, 413-414

Sicily: 243
Paris, France: 501, 560

fall of: 45, 439
Paric House: 88, 105, 322, 323, 327,

335, 382, 401
Paik, Keith

Chief, Allied Air Fences in SEA:
489n

Commander, No. 11 Group: 310

Commander, RAF, Malta: 231
Partridge, Earle: 29

Dpty Commander, Eighth AF: 317
Pas-de-Calais, France

effect of bombing on: 450

electrical system of: 428

tannage dropped on: 418, 432
Patch, Alexando-

Commander, U.S. Seventh Army: 523
Pathfinder aircraft: 296-298. See also
H2X.

raid on Wilhelmshaven led by: 306

results of: 502
Patrick, Mason

Chief, Air Service: 33
Patton, Jr., George S.: vii, 106, 113
409, 481, 515, 523

air effort criticized by: 203-205, 217

air plan for Torch accqjted by: 109

background of: 167-168

CO, Seventh Army: 241, 242

CG, Third Army: 307, 535
Commander, North African task force:
127

Coningham, diqjule with: 203, 207

hq bonibarded: 205

instructions by on paradrop in Sicily:
244
Pavesi, Gino

Pantelieria surrendered by: 235
Pay Classification Aa of 1922: 16
Pearl Harbor

Army air power in: 90

attacked 67
Peck, Richard

RAF press announcement by:
381-384
PeenemOnde, Germany

rocket site at attadced: 432, 440
Peirse, Richard

Chief, RAF Bombo" Command: 82
Pelagies

air strikes on: 236
Pwiers, France: 470-471, 472, 474

action at: 464-465
Pershing, John J.

Commander, American Eiqiedilionary
Forces: 124

punitive expedition of: 5
Petain, Philippe

Commander, Vichy government: 123
Pelaluma, California: 16
Pforzheim, Geimany, RAF raid on: 564
Philippines: 32

Army air power performance in: 90
Photo reconnaissance

post-attack: 408

weakness of in North Africa: 209,
217-218
Pilsen, Czechosk>vakia

raid on: 584
Pinkley, Virgil

European Manager, United Press: 562
Pk>esti, Romania

Gaman defenses in: 440

German petroleum, source o£ 75, 346

k>sses over 443

raids on: 260-261, 262, 389, 400, 443
ruled off limits by Portal: 384-385,

386, 388, 389
strategic importance of: 354, 384, 389,

416

POINTBLANK (Operation): 264, 265, 266,
268, 270, 274, 315, 317, 318, 336,

791

Spaatz and the Am War in Europe

347. 355. 379, 384. 386. 426
Poland

economic loss of to Gennaiq^: 373
missions into: 379. 382, 398
Polish Army
losses to friendly bombardment:
48(M82
Polish Campaign of 1939
strafing tactics in: 366
Politz, Poland
effects of raid on: 399 .
heav/ losses over: 440
raids' on: 398, 448
Portal. Charles A.: 80, 113. 147. 267.
290. 351. 383, 390. 416. 545, 546.
580

AEAF assessed by: 485-490
apology for RAF press release made

by: 383
background of: 89

Balkjm attacks requested by: 385-387
bombing poUcy of: 384-385. 521-522
Cairo Conference, participatian in:
271

Casablanca Confoence, participation

in: 157-159, 163
Chief of Air Staff, RAF: 48, 62-63,

civiUan casualties, views on; 351
Commander, RAF Bombei Command:
48, 56

command and control, views on:

267-268. 337-339
command, relationship with: 461^62
Crossbow operations assessed by:

432

Eaker defended by: 274-276
German jets, views <xi: 543
Harris, relationship with: 496-497
Malui Conference participant: 545
OvERiX)RD planning by: 330-339,
344, 345

Ploesti bombing, view on: 385-389,
PoiNTBLANK coordinator 287, 306,

315, 316-317
precision night bombing on France

ordered by: 330
retaliatory bombing assessed by:

433-434

single air manager accepLed by: 152
strategic bombardment of Italy, views
on: 263. 264, 265-266

strat^c bombardmait plans viewed
by: 348, 400, 529, 545

transportation plan presoited by:
339-340
Porta, Ray R: 177

air suppwrt doctrine of: 214
Posen, Poland. See also Poznan. Poland.

target in: 322
Poznan, Poland, raid on: 382
Pratt and Whitney aircraft engines: 40
Presque Isle. Maine: 81. 82
Prestwidc. Scotland: 81. 96

feny route: 271
Prime Minister, (British). See Chmdiill,

Winston S.
Prince Consort Prize

awarded to Tedda: 146
Prisoners of War

Gaman shift of: 580-581
Proximity fuze: 514

introduced; 513

Spaalz's ifjprehension over 513, 515
Pursuit avialian. See dso fights esooit;
Aircraft (U.S.).

considered for WWII: 64

organized in post-WWI: 17

role of: 18. 28-31
Pyroiees Mountains: 230

Quebec Conferences: 264. 547-548
Allied strategy discussed at: 483, 490
directives of: 492

Queen (Operation): 482
assessment of: 515-517
postponed by weather: 515

Quesada, Elwood R. ("Pete"): 467, 548
Cobra coordinator: 468, 470, 474
command, relationship with: 467-468
CG, IX Fighter Command: 309
CG, K Tactical Air Command: 464
Dpty Commando-, NACAF: 232
heavy bombardment for close air

si;;)port. view on: 517
Question Mark flight, participatian in:
22

tactics of: 466
Quesada plan: 548. See also Jeb Stuart
plan.

Question Mart 33
record for flight endurance set by:
22-23

792

Index

Radar: 49, 56, 176, 368. 462-463, 513,
516. 520-522, 541. 572, 593. 596.
See also Gee-H; H2X; RAF "Y"
Sovice.

advent of: 30

assessment of, WWII: 590

Axis radio traffic read by: 195

blind bombing with: 274

German: 371, 514

importance of: 527. 528. 532

long-range, for command ships: 236

microwave early warning (MEW):
513. 514

Nordi Africa, used in: 144. 171,
186-187

navigation with: 283

RAF "Y" Service: 520

shared by British with U.S.: 47, 187

linked with MEW: 514

vectoring on German ground
controUers by: 367, 368
Rainbow No. 5 (war plan)

deploymait schedules of: 59

devised: 68
Ramsey. Bcrthram H.

Naval Commander. AEF: '307
Red Army. See also Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics (USSR).

drive for Berlk by: 573. 574

Hungary and East Rnissia occqried
by: 573

storming of Berlin by: 591

winter offensive of: 543, 549
Redune 551

AAF positicHi consolidated through
communications: 280, 485

established: 248
Regoisburg, Germany

MAAF targets in: 319-321

RAF targets in: 45

USAAF losses over: 373
Regiments (numbered)

25th Infantry: 4-5

504th Parachute: 243, 244
Rachsbahn: 510, 511, 536-537. 549.

572. 589. See also Germany.
Reims. France

surrender of Germany at: ix. 584-585
Rekjavik, Iceland: 82
Reniagen, Germany

bridge across Rhine captured: 573
Reynolds, (Juentin: 83
Rhineland

effects of strategic bombardmait on:
500

Rhine River. SOI. 572. See dso
Remagen. Germany,
advance toward: 515, 572
crossing of: 421, 438, 510, 575
seiztne of bridge at 489, 573

Rhodesia Regiment 95

Richardson, Giarles: 406

Richardson, Robert C.
military resources wdghed 76-77

Rickenbacker. Edward CEddie"): 6

Ridgw^. Matthew B.
CO, 504th Parachute Regiment: 244

Riverside, California: 23

Robb, James M.
Spaatz's dply: 247
C/S (Air), SHAEF: 489, 514, 535
Dpty CommandCT, Allied AF: 152
Hurricane n planner: 495
liaison. AFHQ and EAC: 143
MounflMtten's <^ty: 231-232

Robinett. Paul M.: 168
air sqiport doctrine of: 217

Robot bcmib. See V-1 flying bomb.

Rockwell Field. California: 31
7th Bombardment Group at 22-23

Romania. See dso Ploesti, Romania,
drops in oil production from: 389
ranked as strategic emergency: 387
targets in: 353, 384-387

Rome, Italy
Axis defense of: 264, 266
raid on: 262

Rommel, Irwin: vii, 205, 408
attack against at Maredi Line: 2(B
counterattack in Tuniaa led by:
172-173

offensive in Lilya launched by: 106
pursuit and defeat of: 150
retreat of from Feiiana-Kasserine Pass:
183

retreat of from Libya: 164
Weston Desot camp)aign of: 146
Roosevelt, Elliott
account of Casablanca Conference

given by: 163
chief photo reconnaissance unit

commanded by: 218n
Roosevelt, Franklin D.: 48-49, 90, 111,

113, 272, 579
aid to Britain, views on: 56, 59
area bombing, knowledge o£ 591

793

Spaatz and the Am War in Europe

Cairo Conferences, paiticipadon in:
2(i8-271

Casiiblanca Conference, participation

in: 152-153
cross-chaimel invasion, view on; 107
"day of infamy" speech: 67
invasion of North A&ica directed by:

69, 70, 108
Misskm No. 1, infomifid of: 98
war jdans requested by: 59-60, 71
pre-WWn talks with Churchill of: 46
President: 37-39. 41, 44, 523
Quebec Conferences, partidpalion in:

264, 484-485
"stabi-in-the-back" speech: 45
Tdnan Conference, participation in:
223, 267
Rostock, Germany, raid on: 382
Rostov, USSR

German (tensive through: 111
RoslDW, Walt W.
stiat^c bombardment targets, view
on; 347, 350
Rottadam, Holland

raid on aborted: 99
Rourai-SatteviUe, France
adverse publicity over: 584
sdected as target for Misskm No. 1:
98

Roundup (plan)

invasKMi of NW Europe: 70
Rover Joe

introduced by Allies: 243
Royal Air Force (RAF): 41, 4Z 44, 45,
51, 52, 56, 62, 79, 112, 171, 309,
433. See also Royal Air Force
Bombw Command; Royal Air
Force Coastal Command; Royal Air
Force Fighia Commarvd.
AAF, relationship with: 124, 128,

223, 246, 268, 290
AAF opoational integrity accepted
by: 89

Air Intelligence of: 47, 78
aircraft production of: 146
antisliipping campaign of: 190-196
army-air control concepts of: 149-151
bombing philosophy of: 30, 53, 88,

94, 43S439, 547, 562-564
Casablanca Conference, partknpation

in: 157-160, 163
casualties exacted by: 426
combined bomber operations

contanplated by: 260, 280
D-Day operations: 414-418
defensive sectors of: 49-50
effects of weather on: 493
escort of U.S. bombers by: 364
German air industry attacked by. 298
HURIUCANES I and n approved by:

495

independent status of: 181
invasion of Sicily: 243-253
missions of. North Afinca: 137, 139,
143

night bombardment, commitment to:
86

Overlord air command arrangements

for 336-339
preinvasion operations: 409-410
press statements of: 381-384
radar bombing developed by: 297-298
ranks equivalent to those of U.S.: 43n
reorganizatian, North Afiica: 164-185
reprisal attacks studied: 435-438
strategic bombardment targets studied

by: 348-349
theory: 149. 178, 210, 212
tonnage dropped by, WW!: 588
transport formations reorganized: 466
unified bombo' command opposed by:

268

wastage of Spitfires: 144
Royal Air Force Air Intelligence Branch:

396. See dso Royal Air Force.
Bourguebus Rklge bombing assessed

by: 462

bridge targets supported by: 404
German aircraft fsoduction assessed
by: 514

Goman aircraft opposition on D-D^

predated by: 413, 514-515
Lirftwaffe performaix% assessed by:

424-426, 534
Royal Air Force Bomber CommaiKL' 47,

95-%, 112. 267-268. 307. 309.

390, 453, 460. See abo Royal Air

Force; Harris, Arthur T.
Ardennes counteioffenave, role in:

504-505

area bombing by: 487, 528, 550, 564,

570, 591
Berlin raids by: 306, 435
"Big Week" raids by: 319-326
bombing accuracy of: 94, 462-463
casualties, WWII: 588

794

Index

control over: 341-344
Crossbow targets assigned to:

43(M32
D-Day operations: 414-418
Dresden attacked by: xi, 549,

556-559, 564, 567
ground operations siqyported by:

462-463, 466, 479-480. 481, 516
losses, Jan-^ar 44: 329-330
losses, May-Jun 44: 501
losses, Sep-Oa 44: 501
mining campaign by, Danube Riven

400

night sorties over France by: 501
oil targets struck by: 504-505
operations, Mar-^r 44: 358
operations assessed; 595
Overlord, role in: 331-339,

341-344, 353
prestige of: 267, 496-497
rail targets of: 410

removal of ftom SHAEF control: 484
rocket sites struck by: 432, 463
short bombing o£ 481-482
strength. Sep 44: 526
submarine pens in Germany struck
by: 113

summary of operations: 564, 573,

587-596
targeting directives issued to:

492-493, 495, 549
"niUNDERCLAP, role in: 494
tonnage dropped by. WWII: 587
USSTAF, relalionsl^ with: 267-268,
270. 314, 315
Rojral Air Force-Army Cooperation

Command: 148
Royal Air Force Coastal Command: 309
control over: 314, 338-339, 341-344
Royal Air Force Rghter Command: 80,
86. 309, 310, 311, 312
control o\et: 341-344
fighter capability in: 63
observed by Spaatz: 42
redesignated: 307
Royal Air Force Delegation to

Washington: 80, 93. 182, 263, 267
Royal Air Force School of Army

CoopCTation: 309
Royal Army (British)
loss of Tobnik by: 106-107
plans for Pantelleria: 229
Royal Hying Corps: 89, 95, 146

Royal Navy (British)
bombanbnent of Pantelleria by: 233
Pantelleria planning by: 229, 233
pressure on Axis shipping 190

Royce, Ralph: 467

Ruhland, Gomai^r
raid on: 398

Ruhr. Gennany: 89, 503
isolation of: 510-511
pocket, collapse of: 574
plans for assault on: 571-572
production in halted by shortages:

537, 559
targets in: 94, 353, 492, 494, 495,
510, 546, 561

Russel, Richard B., Senator 246

Russelsheim, Gennany
rocket manufacturing plant in
attacked: 432

Ryder. Charles W.: 171
Commander, 34lh Div: 207, 217-218

Saar, Germany: 501
targets ia- 492, 494

SaarbrOckai. Germany

strained rail system in: 538
Saarland. Germany: 510
Sl DiziCT. France

cargo airlift to: 501
Sl L6, France

breakthrough at: 439, 464-465,
515-516. 517

close air su^iport by heavy bombeiEs
at 470, 474476

lessons of: 480, 482

plans for bombing of: 468, 471
St Nazaire, France

submarine pens targeted in: 113
Sl Paul's School

Overlord plans presented at 409
Salerno, Italy: 257

cultured: 223

naval si^>port for opaations: 256

operaticms: 263

selected ioc invasion: 2SS
Salzburg, Austria, raid on: 584
Saunders. Arthur

Leigh-Mallory's dpty: 317
Saur, Karl-Otto

Chief, German Fighter Staff: 323
Samoa

U^. garrison on: 69

795

Spaate and the Air War in Europe

Sandeis. AJPM.

Ass't C/S for Air 153
San Diego, California

shutUe point for Question Mark 22
San Francisco, California: 16
Santiago, Chile: 125
Sardinia

operations against 225, 230, 240, 241
Scanlon, Martin F.

Military Attache to England: 42, 43
Sdiafihausen, Switzerland

accidentally bombed by AAF: 377,
575

Schlatto-, David M.: 408

close, air support by heavy bombers
assessed by: 458
Schnei(Jer Trophy

awarded to Doolittle, 1925: 125
Schofield Barracks, Hawaii: 4—5
Sdiweinfurt, Germarty

Luftwaffe tactics oven 369

raids on: 266, 371
Scoglitti, Sicily

invasion of: 239
Second Quebec Confaence: 547. See
also Quebec Conferraice.

heavy bomber control discussed at:
486

military operations in Burma
discussed at: 48
Secretary of State for Air (British). See
also Archibald Sinclair.
Casablanca Conference, views at: 163
Seine Riva bridges, France
bombing of: 403-404
destruction of for D-D^ oporations:
410

targeted: 406, 408
Selfridge Field, Michigan

1st Pursuit Group at: vii, 16-18
Service of Supply, ETO: 101
Sevastopol, USSR

Gernian offensive, 1942: 107, 111
Shatter (C^ation): developed by

USSTAF: 493
Sherwood, Robert
head. Office of War information,
London: 383
Sheny, Michael S.
American air commanders, views on:
571

Sicily: 123, 271-272, 330
campaign in: 201, 223, 225, 230

evacuation o£ 251
fall of: viii

invasion of: 239, 243-253
preinvasion planning for: 23^243

Sidi Bou Zid, Tunisia
c^tured by Axis: 173

Siegfiied line: 517, 523

Silesia

economic loss to Germany of: 573

lefiigees fioom in Dresdoi: 557

Russian conquest of: 545
Simonds, G.C.

Commander, 2d Canadian Cbips: 480
Simpson, William G.

CG, U.S. Ninth Aimy: 571
Sinclair, Archibald

Casablanca Conference, views at: 158,
159, 161

RAF press release, reaction to: 383
Secretary of State for Air (British):
89, 545
SingifMre: 146
Sledgehammer (plan)

invasion of NW Europe: 70
Skssor, John
Casablanca Conference, views at:
157-158

di^Iight bomber operations, views of:
88

Eaker, relationship with: 593
RAF Dir of Plans: 41, 43, 45, 47, 56
role of dpty commander assessed
251

Smith. Frederic H., Jr.: 310, 404, 406,
457

bombing of troop movements rejected
by: 411

Chief, AEAF Operations: 355
heavy bombers for close air support

assessed by: 458
St L6 raid, reaction to: 470-471
Smilh, Rex
Chief, OfBce of Information Services:

524, 525

Smith, Walter BedeU: 264, 272, 408,
430

air-ground operations investigated by:

234-235, 463
Battle of the Bulge, comments on:

535

bombing of French population, views
on: 400

Eaker reassignment viewed by: 276

796

Index

Eisenhower, assessment o£ 592
Eisenhower's diief of staff: 101
leorgaiuzalion in England, views on:

293, 313
reprisal raids, views on: 433
resumption of attacks on oil targ^
favored by: 541
Smuts, Jan

transportation plan, view on: 402-403
SoSa, Bulgaria, tar^ted: 385-386
Solomon Islands

resources for 112
Somervell, Brdion

CG, Army Services of Supply: 265
Souk el Arba, Tunisia
AAF raid ore 199
RAF squadrons at: 139
Sousse, Tunisia; 247
Allied airfield at 195
invasion task force hq for Pantelloia:
233, 234
Southern State Teachers College,
Oklahoma
Eaker, graduate o£ 32
South East Asia Command (SEAQ: 488
Southwest Pacific TTieaten 99
Soviet High Command: 582
Soviets. See Union of Soviet Socialist

RepubUcs (USSR).
Spaatz, Carl A. ('Tooey")
AAF in Mediterranean reorganized

by: 249-253
Acting Dpty Commander, Allied Air

Forces in North AMca: 142
air command anrangements in ETO,

1944, reviewed by: 485-490
aircraft aid to Britain opposed by: 56,
59

air-ground relations investigated by:

234-235
air support doctrine redefined by:

210-220

air support in North Africa assessed

by: 205, 207, 209
Army Command and General Staff

Sdiool attended by: 23-24
aimy-air control in RAF observed by:

151

Arnold and Eaker, association with:
31-33

Arnold, association with: 31-35
Amoki, relationshq;) widi: 467, 579,
594

assessment o£ vii-ix, 35, 60, 352,
592. 593

assigned as single air commander by

Eisenhower: 152
Ass't Chief of Air Corps: 57
Ass't Military Attache (Air): 41
aviation principles espoused fay: 28
Battle of the Bulge faced by: 532,

535, 541
Battle of Britaia observer of: 40,

4^45, 47. 48-49
Berlin bomUng detennined by: 548.

553

"Big Week" directed by: 318-327
black pilots evaluated by: 257-260
blacks in the military, views on: 4-5
bombing directives, outburst provoked

over: 386-387
bombing of Rome planned by: 261
bombing photos for publicity

suggested by: 102, 103
bombing separated fiom close air

siqjpott missions by: 143
British air cooperation doctrine

adopted by: 180
cargo airlift assessed by: 503
Casablanca Conference, views at:

157-164

Chief, Air Corps Materiel Div: 57
Chief, Air Corps Plans Section: x
Chief of Air Staff, AAF: x, 38-39. 58
Chief, NASAF: 279-280
Chief, Plans Div: 45, 57, 59
Chief, Plans Section, OCAC: 37. 38,
41, 57

Chief, Training and Operations Div,

OCAC: 23
Clarion supported by: 549, 556, 572,

582

close air support by heavy bombers

assessed by: 453-454, 459. 481.

516, 517
Cobra operations assessed by:

470477
combat misskms of: 199-200
Combined Bomber Offensive, views

on: 268

command conflicts faced by: 385-386
Command Diary of: 93
Commander. AF Combat Command:

71-72

Commander, Allied Air Forces:
152-154. 156. 173-174. 176

797

Spaatz and the Am War in Europe

Commander. NAAF: 178,183, 186
commandeis in Sicily dunged by:

242-243
CG. Twelfth AF: 185-186
CG, USSTAF: 267, 27Z 279, 283,

290. 341

CO. 1st BombaidmeiU Witig: 23, 28
CO, 1st Pursuit Group: 16-18
CO, 7th Bombardment Group: 22, 25,
28

command style of: 105-106
Coningham, rdationship with:
201-202, 204. 206. 207

countendr ofiensive in Sicily planned

by: 240-241
crew rotation policy of: 380, 446-448
ciDSS-chaimel invasion posQxmonent

favored by: 107-108
cross-channel invasion requironenls

spelled out by: 111
Crossbow operations assessed by:

430-432, 450-450
Crossbow opposed by: 296
Crossbow targets accq>ted by:

391-393
D-Day operations: 414-418
dispersal of aircraft in Hawaii,

suggested by: 67
Dresden bombing, role in: 563-564
EAC support to British 1st Army

ordered by: 164
Eaker reassignment, reaction to:

276-278

Eastern Front assessed by: 111, 545
education of: 3-4

Eighth AF autonomy, established by:
86-90

Eighth AF buildup planned by: 70,

74-78

Eighth AF crisis faced by: 287-288
Eisaihower, relationship with: 90-91,
93, 392

employment of blacks, views on: 294
Executive Officw, 2d Wing: 24, 28
Far West Flying Circus, participatian
in: 14

fightor escorts, view on: 59-60, 64
final victory in Europe: 421
FredendaU, disagreement with:
176-177

German technical advances, alarm

over: 513-514
Gmnan bombing techniques assessed

by: 47-48, 51-53. 56
Geirnan economy assessed by: 580
Goman jet threat, reaction to:

500-501. 539-542, 546, 550, 574
German surrender witnessed by:

584-585

goals assigned at Casablanca to: 531
Hansell selected top planner for air
by. 101

heavy bombers for close air siippcft

committed fay: 460. 517
hq at Busl^ Paik: 293-294
Hurricanes I and n si^jported by:

494

image of AAF promoted by: 523-526
Inspector of Pursuit Training: 7
interdiction targets disputed by: 285
internment of pilots evaluated by:
448-449

investigation of firing on paratroops

by, Sicily: 144
Leigh-Malloiy, relationship with: 311.

312. 327. 330, 352. 354, 357, 406.

417. 454, 457, 459. 479
bgistics in England prepared by: 83,

Luftwaffe assessed by: 78-79, 104,

398, 416. 484, 511. 519^522
Luftwaffe campaigns planned by:

299-300. 326-327. 378-379
Luftwaffe challenged by; 300-303.

312. 317. 392-394
Luftwaffe growing strength, reaction

to: 511-512, 513-515, 519-521
Mediteiranean q)erations assessed by:

280

Mexican Punitive Expedition,

participation in: 5
Military Aviator rating awarded to: 14
military expansion planned by: 38
Mission No. 1 prepared by: 98
missions reported to Arnold by:

99-100. 305-306
morale bombing opposed by:

436^38, 450. 459
nxnale problems faced by: 188.

199-200, 379-384, 445-450
movie clip on Berlin attack directed

by: 550-552
Munich attack ordered by: 549
North A&ica, assigiun^ to: viii, 119.

121, 141-142, 156
North Afiica, reorganization effected

798

Index

by: 17S-178, 181, 182. 185, 187
oil taig^ favored l^: SQS-S06, 546
oil plan salvaged by: 384-394
operational readiness rates defended

by: 104

OvERiXjRD air command arranganents
made by: 336-339. 341-344, 352,
354, 409

Overlord objectives assessed by:
30Q-303

Overlord prq>aied by: 327-339
Pantelleria assuilt prepjued by: 227,
229.230

Pantelleria bombardment observed by:
233-234

Pantellaia operations analyzed by:

236, 238-239
pathfinders employed by: 296-298
pause in air effort requested by: 144
Pearl Harbor attack, reaction to: 367
perspective on end of wan 538-539
PoiNTBLANK, views on: 388
policy explained to Amold by: 300
population bomlnng assessed by:

40^403, 434-436, 561-546, 572,

580, 591
post-WWI assignmaits of: 7-8
preinvasion operations idaimed by:

411-414
press statements on raids by: 304
prewar strategic planning by: 57-66,

367

promotions of: 9-10, 16, 20, 23, 31,
57-58, 71, 101, 189, 578-579

ladar requirements stressed by: 187,
521-522

Question Mark commanded by: 22-23
RAF press ani»unc«nent, reaction to:

381-384, 559-560
reassigned firom command to advisory

functions: 143
Reixjne communications established

by: 248

leii^orcements requested by: 257
remote control aitoaft expoiments

requested by: 428-429
rodcet site attacks ordered by: 428,

429, 431

role in air warfare assessed: 587-596
self analysis: 19

separate air force, views on: 245-247
St L6 raid, reaction to: 470-471,
475-476

Strangle effects reviewed by: 404
strategic bombardment from Italy

planned by: 262-263. 266
strategic bombardment problems faced

by: 284, 484
strategic targeting plans disputed by:

345-353
strategy for defeating Gomany

recommended by: 328-330, 350.

423-424. 484. 531
strategy for air outlined by: 76-80,

223

strategy revised by: 111-113, 21Q-220
style of command: 322, 416-417, 478
submarine cq)abilities targeted by:

113

Swiss bombing, apology for 578
tactics of: 299-300, 358-364, 364
targeting priorities assessed by: 191,

195

targeting priorities recommended by:

353. 406, 443, 526
targeting priorities set by: 490,

492^97, 500, 527, 529
Tedder, relation^ with: 247-250
testimony at Mitchell court-martial ofi

ix. 20-22, 245
Theater Air Commander 1 15
theories on military aviation of:

16-18, 19, 33, 52, 245-246
Thunderolap accepted by: 543, 546
Time magazine story on: 198
Torch, disconcerted by: 109
Torch air plan accepted by: 109
transportation plan opposed by: 403
Twelfth AF planned and otgiuiized

by: 109-110
SHAEF opposed by: 484
USSTAF control removed from
USSTAF stnictured by: k, 314-318
Vandenberg as AEAF dpty requested

by: 354-355
Vandenberg as CG Ninth AF favored

by: 466^7
WACs stf)portBd by: 294
weaAier considerations faced by:

103-104. 305-306, 429, 503-504,

564, 572
Spaalz. Ruth, actress: 22. See also

Harrison, Ruth.
Spain

Condor Legion in: 364
suggestion to invade weigtied:

799

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

230-231

Special Army Observer Groups: 62. See
also US. Observer Groups,
established: 59
Speer, Albert
ardiitect of German war economy:
571

fiiel shortage faced by: 442-443, 445
German war production estimated by:
590

Gemun Minister for Amuunent

Production: 323
strategic bombardment effects, views

on: 398, 399, 442-443, 500
Squadjxms
1st Aero: 5
5th Aao: 5
94th Acto: 6

99th Fighter: 230, 257-260
Stalin, Josef V.

Tdiran Conference, participation in:
223.267
Stalingrad. USSR

defense of: 107
Stanmore, England

Daily Air Commarxlers Meeting at:
4M, 470

Leigli-Mallory hq aC 464, 470
Stendal, Germany

Luftwaffe airfield at: 564
Stettin, Germany

AAl^ raid on: 382

RAl' targets in: 45, 353
Steyr, Austria

Luftwaffe defense of: 369
Slimson, Heray L: 75, 76, 79

area bombing, knowledge of: 591

briefed on targeting concepts: 76

press story, reaction to: 559

project to invade France sqiproved by:
70

Seaetaiy of War: 60
Strafford, Stephen

Coningham's (^ty: 457
Strahm. Victor H.

CIS, Ninth AF: 318, 389
Straits of Messina

Axis evacuation route: 251

interdiction of: 243
Stoangle (Operation): commenced by

MAAF: 285
Strategic Air Force

piromoted by Arnold: 267

Strategic bombardmenL- 113. See cdso
"Big Week"; Combined Bomber
Offensive; PoiNTBLANK.

diversion of: 426
initiated: 268-306
in the Mediterranean: 260-280
planned: 79-80, 223, 283
preinvasion planning, role of: 327-339
role of analyzed 17, 131, 132, 484.
527

targeting disputes over: 345-357
targeting sdection, autumn 44:
490-500

Stratemeyer, George E.: 164, 188, 202

air support doctrine of: 214

Chief, AAF Staff: 114-115, 143, 178

appointment of Spaatz as Theater Air
Commander, view on: 114-115
Strickland, Aubry C.

Pantelleria planner 235
Strong, George V.: 53

Ass't C/S. War Plans Div: 47

War DepL Air Board, member 131
Sturmgn^>pe

devebped: 511

11/JG4: 512

tactics of: 512
Stuttgart, Germany

Luftwaffe defense responsibilily for
assigned- 369

raid on: 271, 319
Suez Canal

Coman bases in: 260

German retreat to: 106
Sulzberger. Arthur O.

cultivated by Spaatz: 103
Simimersby, Kay

Spaatz remembered by: 83, 85
Sunday Times

Amaican heavy bombardment effort
condemned in: 97
SureR-GYMNAST (Operation). See North
Africa.

Supreme Commander, Allied

Ejqxditionary Force: 270-271. 307,
322, 330. 333, 338, 339. See also
Allied Expeditionary Forc^
Eisenhower, Dwight D.
hq moved to FraiKC by: 490
strategic air farce plans qjproved by:
345

Overlord, role in: 344, 409
Supreme Headquarters, Allied

800

Index

E}qxdilionaiy Rnce. See also
Eisenhower, Dwight D.; Suprone
Commander Allied Expeditionaiy
Fcxce.

air force support for ground farces

analyzed: 500
BatUe of the Bulge faced by: 532
control over heavy bombers rranoved

from: 484-489
moved: 490

press conference on strategic
bombardment held at: S58, S59-S60

rail bombing in France, effects
studied: 409-410

Thunderclap discussed by: 436-437
Sweden: 329, 595

aircraft fiom U.S. purchased by, 1939:
40

flight of damaged aircraft to: 518
U.S. internees in: 379, 448^50

Switzerland
accidental bombing of: 575
flight of damaged aircraft to: 518
restrictians against acddental bombing

of established: 578
U.S. internees in: 379, 448-450

Syracuse, Sicily
Briti^ landing site in: 239

Tafaroui, Algeria

U.S. airfield at 145
Taonnina, Sicily

Luftwaffe hq on: 241
Taranto, Italy: 264
Tebessa, Tunisia: 172, 176
Tedder, Arthur: viii, 152, 163, 178, 186,
236, 245, 267, 271, 277, 279, 280,
301, 313, 421, 428, 464, 479, 536
AliAF assessed by: 485
AEF ^ty to Eisenhower viii, 223,
279

air support doctrine of: 211, 215
Air Commander in Chief,

Meditenranean: 156, 204, 205, 219,

251, 310
Allied organization in Middle East,

view on: 174
antiaircraft strikes recommended by:

575

ACX:, Middle Ease 146-147
appointed overall air commander:
454^55

assessment of: 592
background of: 146-147
Berlin raid requested 432-433
bombing of Rome platmed by: 261
Cobra, role in: 468, 470
command in North Africa formalized
by: 210

command, relationship with: 458, 460,

461-463, 467, 497
Coningham rqrimanded by: 206
control over bomber force, view on:

337-339

coordination of combined boinber

offensive discussed by: 273
Crossbow, role in: 431-432
firing on fiiendly paratroops described
by: 244

German sutrenda- witnessed by:
584-585

heavy bombers for close air support

assessed by: 453-454, 516-517
Hurricane II planned by: 495
interdiclion targeting suppoted by:
285

moving bomb groups to Itafy, view

on: 263
operations assessed by: 181
Overlord, role in: 314-315,

330-339, 344, 410
Pantellexia plans prepared by: 227,

231, 232, 234-235, 307
Sicily, preinvasion planning by:

241-243

Spaatz, relationship with: 245-250
strategic bombardmrait plans, view on:

345, 349-352
tactical air forces for Eisenhower

coordinated by: 489-490
targeting priorities assessed by: 191
targets assessed by: 497, 505-506,

528-529, 546, 582, 592
test exercises in Mediterranean, view

on: 234-235
Zuckerman plan supported by: 331
Tdiran,Iian
war strategy conference in: 223, 267,

270

Telergma, Tunisia

airfield at 145, 186
Taror bombing: 436-437; 558-560,

564, 567-570. See also BCTlin;

Dresdea
Thelepte, Tunisia: 172, 204, 207

801

SPAATZ AND THE AIR WAR IN EUROPE

airfield at: 183
Thompson Trophy

awarded to Doolittle, 1932: 125
Thorpe Abbotts, England

lOOth Heavy Bombardment Group at
381

Thunderciap (Operation): 432-439,
543-564
appnwed: 494

effectiveness of questioned* S50

originated: 435, 543

targets for: 546

targets in Berlin: 552
TTOALWAVE (Operation): 260
TimbCTlake, Patrick W.

air-ground cooperation investigated by:
234-235
Time magazine

story on air doctrine: 211

story on Eghth AF: 103

story on 99th Fighter Squadron: 258

story on Spaatz: 198, 524
Tobtuk, Libya: 146

captured by Rommel: 106

siege of: 150
Torch (Operation): 14. See also North
Africa

diversion of resources to: 85, 87, 97,

108, 109, 113, 142
doctrine for: 130

Doolittle appointed air commander
for: 126

planned 68-69, 97, 101, 103, 114
TR 440-15. See War Depmtment
Training Regulation 440-15.
Transcontinental Reliability Endurance
Flight: 14

Transportation plan: 327, 345-354. See
also Combined Bomber Offensive;
strategic bombardment; Tedder,
Arthur.

debated 345-353

delayed by Churchill: 400408

Zuckerman's introductkxi of: 330-335
TnqMiii, Sicily

AAF raid on Axis airfield in: 195
TreUinka death camp

Jews murdered at: 591
Trenchiird Hugh: 463

CIS, RAF: 30

doctrine of: 93
Trieste

Italian cruiser sunk: 198

Tripoli, Libya

Axis retreat to: 146
Tripolitania, Libya: 156
Truscott, Lucian K.

Eisenhower's rqnesentative at die
front 174, 176
Tunis, Tunisia: 277

Allied anticipated capture of: 140

Allied drive on halted by Germans:
153

plan for capturing airfieki at: 137
Tunisia: 139, 163, 186, 215

Allies reorganize in: 164-184

Axis ports in attacked 146

Axis siqjply line into studied
189-191

Axis sun-ender of: 210

collapse of Axis in: viii, 201-210

French forces in: 123, 137

German bridgehead at 140

heavy bombardment aviatkm in:
196-200

race for 123-154

U.S. experience in: 366
Tutow, Germany

targets in: 322
Twining, Nathan F.: 490, 495, 549, 572

CG, Fifteenth AF: 319, 394. 440

CG, Thirteenth AF: 273

leassignment of: 273, 275

U-boats: 542-543, 582, 584

attacks on: 584

threat of: 78, 541, 543
Ultra: 98, 137. 5%

analyzed in North Africa: 144

effect of: 78, 408

Rachsbahn codes broken by:

Axis shipping revealed by: 186, 189,
190, 209

bomb damage in Germany revealed
by: 411

damage by k>w-level figjiter attacks

revealed by: 367
effects of bombing German airfields

revealed by: 442, 445
effects of oil offensive revealed by:

492

German air transport schedules

revealed ty: 195
Gennan alarm over bombing revealed

by: 398, 399

802

Index

German ground force losses revealed

by: 464, 472
infortnadon on Battle of the Bulge

revealed by: 533
Luftwaffe activity, Sicily revealed by:

241

Luftwaffe movemenls, D-Day

revealed by: 425, 426
Luftwaffe sMt to defend Germany

revealed by: 514
Luftwaffe strength, May 44 revealed

by: 396, 413
Luftwaffe transfer of fighters to

Easton Front revealed by: 573
Luftwaffe weaknesses revealed by:

302-303
secret of in jeopardy: 199, 200
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

(USSR): 69, 518. See also Dresden;

Eastern Front; Red Army.
Berlin and Leiptzig raids requested by:

553. 561-562
Dresden bombing, role in: 563-564
' Eastern Front assessed: 111, 157, 164,

549-552
German siarendo- to: 584-585
German military operations: 354
liaison with: 549
U.S. crews force-landed in: 450
winter offensive of: 543, 560
United Press: 562, 572
United Stales
airaaft production in: 38, 64-66,

112-113

creation of military aviation ia* 594
defense, stale ot 38
entry of into WWII: 45, 59
neutrality laws of: 40
press coverage of war in: 304
public opinion in: 160
war production efforts of: 590
United States Air Force. See also United

States Army Air Corps; United

States Army Air Service; United

States Army Air Forces,
autonomy advocated for: 245,

522-523. 594
doctrine of: 119
United States Armored Force

lack of air support voiced by: 135
United States Army: 51. See also Army

Groups; Armies; Corps; Divisions,
accidental death, causes in: 14

age and rank of ofiBcers in, 1931: 13
Axis in Tunisia defeated l^: 200-210

blacks in: 259

bombed by U.S. aircraft: 470-471
Chief of Staff: 24-25, 57, 163
command post exercises in: 135
defense in Ardennes of: 533
doctrine in: 130-136
expansion of planned: 38-39
forces in Sicily: 244
forces in Tunisia: 164-184
heavy bomber, support for. 423-424,
517

historical acxxiunt of operations in

Sicily by: 253
ofBcer corps in: 12-13
preparation for WWII of: 60
piotitotion system iiu 8
stmggle over air support in: 210-220,

223

United States Army Air Corps: 32. See
also United States Air Force;
United States Army Air Rnoes;
United States Army Air Service.

budget allocation for: 14

deagnated: 24

doctrine of: 29, 31, 53, 132

expansion in: 37-39, 57, 61

field grade officers in: 10-12

observers in England bom: 41-44

reorganized: 25

strength, 1939: viii
United States Army Air Forces
(USAAF). See also Allies;
Meditetianean Allied Air Faces;
Mediterranean Allied Stral^ic Air
Force; Mediterranean Allied
Tactical Air Force; United States
Air Force; United States Army Air
Corps; United States Army Air
Service; United States Strategic Air
Forces.

adverse publicity fought by: 584
aira:aft capabilities of: 74
aixo-afl raids described: 371-372, 373,
408

Air Staff: 215. 383, 436^37,

548-549
air sqjport doctrine for TORCH:

130-136
air sif)port doctrine redefined by:

216-220

antishipping can^gn of: 189-1%

803

Spaatz and the Am War in Europe

area bombing policies of: 508, 550,

560, 578-570, 591
anival of in England: 33, 85, 96
assessment of air war in Europe:

587-596
a£tai:ks on Berlin by: 306, 348,

549-552, 553
attacks on Tunisian ports by: 146
autonomy for ix, 594, 595
Batiie of the Bulge, effons in:

536-542
casualties exacted by: 426
casualties inflicted by, WWII: 588
challenges to Luftwaffe by: 300-303
coll^se of Axis bridgehead. North

Africa: 201-210
command and control in: 266, 271
command in EuKjpe restructured by:

267-280, 307 318, 478, 484-^9
countermeasures against Luftwaffe by:

521-522

crew rqjlacemoit policy of: 447-448
delegation at conferences: 547-548
doctrine of: 119, 196, 298-299, 360,
484

early operations: 103-104
Eighth AF Composite Command

activated by: 85
ferrying of supplies to frcmt by

bombers of: 501, 503
first bombing attack from England by:

heavy bombardment in Tunisia by:

196-200
image of: 90, 97

impediments to buildup faced by: 589
incendiary bombing by: 564, 565,
567-570

losses, 14 Oct 43: 376

losses, Oct 43: 373

losses, Jan 44: 303, 304

losses, Jan-Mar 44: 417

losses, Feb 44: 323

losses. Mar 44: 371, 376-377, 379,

393-394, 396, 398, 512
losses, 22 Apr 44: 378
tosses, Apr 44: 379, 384. 393-394,

519

losses, D-Day: 414
losses, Jun 44: 439
losses, Jul 44: 440, 442
losses, Aug 44: 443
losses, Nov 44: 519

tosses, Dec 44: 532, 535
tosses, Jan-feb 45: 573
losses, Mar-^x 45: 584
losses, first major mack on Berlin:
356

losses, percentages conjured: 371,
446

losses, Schweinfurt 287-288
maiqxjwer shortage in: 257
morale in: 445-450
nonstrategic elements in Britain: 355
North African operations, Nov-Dec

42: 137-154
organized: 58-59, 72
Pantelleria operations: 225-238
preinvasion o^jo-ations: 415, 417
preparadons for WWII by: 60-66, 67,

70-72, 76-82
Quesada plan, recq)tion of: 548-549
RAF, relationship with : 124. 128,

181, 201
ranks equivalent to RAF: 43n
reorganized in NfTO: 249^253
reorganized in North Africa: 164-184
reprisal attacks by: 435-436
rest facilities for blades in: 259-260
short bombing by: 470, 474-476,

480481, 516
sorties flown, WWII: 587-588
strategic planning in: 588
strategic bombardment from England

by: 296-306, 319-327, 484
strategic bombardment from

Meditenanean by: 260-267
strategy of: 86-90, 101-102. 112-114,

157-158
stroigtli, England, Jun 42: 85
strength, England, Dec 43: 288, 290
stroigth, Sep 44: 526
stroigth, Dec 44: 518
Thundercxap, participation in:

549-552
tonnage dropped by: 506, 573,

587-588

Torch planning, role in: 106-116,
124

training in England of: 85, 96
weatha effects on opoBtions: 104,
283, 297, 303, 305-306, 323, 334,
370-371, 377. 378, 382, 393, 396,
414, 429, 468, 478, 503-505,
518-519, 550, 553, 564
United States Army Air Sovice: 33. See

804

Index

also United States Anny Air Corps;

United States Air Force; United

States Army Air Forces,
combat units organized in: 17
created: 8
demobilized: 31
field grade officos in: 10-11
physical standards set for 9
redesignated: 24
role analyzed: 19-21
WWI, partic^>ation in: 6
United States Amy Ground Forces: S8.

See (dso Army Ground Forces.
United States Army Signal Corps
aviation in: 7
Aviation Section: 14, 32
United States Congress: 31, 37, 38, 39,

57, 523. See dso House of

Rqnesentatives; United States

Senate.

air reform bills introduced by: 24
expansion bill of 1939 passed by:
39^

Classification Act of 1922 passed
by: 16

promotion list fiar MS. Army set by:
8

ratings for pilot skill authorized by:
14

United States House of Representatives.
See also United States Congress;
United States Senate.
Military Affairs Committee hearings
held by: 19
United States Military Academy at West

Point: 3, 24
United States Military Mission in

Moscow: 549
United States Navy: 79, 246
casualties suffered by, WWII: 587
command post exercises obsa:ved by:
135

firing on friendly paratroops by,

Sicily: 244
Malta agreement by: 560
Midway, perforrtuince at 90
Pearl Hart»r attack on: 67
prqjaration for WWII by: 60, 97
proximity fuze seoetly employed by:

513n

resources for Pacific of: 113
United States Observer Group
plans for WWII: 80

United States Senate Select Committee

to Visit War Theaters: 246
United States Steel Corporation: 45
United States Strategic Air Forces in
Europe (USSTAF). See dso AlUes;
United States Army Air Forces.
AEAF, relationship with: 354-357
agreement to form: 267
assessment of: 387, 445
assessment of air war 587-596
Balin raid desoibed by: 373
"Big Blow": 519

bombing results reviewed: 567-570,

572. 582, 589
bridge targets of: 406
cargo trucking operations: 501, 503
city bomtnng, policies on: 560-361,

591

Clarion operations undertaken by:

572-575
control over: 314-315
D-Day operations: 414-418, 424-426
exclusion fiom Cobra of: 468
HtnuucANES I and n planned by:

494-495
importance of radar to: 527, 532
importance of: 421, 445
instituted 270-271, 303-304
interdiction canqKiign of: 404
long-range goals KsppcmeA by: 538,

541

losses, 1944-45: 526, 528
tosses, WWn: 587
Luftwaffe defeated by: 393-394
Me 262, concern over: 512
missions of: 301, 305, 306, 317, 318,
319-327

morale attacks studied by: 434-435
morale problems in: 445-450
oil plan for targeting disputed:
345-357

oil targets approved for: 400-402,

406, 408
oil targets requested by: 384-385,

387, 390-392
operations, Feb-Mar 44: 358, 379
organization of: 290-291, 293
Overlord, responsibilities for 344,

395

Overlord, planning for: 330-339
preinvasion bombing missions of:

396^18
preinvasion operations: 409-414

805

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

public image of: 524

removal of fiom SHAEF control

cantemplated: 484-^9
shffft bombing by: 535
strafing casualties caused by: 365
target assignments: 429-432, 433,

436^37, 443
target planning committee formed in:

345

Tedder suggests priorities fiar: 390,
391

I^IUNDERCLAP assigned to: 494
Thunderclap targets o£ 546, 549,
550

V-1 sites targeted by: 428-430, 432
weather effects on operations:
495^96, 501, 503-504, 515,
520-524, 522, 532, 556, 589
United Stales Strategic Bomber
Command
planned by Arnold: 267
United States Strategic Bombing Surv^
assessment of bombing in WWII:
588

Univerdty of Southern California: 33
USS Hornet. 125
USS Iowa: 267, 268
USS Manhattan: 43
Utah Beach

D-Day invasion on: 414n
Uxbtidge, England

AEAFHqat:411, 456

V-1 flying bomb
casualties fiom: 426
defense against: 398
laundied against London: 426, 432
priority of: 390, 428-430
reprisal for: 433-434, 543
sites attacked: 296, 317, 390, 395,

426, 429-430
threat of: 294, 296, 424
use of proximity fuze in England

prompted by: 513n
V-2 rocket: 437

installations: 430-432
Vandenberg, Hoyt S.: 271, 310, 404,

457, 464, 479, 524, 525
attack on French cities, role in: 413
Battle of the Bulge, role in: 532
bombing troop movements, view oa*

412

CG, Nindi AF: 484

conmand, reIationshq> with: 467

Dpty, AEAF: 328, 354-355, 457

drop tanks opposed by: 61
Eisenhower hq joined by: 101
heavy bombardment for ctose air

support assessed by: 466
Leigh-Mallory, relationship with: 455,

457

"misuse of air power" objected to by:
143

preinvaskm qpeiations, role in: 411,
413

promotion of scuttled by Marshall:
466^7

Spaatz, relationship with; 593

St. L6 raid, reaction to: 470-471
V-Day anticipated: 542
Vanoa France

raid on bridge at: 408
VHF: 80

Sicilian operations: 243
Vichy government: 140

Germany sqjported by: 368
Victory Program

concaved: 60
Vienna, Austria

lAjftwaffe defense of: 367

targets ia 45, 263
Villacidro, Sardinia

AAF raid Axis airfield in: 199
Volga River, USSR

German offensive to: 111
Vdksstwrm

wei^xHis issued to: 537
Voronezh, USSR

German offensive through: 111

Wake Island

Jq}anese attack oa 68
Walker, Kenneth H.: 60
Walker, Walton H.

Commander, IV Armored Cotps: 217

observations on North Africa by: 217
Warm, A.

aimy-air control systan created by:
149

Ward, Orlando P.

Commander, 1st Armored Div: 167
War Cabinet- 436

bombing of French population
deUberated by: 401-402

806

Index

devastation of cities rejected by: 437
War Department: 21, 23, 33, 245
AEF organized by: 38
Arnold, relationship widi: 323
assailed by "Billy" Mitdiell: 20
doctrine of: 29, 178, 210-220
General Staff: 60, 246
Operations Div (OPD): 70, 270
policy on blacks of: 294
study on black pilots ordered by:
258-259

"surplus" war material transfened to

England by: 45
unified command, views otu 114
War Plans Div: 60, 69
War Department Air Board

appointed by Woodring: 131
War Department General Staff (WDGS):
32

dominated by ground officers 130
role of aviation, views on; 17, 213
War Department Training Regulation
440-15

si^)pon role to air force assigned

under 130
revised: 130-131
Washington Conference
targeting priorities set for strategic
bombardment 284
Washingtwi, D.C.: vii, 3, 7, 19, 20. 21,
23, 32. 81, 85, 260, 26^ 264, 266,
334, 387, 560
AAF Hq au 304
Arnold press confermce in: 97
British embassy iru 41
Munitions Buikiir^ in: 68
Washington Star

tenor bombing reported in: 339
Weary-Wexe

remote control airaaft initiated; 428
Weather effects on bombing. See Spaatz,
Carl A.; United States Army Air
Forces; United States Strategic Air
Force in Europe.
Wedau, Germany, raid on: 310
Wedemeyer, Albert C.

staff. War Plans Div: 60
Wehrmacht. 44. See also Gennan Army,
final stand of: 511, 532-533, 337
ordnance depots targeted: 495
requirements in France: 497
Weigley, Russell F.
campnign study by; 464

Welsh, William
Chief, RAF Delegation to U,S.: 182,
263.267

Commander. EAC: 140. 143. 171-172
Western Air Command. See also

Twelfth Air Force.

Torch s^jported by: 124

reassigned; 178
Western Desert campaign; 146, 147, 148

lessons of: 152, 213, 366
Westem Desert Air Force (WDAF):
147. 243. 247

air sappaA team in; 133n, 136

air control craiter in; 150-131

air si^eriority of: 200-210. 212

8th Ajmy, relationship with: 241

Flax, role in: 195

lessons of: 151

reassigned: 156

Rover Joe, role in: 243

Tobruk operations; 150
Westem FronU 563

German trafBc to Eastern Front from:
559

Gennan transfer of fighlns to: 318
last German offensive on: 331. 336
Luftwaffe strength on: 527, 362

Westover Field, Massat^nisetts: 81

Westover, Oscar
Chief, Air Corps: 32

White, Thomas D.
Ass't Chief of Air Staft fotelligence:
478

WiDEWiNGS: 104. 108, 293, 314. 327.

413. 428
Wiener-Neustadt, Austria

fighter manufacturing plant in: 398

Luftwaffe defense of: 369

raid on: 252, 262
Wiggleswonh. H.E.P.

air-ground cooperaticsi investigated by:
234-235

Tedder's c^ty; 206
Wilhelmshaven, Germany

raid on: 306

targeted for bombing: 94
Williams, Paul L
CG, IX Transport Command: 309
Commander, Xn Air Support

Command: 170, 174, 176. 201.

204-208
transferred to Troop Carriw

Command; 219, 241

807

Spaatz and the Air War in Europe

Williams, Robert B.
Cononander, 1st Bombardment Div:
384

Wilson, Russ

CG, 4th Bombaidment Wing: 373
Wilson, James Maitland: 386

Commands in Chief, Middle Ease

271, 276, 321
Eaker, relationship widi: 593
targets in Balkans ordered by: 386
Wilson, James W.
morale of troops investigaled fay:
449-450
WimUedon, England

Spaatz quarters at: 105
Winant, John G.: 93
U.S. Ambassador to England: 53,

82-83, 275, 328, 595
bombing of French population, views
on: 401

informed of RAF press release
consequences: 382
Wings (numbered)

1st Bombardment: 23, 28

2d (GHQ AF): 22, 28

3d Air E)efense: 187, 242

3d Bombardment: 30

4th Bombardment: 108, 126

13th Combat 371

45th Bombardment: 322

51 si Troop Carrier: 244

52d Troop Carrier: 244

53d Troop Carrier: 244
Womoi's Army Coips (WAC): 22

supported by Spaatz: 294
Woodall. J.

aimy-air control system created by:
149

system adopted by RAF: 150
system adopted by Spaatz: 180

Woodring, Harry H.
Secretary of War: 131

World War I: 6

World War II. See also Amold, Hrairy
H.; Churchill, Winston S.;
Roosevelt, Iranklin D.; Spaatz, Carl
A.; United States Army Air Farces

losses: 587-588

preparations for 37, 60, 80

U.S. entry into: 45, 59
Wright Aeronautical: 40
Wright Field: 57
Wright, Wilbur

Arnold's flight instructor 32

Yalu

agreements at: 563
Tripartite Conference at: 543, 545
Youks-les-Bains, Algeria
Allied airfield at: 183, 186
RAF squadrons at 139

Zdtz, Germany, raid on: 398
Zhukov, Soviet Mai^al
advance on Berlin by: 553
German suirender accepted by: 585
Zossen, Germany, raid on; 580
Zuckerman, Solly: 385
AEAF plans, chief architect of: 330
bomb damage studied by: 231, 236,

238, 461
bridge busting, views on; 406
heavy bombardment for close air

support assessed by: 458
Overlord planner: 330-331,

333-336
Pantelleria defenses studied by:

232-234
plans disputed: 347, 353
transportation plan prqjared by: 331,
345, 410
Ziiridi, Switzerland

acddental bomUng of; 575
Zwickau, Gexmaisy, raid on: 396, 398

808

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